INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ECONOMY SERIES

General Editor: Timothy M. Shaw, Professor of Political Science and International Development Studies, and Director of the Centre for Foreign Policy Studies, Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia, Canada

Recent titles include:

Manuel R. Agosin and Diana Tussie (editors) TRADE AND GROWTH: NEW DILEMMAS IN TRADE POLICY

Mahvash Alerassool FREEZING ASSETS: THE USA AND THE MOST EFFECTIVE

ECONOMIC SANCTION

Robert Boardman POST-SOCIALIST WORLD ORDERS

Inga Brandell (editor) WORKERS IN THIRD-WORLD INDUSTRIALIZATION

Richard P. C. Brown PUBLIC DEBT AND PRIV ATE WEALTH

lerker Carlsson, Gunnar K6hlin and Anders Ekbom THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF EV ALUATION

O. P. Dwivedi DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION: FROM UNDERDEVELOPMENT

TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Steell Folke, Niels Fold and Thyge Enevoldsen SOUTH-SOUTH TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT

Anthony Tuo-Kofi Gadzey THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF POWER

Betty J. Harris THE POLITIC AL ECONOMY OF THE SOUTHERN AFRICAN PERIPHERY

Jacques Hersh THE USA AND THE RISE OF EAST ASIA SINCE 1945

Bahgat Korany, Paul Noble and Rex Brynen (editors) THE MANY FACES OF NATIONAL SECURITY IN THE ARAB WORLD

Howard P. Lehman INDEBTED DEVELOPMENT

Matthew Martin THE CRUMBLING FA<;:ADE OF AFRICAN DEBT NEGOTIATIONS

Paul Mosley (editor) DEVELOPMENT FINANCE AND POLICY REFORM

Tony Porter STATES, MARKETS AND REGIMES IN GLOBAL FINANCE

Stephen P. Riley (editor) THE POLITICS OF GLOBAL DEBT

Alfredo C. Robles, Jr FRENCH THEORIES OF REGULATION AND CONCEPTIONS OF

THE INTERNATIONAL DIVISION OF LABOUR

Ann Seidman and Robert B. Seidman STATE AND LAW IN THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Frederick Stapenhurst POLITICAL RISK AN AL YSIS AROUND THE NORTH ATLANTIC

Deborah Stienstra WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Arno Tausch (with Fred Prager) TOWARDS A SOCIO-LIBERAL THEORY OF WORLD DEVELOPMENT

Nancy Thede and Pierre Beaudet (editors) A POST-APARTHEID SOUTHERN AfRICA?

Peter Utting ECONOMIC REFORM AND THIRD-WORLD SOCIALISM

Sandra Whitworth FEMINISM AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Fiona Wilson SWEATERS: GENDER, CLASS AND WORKSHOP-BASED

INDUSTRY IN MEXICO

The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in ECOWAS Edited by

Timothy M. Shaw Professor of Political Science and International Development Studies and Director of the Centre for Foreign Policy Studies Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia

and

Julius Emeka Okolo Professor of Political Science and Dean of the Postgraduate School Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Nigeria

M St. Martin's Press

Selection, editorial matter and Chapt~r I © Timothy M. Shaw and Julius Emeka Okolo 1994 Chapters 2-\J © The Macmillan Press Ltd 1994

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1994

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written pemlission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written pennission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the temlS of any licence pennitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WI P 9HE.

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

First published in Great Britain 1994 by THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

First published in the United States of America 1994 by Scholarly and Reference Division, ST. MARTIN'S PRESS, INC., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The Political economy of foreign policy in ECOW AS I edited by Timothy M. Shaw and Julius Emeka Okolo. p. cm. - (International political economy series) Includes index.

