International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications...

International Journal

on

New Trends in Education

and

Their Implications

(IJONTE)

April, 2010

Volume: 1

Issue: 1

ISSN 1309-6249

http://ijonte.org

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications

April 2010 Volume: 1 Issue: 1 ISSN 1309-6249

Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org

Contact Addresses

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi Üniversitesi, Endüstriyel Sanatlar Eğitim Fakültesi, Eğitim Bilimleri

Bölüm Başkanlığı, 06830 Gölbaşı Ankara/Türkiye

E. Mail: [email protected] Fax: +903124853123

Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu Üniversitesi, İletişim Bilimleri Fakültesi, Yunusemre

Kampüsü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye

E. Mail: [email protected] Phone: +905422322167

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Yabancı Diller Yüksek Okulu, İki Eylül

Kampusü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye

E. Mail: [email protected] or [email protected] Phone: +902223350580

Indexed by

Sponsors




Editors

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey

Associate Editor

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu University, Turkey

Assistant Editors

Ufuk Tanyeri, Gazi University, Turkey

Nazan Dogruer, Eastern Mediterranean University,TRNC

Ramadan Eyyam, Eastern Mediterranean University , TRNC

Ipek Menevis, Eastern Mediterranean University, TRNC

Editorial Board

Prof. Dr. Abdul Hakim Juri, University of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Prof. Dr. Ahmet Mahiroğlu, Gazi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Ahmet Pehlivan, Cyprus International University,TRNC

Prof. Dr. Alan Smith, The University of Southern Queensland, Australia

Prof. Dr. Ali H. Raddaoui, University of Sfax, Tunisia

Prof. Dr. Ali Şimşek, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Antoinette J. Muntjewerff, Amsterdam University, Netherlands

Prof. Dr. Augustyn Bańka, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Poland

Prof. Dr. Boriss Misnevs, Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Latvia

Prof. Dr. Charlotte Nirmalani (Lani) Gunawardena, University of New Mexico, USA

Prof. Dr. Christine Howe, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

Prof. Dr. Cevat Celep, Kocaeli University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Cleborne D. Maddux, University of Nevada, USA

Prof. Dr. Coşkun Bayrak, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Danièle Moore, Simon Fraser University, Canada

Prof. Dr. Gul Nurgalieva, Joint-stock company,"National Center of Information", Kazakhstan

Prof. Dr. Emine Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Erol Yıldız, Alpen-Adria University, Austria

Prof. Dr. Esmahan Ağaoğlu, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Francis Glasgow, Guyana University, South America

Prof. Dr. Harold Bekkering, University of Nijmegen, Netherlands

Prof. Dr. H. Ferhan Odabaşı, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. H. Güçlü Yavuzcan, Gazi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Heli Ruokamo, University of Lapland, Finland

Prof. Dr. Jim Flood, Open University, United Kingdom

Prof. Dr. Kiyoshi Nakabayashi, Kumamoto University, Japan

Prof. Dr. K. M. Gupta, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, India

Prof. Dr. Leyla Küçükahmet, Gazi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Liliana Ezechil, University of Piteşti, Romania

Prof. Dr. Marie J. Myers, Queen's University, Canada

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Ali Kısakürek, Ankara University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Durdu Karslı, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Mehmet Kesim, Anadolu University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Meral Aksu, Middle East Technical University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Min Jou, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan




Prof. Dr. Modafar Ati, Abu Dhabi University, United Arab Emirates

Prof. Dr. Mohamed Ziad Hamdan, Modern Education House, Syria

Prof. Dr. Müfit Kömleksiz, Cyprus International University,TRNC

Prof. Dr. Paul Kawachi, Bejing Normal University, China

Prof. Dr. Piet Kommers, University of Twente, Netherlands

Prof. Dr. Ramesh C. Sharma, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India

Prof. Dr. Richard C. Hunter, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA

Prof. Dr. Rozhan M. Idrus, School of Distance Education, University Sains, Malaysia

Prof. Dr. Santosh Panda, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India

Prof. Dr. Selahattin Gelbal, Hacettepe University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Sharif H. Guseynov, Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Latvia

Prof. Dr. Tamar Lominadze, Georgian Technical University, Georgia

Prof. Dr. Tanja Betz, Goethe University, Germany

Prof. Dr. Tayyip Duman, Gazi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Tony Townsend, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom

Prof. Dr. Valentina Dagiene, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, Lithuania

Prof. Dr. Xibin Han, Tsinghua University, China

Prof. Dr. Yavuz Akpınar, Bogaziçi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Yoav Yair,The Open University of Israel, Israel

Prof. Dr. Yüksel Kavak, Hacettepe University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Zdena Lustigova, Chareles University, Czech Republic

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ahmet Ok, Middle East Technical University, Turkey

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Antonis Lionarakis, Hellenic Open University, Greece

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Carlos Machado, Vrije University, Belgium

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Danny Bernard Martin, University of Ilinois at Chicago, USA

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Demetrios G. Sampson, University of Piraeus, Greece

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gonca Telli Yamamoto, Okan University, Turkey

Assoc. Prof. Dr. I. Hakki Mirici, Akdeniz University, Turkey

Assoc. Prof. Hayriye Koç Başara, Sakarya University, Turkey

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Natalija Lepkova, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Lithuania

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nedim Gürses, Anadolu University, Turkey

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nigel Bagnall, The University of Sydney, Australia

Assoc. Prof. Dr. R. E. (Bobby) Harreveld, CQ University, Australia

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rositsa Doneva, Paisii Hilendarski University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shivakumar Deene, Karnataka State Open University, India

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Steve Wheeler, University of Plymouth, United Kingdom

Assist. Prof. Dr. Irfan Yurdabakan, Dokuz Eykul University, Turkey

Assist. Prof. Dr. Katherine Sinitsa, International Research and Training Center, Ukrania

Assist. Prof. Dr. Roxana Criu, Cuza University, Romania

Dr. Carmencita l. Castolo, Polytechnic University, Philippines

Dr. Hisham Mobaideen, Mu'tah University, Jordan

Dr. Simon Stobart, University of Teesside, United Kingdom

International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications April, May, June 2010 Volume: 1 Issue: 1 Contents ISSN 1309-6249


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CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. İ FROM EDITORS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. İİ FOREWORD…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. V ARTICLES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1-74 e-PORTFOLIOS, CONVERGENCE, AND OPEN RESOURCES: Three New Trends in Education…………………………… 1 Paul Kawachi FRSA, CHINA QUINTESSENTIAL COMPETENCIES OF A TEACHER: A Research Review………………………………………………………… 7 Anupama BHARGAVA Minaketan PATY, INDIA PHYSICAL EDUCATION COURSE AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES IN VILLAGE INSTITUTES: A Case of Çifteler Village Institute………………………………………………………………………… 19 Veli Onur ÇELIK, Coskun BAYRAK, TURKEY PREDICTING FACTORS AFFECTING UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TO ADOPT E-LEARNING IN INDIA USING TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL……………………………………………………33 Vandana MEHRA, Faranak OMIDIAN, INDIA

EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTANCE EDUCATION THROUGH MODIFIED SUMMATIVE EVALUATION: A Case Study…………………………………………………………………..44 Sabina YEASMIN, Nasirul ISLAM, , BANGLADESH A PROPOSED SKETCH OF A DISTANCE EDUCATION MODEL FOR THE ENRICHMENT OF ADULT LITERACY IN PAKISTAN……………………………………………………………………………50 Mumtaz AHMAD, PAKISTAN SPHERICAL VIDEO RECORDING AND POSSIBLE INTERACTIVE EDUCATIONAL USES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….64 Emrah Emre OZKESKIN, Tuncay TUNC, TURKEY


April, May, June 2010 Volume: 1 Issue: 1 From Editors ISSN 1309-6249


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From Editors

Welcome to the first issue of the INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON NEW TRENDS IN EDUCATION AND THEIR

IMPLICATIONS – IJONTE

IJONTE is a peer-reviewed quarterly e-journal. International in scope, this scholarly ejournal publishes refereed

articles focusing on the issues and challenges of providing theory, research and information services to global

learners in any kind of education applications. IJONTE will particularly strive to meet the continuing education

needs of practitioners and educators by providing a forum for the discussion of extended learning strategies,

policies and practices, and trends in information technology as they impact the delivery of student support

services for learners and faculties. Articles may be theoretical, philosophical and/or quantitative analyses of

education/learning and teaching issues, and may take the form of case studies, research studies or general

interest reports. Sample topics include the role or history of distance education, standards for such services,

organization or planning of new services, for learners, etc. By sharing experiences on effective use of education

in both formal and non-formal education fields and by providing communication amongst educators, education

experts and by providing opportunities to share new strategies and ideas about education.

The first issue of the IJONTE appeared on June 2010 as Volume: 1 Number: 1. The IJONTE will aim to establish

new channels of communication the for the education world in general, but for the mainly young researchers

from all over the corners of the world.

The foreword is written by our esteemed Colleague Paul Kawachi who is Professor of Instructional Design,

Senior Research Fellow, and Open University of China. Our thanks go to him. In addition the fist article is

welcome by Kawachi again. His short position aper shows the interconnection between the new trend in

education of e-portfolios for learning communities, and the two recent trends of convergence and open

education resources. e-Portfolios are particularly effective to promote the professional self-development of

pre-service or in-service teachers. Pre-service teachers have not only used e-portfolios to develop their abilities

in reflecting on given teaching principles in certain contexts, but have remarkably demonstrated their applying

these skills to new contexts outside of the course. All the in-service teachers participating in a pilot study

investigating the efficacy of e-portfolios showed significant benefit with 30% of them showing excellent

development. One additional benefit not covered in their study was that the e-portfolio was carry-away.

Second article is arrived from India. This first edition features articles ranging from theoretical to practical

studies, across a wide range of interests and topics on QUINTESSENTIAL COMPETENCIES OF A TEACHER: A

Research Review, which is written by Anupama BHARGAVA. His paper mentioned that True education when

imparted to dynamic human resource leads the nation towards attaining greatness. True education implies to a

state when economic prosperity is gained through value based social system and baton of glorious cultural

heritage is passed to younger generation with honor and confidence. This dream can not be cherished in

absence of professionally qualified and competent teachers. Expectations from teachers are high. In view of

this, pressing need of the hour is to acknowledge and develop such competencies in teachers which help them

in achieving this Endeavour. What standards should be displayed by practitioners of this job? To probe this,

many researchers have studied various aspects of teaching as a profession and as a process. Objective of this

paper is to review opinions/findings expressed by educationists and researchers.

