International Relations

Unit 2

“A Dose of Arsenic”

• Certain of superiority of their institutions and greatness of their nation, the U.S. continued to push out on those who restrained them during the 1830’s-1860’s

– This superiority helped push U.S. into confrontation with independent Mexico

American Growth

• Populations continued to explode with higher birth rate and greater immigration

• Major expansion of railroads by the 1840’s• Economically, essentially self-sufficient

– However export was a major money maker

Manifest Destiny

• Expansionist thrust of the Pre-Civil War era– Used to justify annexation of Texas, Oregon and California

• Phrase men’t that “God had willed the expansion of the United States to the Pacific Ocean, or beyond”

– Very nationalistic and arrogant– Superior design sense of inevitability by citizens made the

U.S. position “greater”• Uniquely virtuous, thus imposing on them a God-given mission to

remake the world in their own image

Manifest Destiny (Con’t)

• Many believed they had an obligation to uplift and regenerate “backwards” people

– Gave it a strong sense of racism

Support for Manifest Destiny

• Support was strongest in the northeast and northwest– Weakest in the south

• Democrats (Formally Jefferson’s Republicans)– Rallied around Andrew Jackson

• Fervently believed in preservation of traditional republican values

• Greatly feared rise of industrialization and urbanization

– Expansion would help alleviate problems of modernization• Thus expansion would keep the Union together

• Fundamental to American character

Support for Manifest Destiny (Con’t)

• Whigs– Fearful of consolidation of executive power by Jackson

• Harbored deep fears of uncontrolled expansion• Must consolidate order before acquire more territory

– Wanted to expand by example

– Welcomed industrialization• They believed government must promote economic growth and

improve the individual in order to help society

Slave Trade Control

• Paranoid slaveholders in the U.S. were concerned of a conspiracy by Britain, or Abolitionist, to destroy their slave system and economy

– Fears of Britain policing the illegal slave trade across the Atlantic

– Fear of slave uprising like the island nation of Haiti– Expansion of slavery into new territories

Slave Trade Control (Con’t)

• Britain had set out to abolish the trading of human beings

– Began stopping ships suspected of being involved in Atlantic slave trade

– Tried to set up a multi-national ban on slave trade, however U.S. would not sign off

Limits to Manifest Destiny

• Though nervous of Britain, U.S. began to have healthy respect for British power

• In turn, by the 1840’s, Manifest Destiny did not include Canada

– U.S. had grow to respect Canada’s self-determination

• Signed the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842– Sealed the Maine-New Brunswick boundary– Set up an extradition clause between Britain and U.S.

• Signed by President Tyler

Oregon Expansion

• Seen as a very profitable area to both British and U.S.– Essential ports to trade with China and Japan– Also great already for natural resources

• American settlers began taking the Oregon Trail from St. Louis in order to profit from Oregon territory

– Hoped to eventually control Oregon by numbers

• President Polk set the goal of adding the Oregon territory to the Union

– Almost led to war due to diplomacy

Oregon Treaty of 1846

• Set the boundary between Canada and U.S. at the 49th parallel

– Both U.S. and Britain recognized the importance of commercial ties and the common culture shared

– Ultimately this treaty allowed U.S. an outlet to Pacific trading, abundant territory

• including current states Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and parts of Montana and Wyoming

Polk’s Manifest Destiny

• Polk set out early in his administration to obtain Texas, California and New Mexico

– Texas independence was not recognized by the U.S. for nearly 8 years

• Due to President’s fears of inability to be re-elected

– Americans were torn on the admission of Texas• Slaveholders wanted another slave state

– Before Polk, President Tyler sought to annex Texas, and it was admitted in Dec. 1845

– Mexico severed relations

– California also seen as a profitable territory as well

Polk’s Manifest Destiny (Con’t)

• Border dispute between Texas and Mexico increased tensions

– Certain of quick and decisive victory, Polk began preparing for war with Mexico

• It was assumed the Mexico would be bullied and that the U.S. soldiers would be welcomed as liberators

– Also fears Britain or France would make a move for Texas or California

• Polk reinforced the Monroe Doctrine

Mexico-American War 1846

• War resulted due to U.S. impatience and aggressiveness and Mexican weakness

– Polk fearful of European intrusion and U.S. strength propelled him to make the decision to fight

– Mexico had been politically instable and had a “Yankeephobia”

• Afraid of cultural extinction

Mexico-American War 1846 (Con’t)