I. Africa, West-Economic policy-Case studies. 2. Africa, West­-Economic conditions-I 960- -Case studies. 3. Africa, West--Foreign relations-Case studies. 4. Economic Community of West African States. I. Shaw, Timothy M. II. Okolo, Julius Emeka. III. Series. HCIOOO.P65 1994 338.%6--dc20 93-29482

CIP

ISBN 978-1-349-23279-6 ISBN 978-1-349-23277-2 (eBook)

ISBN 978-0-312-10646-1

ISBN 978-0-312-10646-1

DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-23277-2

Contents

List of Maps, Tables and Figures

Notes on the Contributors

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Map of ECOWAS States in West Africa

1 African Political Economy and Foreign Policy in the 1990s: Towards a Revisionist Framework for ECOW AS States Timothy M. Shaw and Julius Emeka Okolo

1.1 Political Economy 1.2 Foreign Policy 1.3 New Regionalism 1.4 Revisionist Elements

2 Cape Verde Craig N. Murphy

2.1 Realism 2.2 Ambivalence about African Regionalism 2.3 Emphasising Opportunities within a Liberal-

Fundamentalist Version of the New International Division of Labour

3 Ghana Baffour Agyeman-Duah and Cyril Kofie Daddieh

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Theoretical Perspective 3.3 The Domestic Perspective of PNDC Policy-

making 3.4 Fraternising with Radical States 3.5 Reversion to Traditional Policy Positions 3.6 Conclusion

v

ix

x

Xlll

xv

1

2 3 9

11

17

19 22

26

32

32 34

36 38 41 44

vi Contents

4 Guinea Jennifer Ann Clapp 47

4.1 Foreign Policy under Sekou Toure 48 4.2 Guinea's Place in the IPE in the post-Toure

Years 51 4.3 Conclusion 61

5 Liberia Christopher Clapham 66

5.1 Preface 66 5.2 Intr-oduction 67 5.3 Economic Structure and Great Power Relations 69 5.4 The Continental and Regional Setting 76 5.5 Conclusion 82

6 Mauritania Gilbert K. Bluwey 86

6.1 Introduction 86 6.2 Geo-demographic Base 88 6.3 Natural Endowment and the Economy 89 6.4 Political Environment 92 6.5 Issues and Options 94 6.6 Conclusion 99

7 Niger Robert B. Charlick 103

7.1 Foreign Policy Interest~ of a Poor Sahelian Nation 103 7.2 The Controlling Influence of Economic Crisis 104 7.3 The Domestic Political Context for Nigerien

Foreign Policy 105 7.4 Foreign Policy Responses and Historic Options 108 7.5 Conclusion: ECOWAS as an Option? 121

8 Nigeria Julius Emeka Okolo and Stephen Wright 125

8.1 The Political Economy 126 8.2 The Political Environments of the First and

Second Republics 129

Contents Vll

8.3 Structural Adjustment and Political Opposition 132 8.4 Foreign Policy: Diplomatic Rhetoric and

Economic Reality 136 8.5 Foreign Policy Orientation in the 1990s 140 8.6 Conclusion 144

9 Senegal Geeta Chowdhry and Mark Beeman 147

9.1 Peanuts, the State and Dependence 147 9.2 Assessing the Structural Adjustment Policies 156 9.3 Conclusion: Structural Adjustment, Stability and

the State 164

10 Togo Phoebe Kornfeid 173

10.1 Introduction 173 10.2 The Realities of Togo's Political Economy 174 10.3 Togo as an Example of a Juridical State 176 10.4 Eyadema's Strained Relations with His

Neighbours 178 10.5 Togo's Regional Options 180 10.6 Togo and the Extra-regional International

Community 182 10.7 Conclusion 184

11 ECOW AS in Comparative Perspective Clement Emenike Adibe 187

11.1 The Size-Power Variable: Testing Two Competing Hypotheses 188

11.2 The Circumstances and Consequences of Nigeria's Expulsion of Illegal Aliens 194

11.3 Between Size-Power and Integrative Outcome: Potency and Strategic Use of Power as Mediating Variables 196

11.4 The Scope and Nature of Transactions 199 11.5 The Failure of the Trade Liberalisation

Programme: A Political and Economic Explanation 205

11.6 The Problem of Smuggling or Unrecorded Trade Flows 210

Vlll Contents

11.7 Conclusion: Coping with C6te d'Ivoire 212

12 ECOMOG in Comparative Perspective E. John Inegbedion 218

12.1 Introduction 218 12.2 The Political Economy of Collective Security and

Foreign Policy in ECOW AS 220 12.3 Liberia: Internal Fissures and Fissions 223 12.4 The Occasion for the ECOWAS Intervention 228 12.5 ECOMOG in Global Comparative Perspective 235 12.6 Conclusion 236