The third paper from Anadolu University, Turkey on PHYSICAL EDUCATION COURSE AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES

IN VILLAGE INSTITUTES: A Case of Çifteler Village Institute, written by Veli ONUR ÇELIK and Coskun BAYRAK In

their descriptive and empirical study motioned and focused on The renovation and modernization of Turkey’s

educational system was planned to be carried out by considering our own social and cultural features. The




iii

problems about education were not neglected even in most critical periods of the war. After the Victory the

founders of the new country were naturally able to make more energetic effects to improve Turkey’s much

neglected educational system. One of these enormous effects is exactly the experience of “Köy Enstitüleri”

(The Village Institutes). This project has reflected the revolutionary character of the Republican Reforms. The

teaching philosophy of these institutes has been described on the basis of “learning by doing”. It is understood

that Village Institution System was the most genuine and successful education project as a result of the effects

continuing throughout the generations and graduates and system data. Education system and philosophy of

institutions haven’t lost their validity today too, which is the evidence of their successes. The Model of Village

Institution has been accepted as a great gift not only for this nation but also for the world education. UNESCO

has proudly stated that Village Institution is an education system that should function as an example for all

developing countries. In this research the content, objects and applied dimension of Physical Education and

Folk Dances Course, which is one of the courses in the Village Institution Curriculum and the effects of this

course on students in that period, will be analyzed with the relationship of one another. For this purpose, an

interview form was prepared and Village Institution graduates who still live in Eskisehir were interviewed. In

today’s global and competitive environment which is marked by the coming of information society, using the

technologies of e-learning becomes a widely accepted way of training because of the flexibility and the

standardization of the overall educational process they offer.

The fourth article arrived again from India on PREDICTING FACTORS AFFECTING UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’

ATTITUDES TO ADOPT ELEARNING IN INDIA USING TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL written by Vandana

MEHRA and Faranak OMIDIAN. This paper examines factors that predict university students' attitudes to adopt

e-learning at Panjab University in India. Understanding the nature of these factors may assist these universities

in promoting the use of information and communication technology in teaching and learning. The main focus

of the paper is on the university students, whose decision supports effective implementation of e-learning.

Data was collected through a survey of 400 post graduate students at the Panjab University. The technology

acceptance model is used as the baseline model in this study. Three more independent variables are added to

the original model, namely, technological and pedagogical support, pressure to use and elearning stressors.

The results demonstrate that the most useful subset of variables that can be used in predicting students’

attitude to adopt e-learning includes perceived usefulness, Intention to use, Ease of Use, pressure to use, E-

learning stressors and Technical and pedagogical support.

The fifth article is from Bangladesh which is written by Sabina YEASMIN and Nasirul ISLAM from Bangladesh

Open University on EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTANCE EDUCATION THROUGH MODIFIED

SUMMATIVE EVALUATION: A Case Study. The aim of this paper is Assessment techniques are important tools

for assessing the learner competence. In distance education system, the summative assessment gives us more

message than that of other assessment techniques. Although evaluation sometimes breaks down in the field of

assessment situation yet we can take some rearrangement on the same. However theoretically sound

approaches to the exist for determine the effectiveness of learning system, along with the many different

methods or modified summative assessment techniques for obtaining answers to the relevant questions.

The sixth paper belongs to Mumtaz AHMAD on A PROPOSED SKETCH OF A DISTANCE EDUCATION MODEL FOR

THE ENRICHMENT OF ADULT LITERACY IN PAKISTAN. The present research paper was conducted in view of the

poor literacy condition in Pakistan. The study revealed that there was no use of broadcast media or the

motivational techniques to attract the illiterate people to the literacy centers. Above all there was no

consistency in the literacy programmes due to political factors. The main objectives of the study included

analyzing the past literacy programmes in Pakistan and creating a distance education literacy model for

Pakistan.

Some modern ways for imparting literacy should be used rather than following the conventional methods. For

this purpose a distance education model for enhancing literacy is proposed to be used in Pakistan.




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The Last but not least, the seventh article which is written by Emrah Emre OZKESKIN and Tuncay TUNC, from

Turkey. Their paper’s title is SPHERICAL VIDEO RECORDING AND POSSIBLE INTERACTIVE EDUCATIONAL USES.

Their paper is based on interactive Flash Panoramic video, by the help of approximately 360° view, lets user to

focus any point on the screen he/she wishes by using his/her mouse while video is playing or stopped. Learning

can be strengthened by watching the video multiple times from different angles. As an addition to these,

embedding objects (sound, picture, text, graphic, movie, and links) makes panoramic videos interactive.

Learner has unique learning experience by interacting with the objects during the film. In this paper,

interactive video was created using a spherical video camera discussed employing the example of educational

uses. For this aim, the videos which were shot by using spherical video camera were made interactive using

Ladybug PRO, Lucid Viewer and XML. This study shows how spherical videos can be prepared as an

instructional material.

Dear IJONTE readers, in this issue we did not established Notes for Editor and Reviews section yet. We are

planning to organize and establish these sections very soon. We expect your studies to these sections in due

course.

You can reach us online http://www.ijonte.org and send you thought to

[email protected]

To receive further information and to send your recommendations and remarks, or for

your submmision for consideration, please contact with IJONTE Secretariat from

[email protected] or from our address or e-mail us.

Hope good readings. 01.06.2010

Editors

Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu University, Turkey


April, May, June 2010 Volume: 1 Issue: 1 Foreword ISSN 1309-6249


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Foreword

This new International Journal on New Trends in Education is a timely initiative not only to stimulate

researchers to publish their insights and experiences, but to get readers to reflect on the new trends in

education to iteratively self-develop.

On the frontlines of creating new techniques in education and on the frontlines seeing how well they work in

actual practice so as to refine and adapt them to the evolving contexts, we all need to read and write – to

keep our own learning journals. More than this we need to share these, and in the best circumstances to co-

create these. I wrote on this topic in this first issue a short position paper. In this I set out the trends that I

saw as current and future. These were convergence by conventional universities towards adopting e-

learning and distance education techniques and currently self-merging of the disciplines in these

conventional universities. Merging disciplines is leading to named degrees – with individualised curricula and

name of the eventual degree.

This movement is fuelled by the improvements in reusable learning objects, now referred to as open

education resources. The open access nature of these allows each person to pic-n-mix to design their own

learning pathways and goals. Accreditation naturally arises as a concern here, and the future trend I see is

then in e-portfolios. The e-portfolio can not only be used in assessment, and accreditation. It can be used in

self-assessment, peer assessment, future self-reflection and learning by others. Whole communities can

adopt the e-portfolio trend either individually, but to much better result if in a group - not only one village

building its own e-portfolio, but their sharing collaboratively this with those from other villages. The whole

learning environment quickly explodes into forming learning cities and learning countries. There are

currently many projects on paper designated as e-learning for countries including e-China, e-Japan, e-Asia, e-

Europe and so on – discussed in my paper. What is largely missing from all these current paper projects is

the actual mechanism to achieve their goals. The e-portfolio is a key mechanism suggested there, to achieve

these goals.

This is not meant to be an exhaustive position paper. Far from it – the purpose was only to stimulate critical

conversation on the current and future trends we are seeing in education. This Journal is an excellent

platform for these discussions. I exhort all of you to reflect and write, and to send in your ideas to us. And

please read these ideas made public by others to inform your own practice and try out these trends to see

what works why and why not, and share your experiences so that trends can be adapted to other contexts in

the future.

Thank you.

Prof. Dr. Paul Kawachi FRSA,

Instructional Media Studies Centre

Institute of Open and Distance Education,

Open University of China

Room 1204 CCRTVU Building,

160 Fuxingmennei Dajie, Beijing 100031, P. R. CHINA

E-mail: [email protected]


April, May, June 2010 Volume: 1 Issue: 1 Article: 1 ISSN 1309-6249


e-PORTFOLIOS, CONVERGENCE, AND OPEN RESOURCES:

Three New Trends in Education

Prof. Dr. Paul Kawachi FRSA


Beijing, CHINA

ABSTRACT

This paper shows the interconnection between the new trend in education of e-portfolios for learning

communities, and the two recent trends of convergence and open education resources. e-Portfolios are

particularly effective to promote the professional self-development of pre-service or in-service teachers. Pre-

service teachers have not only used e-portfolios to develop their abilities in reflecting on given teaching

principles in certain contexts, but have remarkably demonstrated their applying these skills to new contexts

outside of the course. All the in-service teachers participating in a pilot study investigating the efficacy of e-

portfolios showed significant benefit with 30% of them showing excellent development. One additional benefit

not covered in their study was that the e-portfolio was carry-away.

Keywords: E-portfolios, learning communities, individualized e-portfolios.

This short Position Paper shows the interconnection between the new trend in education of e-portfolios for

learning communities, and the two recent trends of convergence and open education resources. Convergence

has recently been a leading new trend in education, away from the departmental design of schools and

colleges towards the merging of whole disciplines. Several years ago convergence meant the blending of

conventional universities with open distance education. Since the open and distance universities had the rich

experience and skills and were open to change, so convergence started with them, and not with the

conservative conventional establishments. Soon these conventional colleges realized the cost benefits and

better quality learning achieved by open distance education and sought to emulate the methods for profits and

expansionary dreams. One key reason for the failure of e-learning to deliver improved quality of learning across

the board has been the inexperienced unskilled conventional teachers posting up courseware online hoping to

simulate the successes of open distance education. So convergence started with open education and was then

adopted by conventional education. In recent years convergence involves the blending of disciplines to offer

unlimited choices to students. This is now possible through new learning technologies – learning management

platforms which were once administrative platforms, then teaching management platforms and now hosting

learning. Students can now build their individualized e-portfolios of their formal and informal learning in-school

out-of-school and from wherever they choose. This new convergence trend offers all the promise of actually

realizing lifelong learning, for everyone.

Such lifelong learning and e-learning convergence is not limited to individual persons. We now see whole

universities transforming themselves from teaching departments into learning universities. Organizations are

re-organizing themselves as learning organizations or e-organizations. Consortia of schools, universities and

companies are uniting to converge resources and build learning communities (with

e-Asia University http://www.aeu.edu.my .