• U.S. did have smashing military successes, however peace was difficult to maintain

– Mexico fought a guerrilla war

• Peace could have been obtained earlier, however Polk continually switched out negotiator and generals for fear of political rivalry

– Peace ultimately came through, Trist ignored the President’s request and established a peace agreement

• Favorably voted by Congress and by a frustrated President Polk

Consequences of Mexican-American War

• Americans had the opportunity to overtake all of Mexico– However fear of Mexican cultural takeover subsided that

desire• Partially driven by racism of Mexican inferiority

• Mexican government driven to bankruptcy due to cost of war and lose of substantial land

Consequences of Mexican-American War (Con’t)

• U.S. gained substantial amount of land and ultimately profit

– Citizens saw war as a great event in history

• Also setup the bigger dispute of slave vs. non-slave state admittance

– Stepping stones to Civil War

Pacific Ocean Trading

• Trade drove the U.S. to expand across the Pacific Ocean toward East Asia

– Commercial expansion was essential to domestic well-being and international stability

• All based on Jeffersonian ideals

• Hawaii sought to protect itself from westernization– Tyler Doctrine of 1842

• Recognized Hawaiian independence

• Also saw it as a vital link connecting U.S. to East Asia

Pacific Ocean Trading (Con’t)

• Hawaiian significances was tied to Chinese and Japanese trade

– China was opened up by Britain, however U.S. was able to get Most-Favored-Nation trade, so it benefitted as well

– Japan was opened up by U.S. through commodore Perry• Tried to use a show of force to open the reclusive country to trade

• Future diplomats were able to open Japan more to trade

• All of these helped set the U.S. on solid ground of trade in the Pacific Ocean

1850’s Manifest Destiny

• Despite very little actual territorial increases, U.S. remained very active in spreading it’s ideals, if by force when necessary

– The military actions of unsanctioned militias hurt the image of U.S. throughout Central and South America

• President’s did little to compensate for the actions of the militias– Cuba and Panama area started to become of greater

significance in U.S. foreign policy and trade• Polk to Buchannan, sought to buy Cuba from Spain, however

unsuccessful– While U.S. preeminence increased throughout Latin America,

Britain began to withdraw• Ultimately the expansion of the 1840’ through 50’s was

suppose to unite the Union, it helped to undermine their unity

“Last Best Hope”

• The American Civil War was a significant world event

– Europeans torn between the possible demise of U.S. to fearing a spread of slavery

– During the 1860-80’s, many other countries were fighting for their national identity• U.S. was still trying to develop their identity

Importance of Diplomacy

• Diplomacy for the Union and Confederacy was vital– Union, though less experienced, faired much better at

European diplomacy• Diplomacy was designed by Secretary of State William Seward

– Consistently able to warn off European intervention by demonstrating the dangers of sticking their noses in America’s troubles

– Could mean high price after war

• Lincoln had all the right people, in all the right spots– Eloquent speeches also pivotal to Diplomacy

Importance of Diplomacy (Con’t)

• Diplomacy for the Union and Confederacy was vital (Con’t)

– Confederacy, with more experience, neglected and fumbled their diplomacy with Europe• Assumed “King Cotton” would force Europeans to back their

cause– 80% of England’s cotton and 90% of France’s cotton came from

Southern States

Unsung Friend

• Russia, from the beginning of the American Civil War, allied with the Union

– The only European power to do so

• Allied with the Union due to U.S. support during the Crimean War

• Russia also saw the U.S. as a significant balance against the British

– During the final stages of American Civil War, placed ships in U.S. harbors, giving Union higher morale

Other European Powers

• England was torn– Liberals loved the U.S. due to it’s anti-slavery and pro-

democracy– Conservatives saw the U.S. as a dangerous economic

foe, that would be easier to handle if divided

• French– Napoleon III saw the Monroe Doctrine as a major

obstacle to his grand scheme for restoring national glory and French empire in Mexico• However tended to side with British decisions during war

Other European Powers (Con’t)

• Generally, the Europeans recognized the importance of U.S. trade to their economy and refused to jeopardize

– Neutrality was thus the obvious choice, though easier said than done

Recognition of Confederacy

• Europeans struggled to recognize Confederacy or not

– By Recognizing Confederacy, they would incite anger by Union, possibly war• Virtually siding themselves with Confederates

– By not Recognizing Confederacy, unable to take representatives from Confederacy• Virtually siding themselves with Union