13 The Political Economy of African Foreign Policies: Marginality and Dependency. Realism and Choice Jon Kraus 245

13.1 Macroeconomic and Macropolitical Forces in African Dependency 247

13.2 Analytical Variables and Foreign Policy Goals 257 13.3 The Centrality of Political Economy 272

Index 285

List of Maps, Tables and Figures

Map ECOWAS States in West Africa xv

Tables 1.1 ECOW AS States: Country Profiles 4 1.2 ECOW AS States' Currencies' Exchange Rates,

1993 8 6.1 Statistical Data on Mauritania 88 9.1 Macroeconomic Indicators for Senegal 158 9.2 Senegal's External Debt 160

10.1 GNP and Military Expenditure in Togo and Sub-Saharan Africa 175

11.1 Distribution of Population and GNP among ECOW AS States, 1975 189

11.2 Comparison Between the Size-Power Coefficient of ECOWAS and Other Integration Schemes 191

11.3 ECOWAS in a World of Trading States 202 11.4 Intra-ECOWAS Trade 203 11.5A Intra-ECOWAS Trade: The 'Big Four' in Relation

to the Rest of ECOW AS (in US $m.) 203 11.5B Intra-ECOWAS Trade: The 'Big Four' in Relation

to the Rest of ECOWAS (in %) 204 11.6 Revenue Structure of ECOWAS States, 1976-7 206 11. 7 List of Enterprises and Industrial Products

Approved to Participate in Intra-ECOWAS Trade Liberalisation Scheme 208

12.1 The Composition of ECOMOG, February 1993 231 12.2 Where ECOW AS Members Stand on ECOMOG 234 13.1 Some Factors and Contexts that Influence and

Constrain Foreign Policy Choices 260

Figure 11.1 Percentage Distribution, by Country, of ECOWAS

GNP and Population, 1985 193

ix

Notes on the Contributors

Clement Emenike Adibe is a doctoral candidate at Queen's University in Ontario and a Fellow in International Institutions at the Center for International Affairs at Harvard University in Cambridge. He pre­sently holds a MacArthur Foundation fellowship for his work on West African regionalism.

Balfour Agyeman-Duah is Associate Professor and Director of the Division of Social Sciences at Bennett College, Greensboro, North Carolina. He holds a PhD from the University of Denver and has recently published in Armed Forces and Society, Comparative Politi­cal Studies and the Journal of Modern African Studies.

Mark Beeman is Assistant Professor in the Department of Sociology and Social Work at Northern Arizona University in Flagstaff, Arizona.

Gilbert K. Bluwey is Senior Lecturer in Political Science at the University of Ghana in Legon, Accra.

Robert B. Charlick is Senior Governance Advisor for the USAID Africa Bureau Democracy and Governance Program with ARD in Washington, DC. Dr Charlick is the author of Niger: Personal Rule and Survival in the Sahel and was previously a faculty member at Cleveland State University in Cleveland, Ohio.

Geeta Chowdhry is Assistant Professor of Political Science at North­ern Arizona University. Dr Chowdhry holds a PhD from the Uni­versity of Florida. Her research has appeared in d' Amico and Beckman, Women and World Politics and in Harris and Dorraj, The Changing Context of Third World Political Economy, and she is publishing International Financial Institutions: The State and Women Farmers in the Third World in the IPE Series'.

Christopher Clapham is Professor of Politics and International Rela­tions at Lancaster University and President of the African Studies Association of the UK, 1992-4. Dr Clapham is author of Liberia and

x

Notes on the Contributors Xl

Sierra Leone: An Essay in Comparative Politics and has contributed chapters on Liberia to Dunn, West African States and O'Brien, Dunn and Rathbone, Contemporary West African States.

Jennifer Ann Clapp is Lecturer in Political Studies at Trent Univer­sity in Peterborough, Ontario. She holds a PhD from the LSE and has published on structural adjustment in Guinea in the Journal of International Development.