And cities are re-building themselves as learning cities. Regions and whole countries are moving towards

becoming e-countries with:

e-Japan http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/it/network/0122full_e.html,

e-China http://www.ekorea.co.kr

e-Korea http://www.ekorea.co.kr




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e-UK http://www.direct.gov.uk,

e-Malaysia http://www.malaysia.gov.my/en

e-Mongolia http://www.investmongolia.com/forum/projects/tusul77.pdf and

e-continents (with e-Asia http://www.e-asia.org

e-Europe http://www.epractice.eu

The overall trend is to become flexible and adaptive to any future scenario to better cope with future

developments. The convergence to a learning organization brings agility and nimbleness with ubiquity across

geographic place. In education we see interdisciplinary courses as well as the older multidisciplinary ones.

Thirty years ago a joint degree in physics and chemistry was a rare phenomenon, now degrees are tailor-made,

self-tailored, and designer courses with names to match (with Fashion Promotion and Marketing degrees).

The engine that has enabled this evolution is the new e-learning technologies, the integrations of social

networking applications such as wiki, blog, micro-blog, twitter, podcasting, online-video-sharing, corporate

adoptions of Facebook, Friendster and other proprietary platforms, and of shareware such as moodle, drupal

and so on. This trend is only going to diversify. Convergence will blend most activities for daily life and support

lifelong learning.

Another trend that seems to have evolved a lot from its initial role is the open education resources OER

movement. The original purpose for OER was to provide shared resources for teachers in their job to help

students learn. Teachers are incredibly busy and it was thought they would welcome these resources.

However, the repositories had quite bare shelves of resources at the beginning and nothing fitting to the

immediate needs. Teachers could borrow the OER and build a lesson around it, but most teachers already had

their curriculum and detailed syllabus with very tight pacing. Why don’t you share your own lessons? The OER

repository owners asked them. But without any personal benefit on the horizon, and a busy schedule (and

probably a healthy skepticism that the repositories would take all their contributions and sell them re-packaged

for profit), teachers never embraced the movement in sufficient numbers to build up the critical mass for self-

sustaining sharing among teachers.

The current 2010 usage of the MIT OERs shows that teachers comprise just 9% of users. Students comprise

48%-6% are registered at MIT, and the other 42% at another university. The other 43% are non-registered

independent learners – from high-school students to grandmothers.

The situation at Yale is similar, where the 2010 usage of the Open Yale OERs shows that teachers comprise 6%,

students (mostly Yale) comprise 25%, and the other 69% are non-registered learners.

These figures suggest that a surprising number of students either attend the lecture and want repeat video to

understand the lecture material, or prefer to stay in bed and view the material at their convenience – both

scenarios suggest students voting with their feet (and with their time and money) don’t rank the live lecturer.

The second area that these figures illuminate is the proportion of non-registered students. The usage figures, of

43-69% non-registered, mean that people are hungrily using these resources without teaching help, using the

OERs for a purpose they were never intended to be used for, and likely involving poor (at least not optimum)

educational experiences.

Overall OERs are not serving their original purpose for which they were designed. A lot of materials now posted

up are merely bad video of a lecturer talking to a huge empty room; a few are bad video of a incomprehensible

seminar of five or ten participants around a table. There are little or no two-way interactivity, weak multimedia

choices, and generally bad instructional design. The poor quality OERs being dumped into repositories likely

reflects the loss of purpose and aimlessness that prevails.




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An exception to these figures, are the usage figures for the UK Open University OERs. These OERs are highly

popular through iTunes U (university) freely. In particular it designs OERs for pre-registration use to allow the

public to learn how they will learn if they do register – and 6000 subsequently have registered for paid courses.

So we need to re-invent the purpose of OERs.

And re-design those that we have cluttering the shelves. The trend in OERs has therefore matured somewhat,

the existing OERs have a changed audience, and the trend needs re-designing for the end-users. Carnegie-

Mellon has just recently spent US$2.5million to re-design and repackage its OERs and has completed all of only

ten OER to date (April 2010).

They are now working on another four OER. The new end-user is being profiled by Carnegie-Mellon as

someone who has not yet any good experience of self-directed learning.

These two trends of convergence and of open resources combine to show how a new trend may be born. This

new trend is the e-portfolio –replacing the compartmental university, classrooms, teachers and examinations,

and replacing the curriculum and OER movement. In any case student-created OER are by far better for

learning critical thinking skills, problem solving and cooperative and collaborative strategies. The e-portfolio

should replace formal and informal education labels. Judging the quality of an e-portfolio is more time

consuming, but such quality assessment becomes a shared responsibility –the owner of the e-portfolio chooses

what quality and what achievements to put together, what references and letters or video reports to include,

and so shares with the prospective judge the responsibility for assessing the quality.

The e-portfolio serves as a visualization of a student’s engagement and participation, and this visualization

further stimulates the student’s transactional presence that directly is the first step in learning. A group of

students could work together collaboratively on an e-portfolio. This has been termed a netfolio (Barbera,

2009). The netfolio involves students in peer evaluation and self-revision. Such reflective and collaborative

investigation of for example course objectives and methodologies can greatly promote learning how to learn, in

a shared community online in a virtual classroom. However, there are different learning styles, and

visualization of actual participation can be expected to be unhelpful for field-independent analytic, serial and

introvert learners. So some caution should be exercised.

Notwithstanding this likelihood, introverted learners could be encouraged to explore more extroverted

mechanism for learning such as e-portfolio, despite their reluctance. Student-teachers have found (Johnson-

Leslie, 2009) that a non-technical system allowed them to be more creative than a technical system. Many

systems for e-portfolios are available and a free choice for individuals could be encouraged so they each find

one that best suits their own style. Having a same e-portfolio system can facilitate students to help each other:

a network of interlinked e-portfolios can promote accreditation, peer-assessment and reflection, and

accountability (Barbera, 2009).

Junior-high-school students using a shared e-portfolio network showed improved learning, through reflection,

self-assessment, continuous improvement, goal setting, problem solving, data gathering, work and peer

interaction, but not for peer-assessment purposes (Chang & Tseng, 2009). This was likely due to their age and

inexperience in assessing learning by others. Students of all ages learn distinct skills which help build character.

These include sharing, empathy, application, diligence, rigour, accountability, and attribution (that success is

attributable to one’s own efforts, rather than aptitude - genetic brains – or difficulty/ease). This is particularly

important in younger students who have not yet acquired these aspects. In a sense therefore, working on an e-

portfolio nurtures desirable social qualities in the individual and communities.




4

Studying to augment an e-portfolio also helps build a good home environment for others at home. Rather than

have a tired husband come home late after drinking with office co-workers only then to watch television –

which is not that conducive or inspiring to a teenage son who may be struggling at school, a ‘freeter’ part-time

worker, or unemployed – if the husband comes home and joins other members of the family studying together

each in their own subject but supporting and mindful of each other, then surely the home community is better.

For the older retired person living alone, then studying on an e-portfolio can maintain mental agility and health,

show a role model to others, develop bonding to others and increased social capital, and not least build up an

archive for future generations.

Older persons might be inspired to record their childhood, their memories and their insights. Their voices

would last forever if recorded for sharing. Some parents too busy at work or uneducated might lay the burden

for their children’s education on the local school. A government policy of e-portfolio would re-create society as

distributed responsibility and distributed teachers, taking pressure off schools and sharing the responsibilities

for community learning.

e-Portfolios are particularly effective to promote the professional self-development of pre-service or in-service

teachers. Pre-service teachers have not only used e-portfolios to develop their abilities in reflecting on given

teaching principles in certain contexts, but have remarkably demonstrated their applying these skills to new

contexts outside of the course (Sparks-Langer, 1991; Sparks-Langer, Simmons, Pasch, Colton, & Starko, 1990).

All the in-service teachers participating in a pilot study investigating the efficacy of e-portfolios showed

significant benefit (Sung, Chang, Yu, & Chang, 2009) with 30% of them showing excellent development. One

additional benefit not covered in their study was that the e-portfolio was carry-away. The participating

teachers can take away their work, reflect on it during later field teaching, develop it further, share with other

teachers, and perhaps most importantly guide their own students explanatively in using e-portfolios. The

imaginative use of e-portfolios by their students will further stimulate the teachers. Overall, the e-portfolio has

been found (Swan, 2009) to bring about increased reflectivity in students, student-teachers and in-service

teachers–and consequently increased learning achieved and professional development.

Future uses of e-portfolios can be wiki-based co-creation of courseware by the students themselves. It is well

known that examinations have a strong backwash influence on classroom activities and learning (Heyneman, &

Ransom, 1990), and also the contextual relevance of course textbooks and material too directly impact on the

quality of achieved learning – especially in rural developing regions where work-related skills should be learnt

(Lockheed, Vail, & Fuller, 1986). Student-created reusable learning objects are known to proactively promote

critical thinking skills (Kawachi, 2008a; 2008b). These combined findings support the future trend for students

to co-create their own courseware in reusable e-portfolios. Testing out their own courseware with new

students will further stimulate reflection and more learning.




5

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHOR

Paul Kawachi FRSA is Professor of Instructional Design and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts.

He holds a doctorate in education, three master’s degrees and several teaching diplomas with

distinction. He is Editor of the Asian Journal of Distance Education, and on the Editorial Board of

many others. His research interests are in electronic third-generation instructional design eID3

and how this facilitates lifelong learning. He is also interested in teacher professional

development and cognitive learning theories. He is widely published in books and leading

international journals.

Prof. Dr. Paul Kawachi FRSA,

Instructional Media Studies Centre

Institute of Open and Distance Education,


Room 1204 CCRTVU Building,

160 Fuxingmennei Dajie, Beijing 100031, P. R. CHINA


REFERENCES

Barbera, E. (2009). Mutual feedback in e-portfolio assessment : An approach to the netfolio system. British

Journal of Educational Technology, 40 (2), 342-357. ERIC Document EJ828593.

Chang, Chi-Cheng, & Tseng, Kuo-Hung (2009). Use and performances of web-based portfolio assessment.

Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 40 (2), 358-370. ERIC Document EJ828596.

Heyneman, S.P., & Ransom, A.W. (1990). Using examinations and testing to improve educational quality.

Educational Policy, 4 (3), 177-192.

Johnson-Leslie, N.A. (2009). Comparing the efficacy of an engineer-based system (College LiveText) with an off-

the-shelf general tool (Hyperstudio) for developing electronic portfolios in teacher education. Journal of

Educational Technology Systems, 37 (4), 385-404. ERIC Document EJ852929.