Recognition of Confederacy (Con’t)

• Though considered changing throughout the war, the Europeans maintained relative neutrality, thus not offending both sides

– However they did tend to favor Union due to the Confederacies stigma of slavery

• Both Union and Confederacy propagandists shrewdly worked throughout Europe, hoping to sway to their side

Union Blockade

• The Union initiated a blockade on the Confederacy that lasted throughout the war

– Though imperfect, over the long haul it was successful at limiting Confederacy trade and diplomacy

– Europeans did not challenge the blockade• Though they did black market trading with Confederates

Union Blockade (Con’t)

• Blockade and boarding of ships by Union captains created turmoil that almost instigated war with British

– Continually through situations, Lincoln and his cabinet would speak publicly loud, and softly in negotiations

Confederacy Diplomatic Blunders

• Overestimated the significance of King Cotton– Year before Civil War broke out, Britain gained an

abundant crop of cotton– Eventually Europe began getting Egyptian and Indian

Cotton

• European connection to Union was just as significant as Confederacy

– Britain heavily invested in Union canals, railroads, banks, etc.

Lincoln

• Believed that America’s mission could be best carried out by demonstrating rather than expanding

– Seward was the opposite, seeking to expand

• Used actions to persuade Europeans that U.S. was seeking the moral high ground

– Recognized Haiti and Liberia in 1862– Allowed British to search ships in order to end slave

trade

Lincoln (Con’t)

• Though originally believing slavery was supported by the Constitution, Lincoln changed once President to see slavery as a necessity to preserve U.S. as a beacon of freedom

– Passing the emancipation was a military necessity after military successes

– Allowed former slaves to travel to European to persuade them of the horrors of slavery

European Waffling

• By 1862, Europeans became increasingly concerned about ending war based on economic and humanitarian reasons

– Economies in European had become increasingly hurt by blockade and lack of trade

• Every battle was closely watched by Europeans in order to side itself with the ultimate winner

– As the war dragged on, and with no clear winner, Europeans tended to remain neutral

European Waffling (Con’t)

• Union victory at the Battle of Antietam Creek, allowed Lincoln to issue the Proclamation Emancipation

– Used as a tool to solidify Europeans support toward neutrality and end of slavery

• By late 1863, turmoil in Central Europe, helped persuade Europeans to remain neutral

– Ultimately the caution used by Europeans allowed the Union to slowly defeat the Confederates

British Ships

• British had built ships for Confederates, that became raiding ships to disrupt Union trade

• Due to Confederacy success with the raiding ships, it brought about it’s own demise

– Lincoln demanded an end to British actions, and ultimately British did stop building the ships• British afraid of precedent for future wars

• This was the final straw that brought the defeat of the Confederacy

Union Victory and Beyond

• With the surrender at Appomattox, Union victory reinforced the faith in the superiority of their ideals and institutions

• After Lincoln’s death, President Johnson continued the anti-expansion agenda

– Only expansion was Seward’s purchase of Alaska from Russia

• U.S. sought to pressure French out of Mexico by reinforcing Monroe Doctrine

– Napoleon III unpredictable began leaving Mexico

Seward’s Foreign Policy

• Signed the 1871 Treaty of Washington– Agreed to ease border disputes along the U.S. Canadian

border• Specifically regarding fisheries

– U.S. recognized the new status of a self-determined Canada

Seward’s Foreign Policy (Con’t)

• Worldwide Expansion– Helped to establish bases and cooling stations

throughout the pacific• Including Midway, Hawaii, and Fiji islands

– Negotiated treaties toward building a canal in Central America

– Sought to open trade with Korea

Seward’s Foreign Policy (Con’t)

• Seward’s reach exceeded the nation’s grasp– President Johnson impeachment limited Seward’s ability

to achieve his goals

Grant and Fish

• U.S. sought control of Cuba, however still unable to pry it from Spain

• President Grant, pushed by American businessmen, expanded influence in pacific

– Especially in Hawaii, in order to maintain a base for protecting trade and for developing sugar plantations• Thus setting up a reciprocity treat with Hawaii

– Established a treaty with Samoa in the Pacific

End of Continental Manifest Destiny

• Late 1877 brought an end to Continental expansion in the U.S.

– Many of the major issues on which U.S. foreign policy had focused throughout much of the 19th century were resolved

• Next three decades brought about to a desire for overseas expansion