Cyril Kofie Daddieh is Associate Professor of Political Science at Salisbury State University in Salisbury, Maryland. He received his doctorate from Dalhousie University and has contributed chapters on Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana to Watts and Little, Peasants under Con­tract, and to Eke and Gibrill, Conflict and Cooperation in Inter­African Relations.

E. John Inegbedion is a doctoral candidate in political science at Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia. He has published chapters in Swatuk and Shaw, Prospects for Peace and Development in Southern Africa in the 1990s, and in Rodriguez Beruff, Figueroa and Greene, Confli':t, Peace and Development in the Caribbean.

Phoebe Kornfield practises private international law in Frankfurt, Germany. She holds a PhD in political science from Duke University. Dr Kornfield previously practised law in the US and taught in Europe and the US.

Jon Kraus is Professor in Political Science at SUNY, Fredonia, in New York State. He has published extensively on West Africa, most recently in Current History, Africa Today, in Rothchild, Ghana: The Political Economy of Recovery, and Katz and Athene, Privatization and Investment in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Craig N. Murphy is Professor of Political Science at Wellesley College in Wellesley, Massachussetts. Dr Murphy is author of The Emergence of the NIEO Ideology, co-author of America's Quest for Supremacy and the Third World and co-editor of The New Interna­tional Political Economy.

Julius Emeka Okolo is Professor and Chair of Political Science and Dean of the Postgraduate School at Usmanu Danfodiyo University in

xii Notes on the Contributors

Sokoto, Nigeria. He is co-editor with Stephen Wright of West African Regional Cooperation and Development and author of articles in the German Yearbook of International Law, International Journal, Inter­national Organization and World Affairs.

Timothy M. Shaw is Professor of Political Science and International Development Studies and Director of the Centre for Foreign Policy Studies at Dalhousie University. He has taught at universities in Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe and is author of Reformism and Revisionism in Africa'S Political Economy in the 1990s and co-editor of Beyond Structural Adjustment in Africa.

Stephen Wright is Associate Professor of Political Science at North­ern Arizona University. He holds a PhD from the LSE and has taught in Britain and Nigeria. His most recent chapter on Nigeria is in Curtis, Introduction to Comparative Government (third edition).

Acronyms and Abbreviations

ANAD

ACP

CEAO

CFA CIA CMRN

EC ECOMOG ECOWAS EIU ESAF FAO GDP GNP IBRD

IFIs

IMF INGO IPE LDCs LPA MNC MOJA MRU NAM NATO NGO NICs NIDL

Non-aggression and Defence Aid Agreement (francophone states only) African, Caribbean and Pacific States (associated with the EC) West African Economic Community (francophone states) Communaute Financiere Africaine (franc zone) Central Intelligence Agency (US) Military Committee for National Renaissance (Guinea) European (Economic) Community ECOW AS Monitoring Group Economic Community of West African States Economist Intelligence Unit Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (IFIs) Food and Agriculture Organisation Gross Domestic Product Gross National Product International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) International Financial Institutions (IBRD and IMF) International Monetary Fund International NGO International Political Economy Less Developed Countries Lagos Plan of Action Multi-national Corporation Movement for Justice in Africa (Liberia) Mano River Union Non-aligned Movement North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Non-Governmental Organisation Newly Industrialising Countries New International Division of Labour

Xlll

xiv

NIDP NIEO NPFL OAU OERS OIC OMVG OPEC PAIGCI

PAICV PNDC SAPs UN UNDP UNICEF US USAID USSR

Acronyms and Abbreviations

New International Division of Power New International Economic Order National Patriotic Front of Liberia Organisation of African Unity Organisation of Senegal River States Organisation of Islamic Conference Gambia River Development Organisation Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries

Independence Party of (Guinea and) Cape Verde Provisional National Defence Council (Ghana) Structural Adjustment Programmes (IFls) United Nations UN Development Programme UN Children's Fund United States of America US Agency for International Development Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Map of ECOWAS States in West Africa

Source: reprinted from West African Regional Cooperation and Develop­ment, edited by Julius Emeka Okolo and Stephen Wright, 1990, by permis­sion of Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.

xv