Kawachi, P. (2008a). Future directions for distance education. Proceedings of the EDEN/UNESCO 5th Research

Workshop ‘Researching and Promoting Access to Education and Training’. Plenary Session Tuesday 21st

October 2008, Paris.

Kawachi, P. (2008b). The UDHR Right to Education: How distance education helps to achieve this. FormaMente,

3 (3-4), 141-174. Retrieved February 16, 2009, from http://formamente.unimarconi.it/extra/Paul_Kawachi.pdf

Lockheed, M.E., Vail, S., & Fuller, B. (1986). How textbooks affect achievement in developing countries :

Evidence from Thailand. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 8 (4), 379-392.

Sparks-Langer, G.M. (1991). Promoting cognitive, critical, and narrative reflection. Paper presented at the

Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Chicago, IL, April 3-7. ERIC Document

ED337435




6

Sparks-Langer, G.M., Simmons, J.M., Pasch, M., Colton, A., & Starko, A. (1990). Reflective pedagogical thinking :

How can we promote it and measure it ? Journal of Teacher Education, 41 (5), 23-32. Retrieved November 5,

2009, from http://jte.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/41/5/23

Sung, Y-T., Chang, K-E., Yu, W-C., & Chang T-H. (2009). Supporting teachers’ reflection and learning through

structured digital teaching portfolios. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25 (4), 375-385. ERIC Document

ED504411.

Swan, G. (2009). Tools for data-driven decision making in teacher education : Designing a portal to conduct

field observation inquiry. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 25 (3), 107-113. ERIC Document

EJ835235.




7

QUINTESSENTIAL COMPETENCIES OF A TEACHER:

A Research Review

Anupama BHARGAVA

St. Xavier`s College, Ranchi (Jharkhand), INDIA

Dr. Minaketan PATY

Institute of Advanced Study in Education(PMIASE),

Orissa, INDIA

ABSTRACT

True education when imparted to dynamic human resource leads the nation towards attaining greatness. True

education implies to a state when economic prosperity is gained through value based social system and baton

of glorious cultural heritage is passed to younger generation with honour and confidence. This dream can not

be cherished in absence of professionally qualified and competent teachers. Expectations from teachers are

high. In view of this, pressing need of the hour is to acknowledge and develop such competencies in teachers

which help them in achieving this endeavour. What standards should be displayed by practitioners of this job?

To probe this, many researchers have studied various aspects of teaching as a profession and as a process.

Objective of this paper is to review opinions/findings expressed by educationists and researchers and make a

list of competencies considered salient for this committed profession.

Keywords: Competency, Teaching, Decision Making, Team Leader, Action Researcher, Communication

INTRODUCTION

Being a multifarious activity, teaching demands intricate role from the teacher. The teacher is the facilitator of

knowledge, classroom manager, resource person, leader, decision maker, administrator, promoter of peace

and culture-all rolled in one. For this reason, teachers have to comply with certain competencies. Initial and in-

service teacher training programmes are two levels at which teachers can be equipped with pertinent

competencies. Initial teacher training programmes aim at imparting fundamental competencies while

refinement and updating of these take place during in-service programmes. Development of new ideas,

practices and techniques in the field of pedagogy is the consequences of knowledge explosion in the areas of

science and technology. Teachers need a deep and sympathetic understanding of importance of child centered

education. Aim of education must be centrally placed while preparing teachers, as on the one hand teachers

have to inculcate the feeling of patriotism and national pride but on the other front concept of global

citizenship has to be promoted among students. Teachers in possession of appropriate professional

competencies and right attitude towards profession can extend help in this pursuit.

Competencies are those personal and professional characteristics or attributes of a teacher which have specific

requirements of teaching profession. These make teaching learning environment more effective, conducive

and learner friendly. Competencies are essential for carrying out personal and professional activities

successfully. The professional behavior is guided by a mixture of knowledge, skill, attitudes and personal

characteristics. Information, skill and attitudes as per demand of profession are called competencies ( Vander

Schaff and others 2003).




8

WHY COMPETENCIES ARE IMPERATIVE?

UNESCO (1987) observed that a teacher has to make students literate in terms of reading, writing and

arithmetic along with maintaining harmony between school and community. To make students functional and

accountable members of society is the primary duty of the teacher.

� Competencies are needed by a teacher to perform job satisfactorily and grow both on personal and

professional fronts. Gain in confidence, development of reflective power, practice of professional code

of conduct, developing insight of learner, learning environment and factors influencing learning are the

areas which provide scope to exhibit competencies.

� Competencies enable a teacher to identify objectives and goals of curriculum and explore practical

measures to achieve these.

� Teacher, being an eminent member of the society, maintains social links with the students, the parents

and other members of society. Competencies come to fore in this field to also establish the teacher as

an active agent of social change. Knowledge of local environment, social settings, cultural aspects and

issues help the teacher in executing his tasks with aplomb.

Heck & Williams (1984) have rightly expressed that the teacher has to present himself as genuine individual

and competent professional. Ncness, Breedfood and Osborn (2003) supported this idea and claimed the

profession of teacher as multifaceted one. Sharma, SR (2005) mentioned that fundamental competencies

should enable teacher to realize desired objectives of school.

QUINTESSENTIAL COMPETENCIES FOR TEACHERS

Enquiry in the field of education is for improving and updating educational models, their implementation in

desirable shape and to encourage effective teaching practices. Teaching competencies can be broadly classified

under three headings as:

� Competencies required for classroom teaching

� Competencies essential for carrying out professional engagements in school.

� Competencies needed to be a positive contributor of society.

Sometimes these competencies are also classified as Personal and Professional.

In both cases, competencies overlap each other. Teacher is a professional who lends distinct touch to

profession by his personal traits. When these personal traits align with professional competencies, they help

the teacher in inspiring young minds to excel in the field of their choice.

Foremost task of teachers is classroom teaching. William Cosbie (1996) concluded that the classroom

proceedings are index of a school’s quality. Joyful learning experiences are based on various components like

methods of teaching, resources used and motivation level of students. Key to effective teaching-learning

environment lies in ensuring meaningful participation of students in classroom. This is possible when the

teacher possesses persuasive communication skill, voice clarity, creativity and above all, ability to motivate

students. Kwoklum & Lew (1981) advocated that essential qualities possessed by effective teachers are clear

voice, fluency in speech, leadership quality and ability to stimulate thought process. Being friendly and

cheerful, knowledgeable and poised, lively and interesting, firm and above all non-directive are the prime

qualities of an effective teacher as listed by Veldman & Peck (1963).

Students think highly of a teacher who can stimulate them intellectually, uses new teaching approaches and

inspires them to excel academically. These remarkable teaching competencies have been pointed by




9

Rosenshine and Frust (1971), Walberg & Hartal (1990), Good & Brophy (1990) and Borich (1988). Similarly

Lowman (1984) opined that interpersonal rapport and stimulating thought process are two factors which

compose outstanding teaching performance. Sound knowledge of the subject matter not only helps the

teacher in the class but also helps in restoring the faith of students in the teacher. James and Choppin (1977)

pointed out that thorough knowledge of the subject matter is a vital factor while imparting instruction. Kohl

(1992) stated that along with knowledge of the subject matter, the needs of society and factors influencing

education must be known to teachers. Medley (1977) expressed that teacher with good command over subject

matter exhibits positive attitude towards school as well. Dewey (1966) considered experiences given to

students through various activities as education. Teacher acts as the organizer of such activities. Best (1991)

stated that basic aim of teaching is to promote independent thinking, reasoning and spirit of enquiry. Sound

knowledge of the subject matter, application of psychological principles while teaching, creation of interest and

relationship with the students are factors which influence teaching (Kalra, 1997). Research by Larson &

Silverman (2000) and Nodding (1984) emphasized that care and respect form healthy relationship between

teacher and student. Zimmerman (1990) and Clatox (1996) believed in organizing learning process in such a

way that students take responsibility of their own learning.

Proficient classroom teaching involves proper use of teaching skills. Anderson (1991) viewed that competent

teacher possesses knowledge and skill to translate educational goals into reality. While Gilchrist et.al (1985)

maintained that yardstick of good teaching is making goals and exploring the ways to achieve them, route to

achieve educational goals passes through the instructional objectives. Setting the objectives in behavioral

terms by the teacher is the initiating step of classroom teaching. Gronlund (1985) stressed on importance of

instructional objectives by stating that forming instructional objectives in behavioral terms help the teacher in

giving direction to teaching learning process.

According to George (1975), competencies that prove useful for the teacher in the classroom are securing

student’s attention, active participation in classroom activities, proper use of explanation and questioning skill,

voice modulation at required junctures, correct body language and identifying problems of learners. While

Jangira (1979) considered writing instructional objectives, organization of content matter, set induction,

questioning, illustration with example, use of teaching aids, evaluation, reinforcement of desired behavior and

classroom management as main teaching competencies, Passi (1976) identified writing instructional objectives,

introducing topic, questioning, illustration with example, stimulus variation, reinforcement, use of blackboard,

closure of topic as skills imperative for successful teaching.

Teacher’s biggest strength in the classroom is sensitive and sensible communication. Language as means of

communication should be used taking into consideration age, gender, socio-economic, linguistic and ethnic

background of the child. This skill is put to use by teacher not only inside classroom but while managing

different affairs of school or interacting with the society. For Edward et.al (1996) core competencies of teacher

include abstract thinking, problem solving ability, encouraging team work and above all effective

communication. Poor communication can make learning of even the most simple and straight forward subject

matter far more difficult (Anderson, 1991). Mukopadhyay (1994) believes that logical meaningful behavior to

achieve the goal is the result of the effective communication. Stressing on adequate volume of voice of teacher

(communication), Laslett & Smith (1984) gave reasons that child with hearing disability may find it difficult to

participate in classroom proceedings.

‘To question well is to teach well’ opined Dewey (1966). Questioning skill is used by teachers to make teaching

learning a two way process. A well planned lesson is intermitted by questions and queries both by the teacher

and the students. Sadker and Sadker (1979) referred to questioning skill as group alerting technique. Anderson

(1991) maintained that balance should be maintained in lower order and high order questions. Questioning

facilitates teacher in evaluation of student’s comprehension, stimulates thought process and helps in

maintaining discipline.




10

Skill of evaluation assists the teacher in maintaining progress of the students. Continuous comprehensive

evaluation is done in modern times (in new C.B.S.E scheme) to assess all round development of the child and to

minimize rote learning. In light of this new scheme, relaxation is given to students regarding use of reference

materials in examination or by giving prior information of the questions (Aggarwal 1997).Teacher must be

properly trained and made competent to carry out such assessments so that diagnosis of learner’s problem and

special remedial activities can be carried out inside and outside classroom (Airasian 1994).

Efficacious use of teaching aids alleviates student’s attention and interest in the classroom. These also boost

discipline of the class and fulfill the prime task of subject matter clarity. Laslett & Smith (1984) advocated for

initiating teaching with the help of activity to keep students attentive and occupied. ICT is a potent tool in

making India as knowledge based society and can bring revolutionary changes provided it is used as an integral

element in teaching learning scenario. Competency to use ICT judiciously is indispensable for today’s teacher.

Gupta (2007) stressed importance of audiovisual aids by accepting the vital role teaching aid play in perceiving

and assimilating content of instruction and developing purposeful experience. Jain (2004) argued that activities

like fieldtrips and exhibitions ensure improvement in quality of education.

Motivating students inside or outside the classroom is a task which brings acclaim to both teacher and student.

Sprinthall (1994) pointed out that principles of positive reinforcement can be applied by teacher irrespective of

time and space. Appropriate and consistent reinforcement generates confidence and helps to raise academic

achievements (Dilworth 1991). Motivation can also be provided by giving personalized feedback to the

students after evaluation. Farris (1996) explained that teacher needs to be competent enough to pace,

monitor, assess and give feedback to the students.

Professional acumen of the teacher gets highlighted when s/he selects various techniques and strategies while

teaching (Dhand 1990). Learning styles when encompassed by teacher help in generating significant amount of

interest among students. Spoon & Schell (1998) described that knowledge of learning styles of students could

provide impetus to student centred approach of teacher. Learning styles are different approaches / ways of

learning. Grasha (1996) supported an integrated model of teaching learning styles and stressed the need of

cultivating a teaching style which is beneficial to a large extent for the students with different learning styles.

Practice of different teaching styles provides change for teacher and acts as a motivational factor for the

students (Dhand, 1990).

Creativity or power of self expression tops the list of competent teachers. Such teachers believe in using

various creative channels while teaching. Intrinsic motivation takes learning to a higher level if freedom of

expressions, thoughts and emotions are endowed to students. Gardner (1977) identified eight areas of

intelligence i.e. verbal, linguistic, logical, mathematical, visual, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, musical,

interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic. Gardner’s notion supported that creative and unique ways of

learning need to be integral part of teaching learning process.

Appropriate lesson plan, delivery of lesson, lesson developing questions for interaction, verbal/non-verbal

communication, controlling physical environment, correct use of teaching aids and discipline – all are

components of classroom management. Laslett & Smith (1984) noted that successful classroom management

implies to a state where involvement in academic work is more and distractions are less. Walberg (1988)

opined that planning of lesson, initiating teaching, handling deviances are the factors that influence learning.

Ainley (1987) pointed out that equipments, materials, strength of class and seating arrangement form physical

environment and need to be dealt in affable manner. Opportunities must be provided to each student in the

class for sharing his understanding and skill (Proctor et.al, 1995). A teacher requires high level of sensitivity

while dealing with a classroom which accommodates students from different parts of the country/ world

having ethnic, linguistic and other variations. Nel (1992) supported this idea by stating that on the teacher’s




11

part, it is urgent to be earnest while teaching in multicultural scenario. Mangla (2005) elucidated that

classroom management is of utmost importance to a teacher. For dealing with the problems of student’s

behavior in secondary schools, in-service programmes should be designed in such a manner that help is

extended to teachers and administrators in dealing with behavioral problems of students. Ur (1996) mentioned

that classroom discipline specifies to a state where accepted code of conduct is followed by teacher and

students for smooth functioning of class.

In the present perspective, the role of teacher has crossed boundaries of classroom and found extension in

every sphere of education. New dimensions are being added to teacher’s duties and responsibilities. In light of

this, competencies such as decision making, curriculum developing, researching, and leadership have become

inevitable for teaching profession. Slins & Mulford (2002) concluded that student performance improves when

leadership is not confined at the top but distributed in school and when teachers are empowered to lead in

their respective areas. Lambert (2005) also supported this idea by stating that schools must focus on

developing leadership capacity in teachers. Bolin (1989) stressed on developing decision making competency

by stating that teacher’s opinion in ascertaining goals and objectives of school must get respect. In addition to

teaching, teachers act as team leaders, action researchers, curriculum developers and in-house trainers (Boles

& Troen, 1992). Ovando (1996) found that teachers with leadership competency are more innovative and

exude positive effect in the classroom. Kotzenmeyer & Mollen (2001) have rightly put forth that professional

development programmes need to respond to new roles of teachers as leader, mentor, and action researcher

enabling them to develop competencies in aforesaid areas.

Team work is needed in every sphere of life; more so on professional front. Louis (1992) observed that

collaboration with peers increases effectiveness of classroom teaching. Team work promotes cooperation and

healthy competition among teachers leading to increased professional efficiency. Wong (1996) claimed that

positive effect on student learning is observed when there is a strong bond of fellowship between principal and

teachers. Collaboration among teachers increases personal understanding and enhances adaptability for team

work (Little, 1990). Teachers exert a great influence on the society. Danielson (2007) admitted that influence

of the teacher operates in classroom, school and beyond, and also in the society. Teacher can act as an

ambassador of change by transmitting, transecting and transforming knowledge for a better society.

DISCUSSION

Acquisition of knowledge and application of knowledge are two axes on which learning depends. Situations are

designed for acquiring and applying knowledge in the curriculum and facilitated with the help of the teacher.

Rapid advancement in Science and Technology has revolutionized all aspects of human life. In this context

teachers need to acclimatize in the changed educational landscape. Consolidation, up gradation and

refinement are needed in knowledge as well as in skills / competencies to match pedagogical improvements. A

teacher is a life long learner with positive attitude for educational reforms (Fullan, 2007, Triggs & John,2004:

Scrimshaw, 2001). The premier and perennial competencies which are advocated by all researchers and

eminent educationist in a teacher are sound knowledge of subject matter, systematic presentation of content

matter, effective communication, proper classroom management, unbiased evaluation, use of various

approaches and teaching models in the classroom. Teacher cannot limit himself to classroom only. His

influence extends from classroom to school and finally to the society. Competencies like leadership, decision

making, working in teams as a member or team leader, organizer of events, action researcher etc. are essential

for teacher to fulfill professional engagement in the school. Interacting with parents as mentor of students,

being a member of social forums, raising concerns for social issues as an intellectual are the areas where

teacher’s participation confirms him as a multidimensional contributor of society.

A competent teacher’s role is well-knitted in educational, social and cultural systems of society. So

competencies can not be distinctly categorized as personal or professional. Competencies such as




12

communication, decision making, team work play a crucial role for teacher irrespective of whether s/he is in

the classroom, school or in other social settings. Nature and treatment of competencies may vary depending

on situation and wisdom of the teacher.

ICT is responsible for paradigm shift in education. Technology has the advantage of enhancing higher order

thinking among students, which promotes team learning and reduces dependence of learner on teacher

(Jefferies, 2003). Yet competencies like respect for learner, compassion, individualized attention, impartial

behaviour are always cherished in a teacher as significance of these lies in making strong bond between the

teachers and the taught and form the basis of teacher ethics. Competencies pertaining to dealing with

emergency situations, disaster management, environmental awareness, basic knowledge of first aid, guidance,

counselling, education for adolescents and special children must find place in initial as well as in-service teacher

education programmes, as the need of the fast changing world order.

Figure 1

Depicts teaching as a multitasked profession where teacher’s duties and assignments cast influence well

beyond classroom to school and society.

Figure 2

Depicts overlapping nature of competencies in different spheres.

Class

School

Society

Responsibilities of teacher

Competencies for classroom

Competencies for professional engagements

Competencies for social interaction




13

CLASSIFICATION OF TEACHER’S COMPETENCIES

Table 1

Broad classification of teacher’s competencies significant

in three areas of his work

Classroom Professional duties Social contributor

Sound knowledge of subject

matter, Application of

knowledge

Broad knowledge base,

Application of knowledge

Application of knowledge, quest

for knowledge

Effective communication (

while using different

instruction techniques)

Communication with

colleagues (Through Seminars,

Symposia etc.).

Communication (for interaction

with society)

Leadership Leadership Leadership

Decision making Decision making

Classroom management Organiser of activities (event

manager)

Event manager

Disciplinarian Disciplinarian

Capable of translating

teaching objectives into

practice

Capable of translating

educational objectives into

practice

Social reformer/ active social

participant

Systematic Organization of

content matter

Systematic approach for

enhancing organizational

effectiveness

Resource person, action

researcher

Resource person, Action

oriented

Resource person

Compassion and respect for

learner

Concern for colleagues Collaborator and contributor

Comprehensive evaluation

and feedback

Evaluation and feedback Feedback and suggestion

Motivator Motivator Motivator

Guide & Counsellor Guidance & Counselling Counsellor

Planner Planner

CONCLUSION

Education is the central factor around which story of manpower development is woven. Teaching must lead to

good ethical behaviour. Complete eradication of vices like social injustice, gender biases and cast discrimination

which still prevails in our society can take place only by means of education. India being a vast, enormously

populated and culturally diverse country depends on the strong binding thread of education to remain united.

Teachers who can help in percolating the benefit of education to grass root level are prerequisite for realizing

these objectives. For sustaining and growing knowledge based society, new methods and new competencies

are essential. It requires increased investment in human capital. For this concern, the study of teaching

competencies and more specifically focusing on developing competencies among student teacher during initial




14

training programme would enhance pedagogical improvements and consolidate this profession on which the

intricate of the world relies.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS

Anupama BHARGAVA has done post graduation in both Science and Education (M.Sc.,

M.Ed.). Currently she is working as a lecturer in prestigious St. Xavier`s College, Ranchi

(Jharkhand), India where she teaches Educational Management to undergraduate students

of education for the last 5 years. Her areas of interest are Teacher education, Distance

education and Educational administration & Management. Her papers are published in

National and International journals.

E- mail: [email protected]

Minaketan PATHY, a Master Degree in Education from Utkal University, a Ph.D. in

Education from Sambalpur University and a Radio Trainer from the BBC is presently

working as the Principal, Dr. P.M. Institute of Advanced Study in Education, Sambalpur in

Orissa state of India. He is also the sitting Dean, Faculty of Education, Sambalpur University

and empanelled as an assessor for Teacher Education by NAAC, India.

Dr. Pathy has 32 years of experience in teaching pedagogy in different Teacher

Education Institutes of Orissa with research interest in Secondary Education, Teacher

Education, and Language Teaching. He has so far produced 08 Ph.Ds. with 06 more

working for Ph.D. He has published 19 papers in National and International Journals.

Currently he is working on secondary school dropouts, migratory dropouts, multi-lingual education and

teaching strategies.

E-mail : [email protected]

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19

PHYSICAL EDUCATION COURSE AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES IN VILLAGE INSTITUTES:

A Case of Çifteler Village Institute

Veli Onur ÇELIK

Anadolu University, Eskişehir, TURKEY

Prof. Dr. Coskun BAYRAK


ABSTRACT

When the first Turkish Government was founded during The War of Independence (1919-1922), education was

one of the primary issues to receive attention. The renovation and modernization of Turkey’s educational

system was planned to be carried out by considering our own social and cultural features. The problems about

education were not neglected even in most critical periods of the war. After the victory the founders of the

new country were naturally able to make more energetic effects to improve Turkey’s much neglected

educational system. One of these enormous effects is exactly the experience of “Köy Enstitüleri” (The Village

Institutes). This project has reflected the revolutionary character of the Republican Reforms. The teaching

philosophy of these institutes has been described on the basis of “learning by doing”.

It is understood that Village Institution System was the most genuine and successful education project as a

result of the effects continuing throughout the generations and graduates and system data. Education system

and philosophy of institutions haven’t lost their validity today too, which is the evidence of their successes. The

Model of Village Institution has been accepted as a great gift not only for this nation but also for the world

education. UNESCO has proudly stated that Village Institution is an education system that should function as an

example for all developing countries.

In this research the content, objects and applied dimension of Physical Education and Folk Dances Course,

which is one of the courses in the Village Institution Curriculum and the effects of this course on students in

that period, will be analyzed with the relationship of one another. For this purpose, an interview form was

prepared and Village Institution graduates who still live in Eskişehir were interviewed.

Keywords: Turkey’s educational system; The Village Institutes; Physical Education.

INTRODUCTION

In the early 1930s, 78 % of the 6 to12 year-old population in urban areas were illiterate, which almost reached

to 90 % in villages. There was an increasing demand to educate the people living in villages especially on certain

topics such as health, agriculture and handicraft and it was considered significant to help them improve their

social and cultural skills. In addition to the education of the young population living in villages, it was also

important to provide adults with necessary skills and knowledge to achieve a better life quality and working

conditions. In order to achieve this goal, it was significant to train primary school teachers with special skills

and knowledge who might contribute to social and economic development of people living in rural areas

(Kartal, 2008). The first step taken to realize this goal was to launch “Village Institutes Program” by enacting

Village Institute Law on April 17th

1940, which dealt with training teachers equipped with skills and knowledge

necessary to keep up with the realities of rural life. These institutes adopted an education approach mainly

based on production in which the students in rural areas were educated in such an effective way that they




20

would be aware of their own potential and contribute to the development of their hometowns and the regions.

In addition to this educational reform within the framework of Village Institutes Movement, a new

development model for villages was also implemented by İsmail Hakkı Tonguç. This model is received

invaluable support and supervision by especially two statesmen; namely İsmet İnönü, the president, and Hasan

Ali Yücel, the minister of education (Bilir, 2005).

Village Institutes were established in order to train teachers who were expected to contribute to the social and

economic development of villages as well as to educate the students living in villages. A total of 21 institutes

were available until 1954, when they all were closed by the government. The literature on Turkish history of

teacher training programs reveals that it is commonly agreed that village institutes played an important role as

a facilitator in the development of communities living in rural areas (Kartal, 2008).

Background of the Village Institutes

According to the statistics of 1935 census, only 23.3 % of males and 8.2 % of females and 14 % of rural area

residents were literate (Semerci, 1989; 156). Of the total 1,920,000 children living in rural areas, only 347,071

were able to receive primary school education. 35,067 villages had no schools, where the total number of

villages was 40,000. The average population of 16,000 villages was between 150-400 and 8,000 villages over

400. The number of teachers in urban areas was 8,099 and in rural areas 6,859. There was an urgent demand

for 38,000 teachers for rural areas; however, considering the harsh conditions of the time, educators estimated

that it needed almost 100 years to meet this demand (Balkır, 1998; 10)

According to Hakkı Tonguç, who was assigned by Saffet Arıkan the minister of education of the period, the

solution was not only based on education. A new system should be implemented which would change and

activate production practices and ensure the elimination of unfair practices regarding working life. He stated

that this was the only way to guarantee a more active rural life and higher awareness in all issues. As a result,

discussions started on a new road map which was suitable for the realities and available resources of the

society and good for fast development and the adoption of modern thoughts (Başaran, 1999). Within the

framework of this attempt, many villages were visited and a 20-year draft plan was prepared based on the

figures and conditions. According to this plan, all the villages were planned to have sufficient number of

teachers and agriculture technicians and quality preventive health services by 1954 (Başaran, 1974).

Despite the continuous objections by traditional educators, Tonguç, firstly, founded a training center in 1936 in

Çifteler, Eskişehir. The aim of this center was to train some literate young people, who completed their military

services, so that they would be employed for temporary teaching posts in villages. Secondly, two “Teacher

Training Schools” were founded in Çifteler / Eskişehir and Kızıkçullu / Izmir during 1937-1938 academic year as

pilot applications (Alıç, 1990; Bilir, 2005). Later, another school was founded in Kepirtepe / Lüleburgaz in 1938-

39 academic year and another in Gölköy / Kastamonu during 1939-40 academic year, which increased the

number to 4 (Altunya, 2002a; Altunya, 2002b; Doğan, 2005; Altunya, 2005). Following the positive outcomes of

the pilot “teacher training school” in Çifteler, Village Institutes were officially acknowledged when the “Village

Institutes Law” numbered 3803 was enacted on April 17th

1940. Other important dates in the process were

1935 when the plans were initiated and 1937 when the piloting were realized (Kırby, 1962; Kartal, 2008).

During 1940-41 academic year, ten new institutes were founded and the number increased to 20 during 1945-

46 academic year. Finally, the number reached to 21 when the staff in Ministry of Education founded another

institute in Van – Ernis in 1948 (Altunya, 2002b; Altunya, 2005; Köy Enstitüleri ve Çağdaş Eğitim Vakfı, 2005).




21

Figure 1. Map of Village Institutes’ Places (Kaplan, 2002; 63).

Democrat Party, which came into power in 1946 when multi-party political system was adopted, closed the

health departments of these institutes first and later the program was unified with Primary School Teachers

Training School in 1951. Finally, the law numbered 6234 and enacted in 1954 brought an end to Village

Institutes completely, by changing their names to “Primary School Teachers Training Schools” (Karaman, 2003).

Village Institutes were considered as an important model not only for Turkish Nation but also for education

systems all over the world. They attracted the attention of many foreign educators and experts and inspired

numerous education programs in many countries. UNESCO made compliments about the institutions by saying

that “it is an education system that might be a model for all developing countries” (Güvercin, et al.; 97-103).

Çifteler Village Institute

All the first applications aiming at making education available to rural areas and all levels of society were

initiated by Çifteler Village Institute in nearby areas. The first teaching training program (1936) was started in

Mahmudiye, and similarly one of the first two teacher training schools was also founded in Mahmudiye, the

other being in Kızılçullu / İzmir (Küçükcan, 2008; Kaya, 2000). On April 17th

1940, Çİfteler Village Institute, as

one of the two projected pilot institutes, was established when the related law was enacted (Küçükcan, 2008).

Küçükcan (2008) claims that Çifteler Village Institute and its role in the system should be analyzed thoroughly if

one wants to understand the system completely since its importance as the center of these institutes is mostly

ignored. He further states that this institute is a milestone and facilitator in the efforts to make this movement

more effective.




22

Figure 2. Map of Çifteler Village Institute (Köy Enstitüleri ve Çağdaş Eğitim Vakfı, 2003; 12).

The Purpose of the Study

This study aims at examining the physical activities in daily life routine of village institutes as well as the content

and the objectives of the course titled “Physical Education and National Folklore Games” as one of the culture

courses available in the curriculum (Türkoğlu, 2000; 260). The research questions of this study are as follows:

1. What are the opinions of Çifteler Village Institute graduates on physical activities and sports games

carried out in the institutes during the times when Physical Education course was not available in the

curriculum of Village Institute Program?

2. What are the opinions of Çifteler Village Institute graduates about the period when Physical Education

Course was included in the curriculum?

What do Çifteler Village Institute graduates think about;

a) the physical activities and sports games within the syllabus of the course?

b) the places where the course “Physical Education and National Folklore Games” are carried out?

c) equipment or materials used in physical activities or the course “Physical Education and National

Folklore Games”?

d) national folklore games as one component of daily life routines in the Institute?

e) the festivals or celebrations held in the region?

f) the regional folklore games they were taught?

g) the teaching of national folklore games and the role of students in this activity?




23

METHOD

This study is a qualitative phenomenology which aims at examining the physical activities in the daily routines

in Çifteler Village Institute and the course titled “Physical Education and National Folklore Games”. The goal of

qualitative phenomenological research is to describe a "lived experience" of a phenomenon. As this is a

qualitative analysis of narrative data, methods to analyze its data must be quite different from more traditional

or quantitative methods of research. Phenomenology involves, in depth, experiences or texts to clarify their

essences (Grbich, 2007).

The subjects of the study are determined through snowball sampling method, which is quite effective in

determining individuals and cases that are likely to provide rich and invaluable data. This sampling method

starts with the following questions: “Who might have the most comprehensive information about this topic?

“Who do you suggest me to talk about the issue? As the search progresses, the names or cases accumulate just

as the snow accumulates around a snowball (Yıldırım & Şimşek 2006; 111). Accordingly, as the first step in the

process, the Çifteler Village Institute graduates living in Eskişehir were contacted and possible participants were

determined considering their health status and willingness. Later, the appointments were arranged with 6

graduates who accepted to be interviewed voluntarily. The participants, the school they graduated from and

the years they had their education are given in Table 1 below. In addition, Kayhan Tümer, who worked as

Physical Education teacher in Kars Cılavuz Village Institutes between 1948-1953, was also interviewed because

he was suggested as a person who might provide valuable information for the study by İlyas Küçükcan, who

helped the researchers a lot to contact the graduates.

Table 1

Interviewees, the institutes they graduated from and years of education

Interviewees Years of Education The Institutes

graduated from

İsmail H. Erkli (Graduate) 1939 – 1945 Çifteler Village Institute

İsmail Özel (Graduate) 1942 - 1947 Çifteler Village Institute

Osman Lökçü (Graduate) 1943 - 1948 Çifteler Village Institute

Melahat Süder (Graduate) 1943 - 1948 Çifteler Village Institute

İlyas Küçükcan (Graduate) 1945 - 1949 Çifteler Village Institute

İsmai H. Ünal (Graduate)

1950- 1957 Çifteler Village Institute

(four years) and 3 years of

education in Teacher Training

School

Çifteler Village Institute

Interview technique, which is conducted through verbal communication, is often used in qualitative studies as

a data collection method. This data collection technique has various structure levels (unstructured, semi-

structured and structured) and is used to obtain detailed and in-depth data from the participants (Yıldırım &

Şimşek, 2006, Yüksel et al., 2009). Patton (1990) also categorizes interviews into three general types; the

informal conversational interview, the general interview guide approach, and the standardized open-ended

interview. Interviews have particular strengths. An interview is a useful way to get large amounts of data

quickly. When more than one person participates, the interview process gathers a wide variety of information

across a large number of subjects than if there were fewer participants- the familiar trade-off between breadth




24

and depth. Immediate follow up and clarifications are possible (Marshall & Rossman, 1999; 108-109). This

study uses semi-structured interviews prepared by the researcher as data collection method. In this technique,

the researcher prepares open ended questions to ask to the participants (Bogdan & Biklen; 1998). The

questions are asked in predetermined order; however, the interviewer may include some explanations when

necessary and he may prefer not to ask a question if he thinks that it has been already answered in an another

question (Yıldırım & Şimşek; 2006).

Mills (2003) suggests that photographs, videos, films, letters, diaries, clinical records and life stories might be

used as supplementary data for participatory observation and interview techniques in qualitative studies. In

order to prepare the questions asked during the interviews conducted within the framework in the study, the

researchers examined many documents related to Village Institutes which were available in the archives. Also

documentary films which were about Village Institute and Çifteler Village Institute were watched by

researchers. As a result, a total of 22 questions were prepared and piloted with one of the graduates in a pilot

interview. The number of the questions was reduced to 17 following this piloting and the opinions stated by

the experts in the field. The interviews were conducted by using the final version of the interview form and the

interviews were recorded by a digital voice recording device. The necessary information (date, time, place and

duration) about the interviews conducted with Çifteler Village Institute graduates and a Physical Traning

Education teacher working in Cılavuz Village Institute are presented in Table 2.

Table 2

The Places and the Calendar of the Interviews

Village Institute Graduate

/ Employee

The Place of Interview Date Time Duration

Min /

sec

İlyas Küçükcan (K1) The Cafeteria of Seyit Battal

Gazi Foundation

05.01.2008 14:10 37'32"

İsmail Hakkı Ünal (K2) The Cafeteria of Seyit Battal

Gazi Foundation

05.01.2008 15:20 58'36"

İsmail Hakkı Erkli (K3) The Cafeteria in Alaaddin Park 28.02.2008 14:50 16'51"

Osman Lökçü (K4) The Cafeteria in Alaaddin Park 28.02.2008 15:25 56'32"

İsmail Özel (K5) A Pharmacy in Odunpazarı 07.03.2008 13:20 36'28"

Kayıhan Tümer (K6-PE

teacher)

The Cafeteria of Atatürk

Vocational High School

14.04.2008 10:30 46'16"

Melahat Süder (K7) CHP Library Hall 06.11.2008 15:00 24'13"

Data were analyzed according to the principles of qualitative data analysis. First of all, the interviews were

transcribed in dialogues as they were stated. The researcher relistened to the recordings and compared them

with transcripts to ensure the consistency. The transcripts were coded and categorized by using NVivo 8

Qualitative Analysis Software. NVivo is designed for multimedia data and it allows researchers to import and

export data to and from statistical packages and merge projects. It facilitates rich text, analysis, flexible

interpretations, memos, development of matrices, modeling and framing (Grbich, 2007; 228). Saiilard (2009)

also states that such software programs have significant functions in supporting hypothesis generating and

theory building processes.




25

FINDINGS

This section presents the analysis of the answers provided for the questions asked during the interviews

conducted with Çifteler Village Institutes graduates:

Physical education course and physical education teachers in çifteler village institutes

The subjects provided the following opinions about Physical Education course and the teachers as follows:

“We did not have a physical education course and there was not grade for this course in our transcripts. (K5)

“The Physical Education teacher started to work in 1947 and his name was İrfan Örolay (K4)

“Two hours a week and it was given by a physical education teacher. His name was Hasan Altan. He passed

away and his wife was his painting teacher (K2)

The activities carried out before and after the inclusion of physical education course in Çifteler Village

Institute curriculum

According to what the subjects stated about the physical education course in the institute, it can be observed

that there are two distinct periods. The activities carried out in İsmail Özel Çifteler Village Institute before

physical education course started are mentioned as follows:

“There were no volleyball and football teams. They formed these teams later on, after we graduated (K5)

The activities available after the inclusion of physical education teacher in the curriculum are stated as follows:

“We realized the presence of physical education teacher only when he gave orders while we were singing our

national anthem or when we played basketball and volleyball in the garden with the physical education teacher

during our free times or (K1).

“We continued to perform and rehearse national folklore games. We performed all kinds of physical acitivities

and athletism but national folklore games were a part of the activities in the institute anyway” (K7).

Teaching of national foklore games in the institute

The subjects of the study stated that the teaching of national folklore games was carried out in different ways,

namely by senior students to newcomers, by the guest students from other institutes and by visiting

professionals.

“Elder ones used to teach folklore games to younger ones (K 7)

“We visited Hasanoğlu institute and there were also students from Savaştepe/Balıkesir and Kızılçullu/Edirne.

Oh no not from Kızılçullu. From Kepirtepe/Edirne. Also from Ortaklar/Aydın. It meant four regions of Turkey

were represented. We were all together. Each group taught its local game to each other. We taught ours and

they taught theirs (K5).

“When Beşikdüzü Teacher Training School is closed for boys, they were sent to different institutes and some of

these friends from Black Sea Region enrolled in our institute. So we learned Black Sea Region Folklore Games

from them. Similarly, a man called Mehmet Efe visited us to teach Balıkesir Pamuk Yükü Bengi (K 2).




26

Physical activities and games available in the institute

The opinions of the subjects regarding the physical activities and games available in Çifteler Village Institute can

be categorized under the following titles: military training, basketball, wrestling, volleyball, athletism, football,

leisure time games, jogging and running. These opinions are stated as follows:

“I had an interest in sports. I was a member of basketball, volleyball, football and athletism teams at school”

(K2)

I am an ironsmith. I go to the smithery. I use my sledge hammer and blower, which are pure physical activities

(K5)

There were activities to help us have a healthy body. Sometimes games or running activities or jogging and

visits to nearby areas. Especially field trips were an important part of such activities. (K1)

Local festivals and celebrations organized among the institutes

The results of the interviews show that there are two main categories for these festivals and celebrations

organized among the institutions: namely charity organizations and sports tournaments. These sports activities

included volleyball, wrestling, athletism and basketball, and the opinions of the participants about such

activities are as follows:

“There used to be some organizations among institutes. For instance 6 or 7 institutes used to come together in

certain locations. I remember going to Hasanoğlan where we met students from Ladik /Samsun, İvriz/Konya,

Isparta etc. In short, students from Mid Anatolia and Black Sea regions used to gather and tournaments used to

be organized for volleyball, basketball and wrestling. Later awards used to be given to the winners and

champions (K2)”

The places where physical education course and other physical activities were performed in çifteler village

institue

The responses provided by the participants regarding this topic revealed that the places where Physical

Education Course and other physical activities were performed are a nearby meadow, the garden of the

institute, classrooms and the cafeteria. Below are the responses given by the subjects about these places:

“We did not have a sports hall. There was a broad meadow, which also used to be the ceremony area,

surrounded by willow trees and two streams. It was also near the main road connecting Eskişehir to Konya. It

was so large that two or three volleyball and basketball fields would fit in.” (K1).

“There was not a sports hall, and the garden used to be the place for sports activities (K2).”

“We used to perform year-end theater plays and other activities in our large cafeteria, which was quite

suitable for such activities. (K7)

The equipment and tools used in physical education course and physical activities

The participants stated that there were insufficient materials and equipment for Physical Education Course and

other physical activities due to the difficult economic conditions of the period. In addition, most of them were

provided by the institutions themselves. This situation changed a little bit for better in the late 1940s. The

responses given regarding this issue are as follows:

“I remember it very clearly that we did not have a notion called “Sportswear” in our minds. The students used

to participate in the course or activities by wearing anything they wish. The reason for this was that newcomers

did not have enough money to afford such things. There were no sports shoes, but we were allowed to run




27

with shorts and flannels to make the activities comfortably, which was the common practice in the institute”

(K1)

“I know new generation might not understand this situation. A new dance hall or a handball field in the

institute… They were quite luxurious for us!!” (K5)

Local folklore games performed in Çifteler Village Institute

The responds provided by the subjects clearly show that folklore games from all over Turkey were performed in

Çifteler Village Institue. Among these games were Harmandalı, Zeybeks of Aegean Region, Halays of Sivas

Region, Horons of Black Sea Region, Bars of East Anatolia Region, Bengi of Balıkesir, Teke Zortlatmsı, Zeybek of

Ankara Region, Zeybek of Talas Region, Zeybek of Kırka Region and Trakya Sallaması. The opinions of the

subjects about these games are as follows:

“Zeybeks of Aegean Region, Halays of Sivas Region. There was a mermaid and arpazlı in one of these zeybeks.

They were what I still remember today” (K1)

“For instance, we even used to try to perform folklore games of Black Sea Region. We used to perform these

energetic folklore games (K7)

The place of national foklore games in the daily routines of the institute

When the opinions of the subjects regarding this issue are analysed, it can be concluded that national folklore

games had a significant place in the institute. The opinions of the subjects regarding these activities, which

substitute for physical education course, are as follows:

“It was an indispensible part of our school life (K1)”

“Teaching of national folklore games was a chance to develop patriotic feelings for us. It was a kind of idealism

(K5)”

“I really admired the energy of folklore games of Black Sea Region. They used to perform very well. It is the

perfection of Black Sea people. It is a good opportunity to learn about Turkey and its people. (K2)

“In my opinion, one loves his country and its people through songs and folklore games. They help the

individual to develop patriotism. That is what I believe (K7).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

According to the data obtained from Village Institute graduates and other documents, it can be concluded that

students had a very active education and social life in a natural environment despite the bad economic and

social conditions of the period. In addition, national folk dances seem to have been the most important

physical activity carried out in Village Institutes. Rauf İnan (1986) who worked as the principal of Çifteler Village

Institute, writes in his book his opinions about national folk dances played every morning. According to İnan;

the students, the teachers and the administrators used to gather every morning in front of the main buildings

of two departments provided that there was no rain or snow. They used to play local songs with the accordions

and the mandolins, which used to give everybody enthusiasm, energy and liveliness. Later, they would get into

groups according to the program of the day, such as working groups, classrooms, workshops, agriculture,

construction and other fields of work (İnan, 1986; 59).

The results of the study clearly show that senior students played a significant role in popularizing national

folklore games in the institutes during a period characterized with shortage of well-trained teachers in main

courses. Kaplan (2002) states that still ballads were sung and folklore games were performed in the institutes

despite the lack of qualified teachers in certain branches such as physical education, foreign language teaching




28

and music. The visits organized among the institutes were quite effective in ensuring national unity through

cultural exchanges, which are highly supported by the performances of ballads, folklore games which

represented seven main regions of Turkey.

Regarding national folklore games performances, Apaydın (1978) gives the following as an example: “Every

morning, the students used to gather in front of the flag pole in circles and later used to perform various

folklore games from different parts of Turkey such as zeybeks, halays and horons accompanied by drums and

accordions. Burgaç (2004), in his study on Çifteler Village Institutes, claims that the students used to wake up at

6:30 in the mornings and moved from the dormitory to the main building in order to perform physical

education activities. Later, they used to continue to play various national folklore games after the breakfast.

The students in Village Institutes introduced their local folklore games to other institutes through performances

by their special teams during their visits. Similarly, they also learned about the games of other regions during

such visits. This situation made it possible to perform zeybek not only in Aegean region but also in various parts

of Turkey such as Hasanoğlan, Cılavuz and Ernis. Similarly, Horon of Black Sea Region reached to areas such as

Beşikdüzü, Aksu, Kapirtepe and Düziçi (Apaydın, 1978; 67).

The results also showed a consistency between the activities mentioned by the participants in the interviews

and the ones stated in the report submitted by Çifteler Village Institute Games and Sports Committee in 1948-

1949 academic year on the activities carried out in the institute (The report submitted by Education Directorate

of Mahmudiye Branch of Çifteler Village Institutes for The Insititute Administration: 1950; p.2). The participants

stated that some physical activities and sports were done in the Institute such as national folk dances,

wrestling, trekking, volleyball, basketball, swimming, games, athletics, military training, workshop activities and

working in the fields. The activities mentioned in the report and those stated by the participants perfectly

match.

Kızık (2008), in his study on Village Institutes, states that sports had a special and important place in Village

Institutes. It is claimed that in these institutes social and individual health is emphasized more than global

sports culture. In addition, the mentality behind the competitions is based on fair play and sharing and they are

free from violence and terror. The mentality “be a champion at the expenses of everything” was not valid

anymore. Kirby (1962) claims that sports activities were given more importance in the institutes when

compared to educational institutes in urban areas. Her study lists available sports in the institutes suitable for

the geographical features of the region such as water sports, skiing and technical mountaineering as well as

volleyball, football and basketball. In addition, she further states that fair play was more prevalent compared to

British and American Educational Institutions.

The content of physical education courses includes national folk dances, gymnastics and sports and its goals are

defined as “to raise strong, disciplined, active, brave individuals who can easily adapt surrounding conditions

and can actively take part in the defense of the country.” Another goal of this course is stated as “to help

student to strengthen their body structure, to rehabilitate some physical problems if there are and to integrate

aesthetical dimension into body structure development through national folk dances and other sport activities

such as running, jumping etc. (Türkoğlu, 2000; 311-317 –Turkish Republic, Ministry of Education Village

Institutes Education Program, 1943; 117). According to the information obtained from the interviews with

Çifteler Village Institute graduates and other documents, it can be concluded that goals aimed by “Physical

Education” course were achieved to a great extent.

ICHPERSD (International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport, and Dance) firmly believes

that every child and adult has the right to get physical education as stated in United Nations Convention.

According to ICHPERSD, an individual who receives physical education is more likely to have a well-built

physical structure. In addition, ıt takes part in more physical activities and becomes more aware of the




29

importance of physical activity to have a healthy life (http://www.ichpersd.org/i/children.html). Considering

above mentioned statements, we can define “Physical Education” as culturalization, socialization and

citizenship development training which aims at providing students with moral values, sound personality

characteristics through muscle and physical development In addition, it contributes to the development of

appropriate behaviors, the main goal of general education (Mirzeoğlu, 2003: 84).

In short, it is clear that physical education was given importance despite all deficiencies and difficulties in

Village Institutes. Institute students who started the day by playing national folk dances continue their active

life style in the institute by working in the fields, workshops and during free times. In other words, national folk

dances were successful applications in contributing both to physical and cultural development.

Bilir (2008), who examines Physical Education Courses in Village Institutes according to constructivist approach,

states that similar approaches should be tried even today’s modern world since the results obtained from

Village Institutes Model applied during the early years of Turkish Republic were quite encouraging (Bilir 2008;

149-150).

It is believed that the results obtained in this study from the content of physical activities and “Physical

Education and National Folk Dances” course, which was later included in the program, will significantly

contribute to national and international literature on sports education. By highlighting the important functions

of national folk dances in Village Institutes education system, some studies can be initiated regarding the

inclusion of national folk dances more and more in national and international education programs.


Veli Onur ÇELIK is a researcher assistant of School of Physical Education and Sports in

Anadolu University. Also Ph.D. student in this School. His research interests include Sport

Management, Sport Sociology and Leadership in Sport.

Veli Onur ÇELIK

Anadolu University,

Eskişehir, TURKEY

Phone: +90 (222) 335 0580 / 6723





30

Coskun BAYRAK is a professor of Educational Sciences at Faculty of Education in Anadolu

University. Also Ph.D. degree in the field of Educational Administration, Supervision,

Planning and Economics in Hacettepe University. His research interests include Human

Resource Management, Total Quality Management, Educational Administration,

Organizational Change and Leadership.

Prof. Dr. Coskun BAYRAK


Phone: +90 (222) 335 3580 / 3526


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yapılandırmacı öğretim yaklaşımı açısından değerlendirilmesi, SPORMETRE Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri

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Bogdan, R.C. & Biklen, S.K. (1998) Qualitative research for education: an introduction to theory and methods

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Burgaç, M. (2004) Çifteler Village Institute, Uludağ University, The Institute of Social Sciences, Tarih Ana Bilim

Dalı, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi.




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Mahmudiye Bölümünün Durumunu Gösteren Yıllık Rapor, s. 2. Yunus Emre Anadolu Öğretmen Lisesi, Tasnif

Edilmemiş Arşiv.

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Güvercin, C. H., Aksu, M. & Arda, B. (2004) Köy enstitüleri ve sağlık eğitimi, Ankara Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi

Mecmuası, 57 (2), 97-103.

International Standarts For Physical Education and Sport For Scholl Children (2008) Available online at:

http://www.ichpersd.org/i/children.html (accessed June 5 2008).

İnan R. (1986) Bir ömrün öyküsü (Ankara, Öğretmen Yayınları).

Kaplan, M. (2002) Aydınlanma devrimi ve köy enstitüleri (Ankara, Semih Ofset).

Karaman, S. (2003) 63. kuruluş yılında köy enstitüleri Available online at: http://www.universite-

toplum.org/text (accessed 14 June 2009).

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Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 4 (1), 23-36.

Kaya, Y. (2001) Bozkırdan doğan uygarlık köy enstitüleri I: antigone’den mızraklı ilmihal’e (İstanbul, Tiglat

Matbaacılık A.Ş.)

Kırby, F. (1962) Türkiye’de köy enstitüleri (Ankara, İmece Yayınları).

Kızık, S. (2008) Maksat spor olsun (İstanbul, Cumhuriyet Kitapları).

Köy Enstitüleri ve Çağdaş Eğitim Vakfı (2003) Köy enstitüleri I-II (Ankara, Köy Enstitüleri ve Çağdaş Eğitim Vakfı

Yayınları).

Köy Enstitüleri ve Çağdaş Eğitim Vakfı (2005) Köy enstitüleri ile ilgili yönetmelik ve resmi yazılar (Ankara, Ayrıntı

Matbaası).

Köy Enstitüleri ve Çağdaş Eğitim Vakfı (2007) Köy enstitüleri: amaçlar-ilkeler-uygulamalar (Ankara, Köy

Enstitüleri ve Çağdaş Eğitim Vakfı Yayınları).

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Gazetecilik ve Matbaacılık A.Ş.).

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Şti).

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Mills, G.E. (2003) Action research: a guide for the teacher researcher (NJ, Merill/Prentice Hall).

Miles, M.B. ve Huberman, A.M. (1994) Qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook (CA, Sage).

Mirzeoğlu, N. (2003) Spor bilimlerine giriş (Ankara, Bağırgan Yayınevi).

Patton, M. Q. (1990) Qualitative research and evaluation methods (2.edition) (CA, Sage).

Saillard E. K. (2009) NVivo 8 ile nitel araştırma projeleri (Ankara, Anı Yayıncılık).

Semerci, B. (1989) Türkiye’de ileri atılımlar ve köy enstitüleri (İstanbul Özgür Yayın Dağıtım).

Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Maarif Vekilliği Köy Enstitüleri Öğretim Programı (1943) (Ankara, Maarif Matbaası).

Türkoğlu, P. (2000) Tonguç ve enstitüleri [Tonguc and His Institues] (İstanbul, Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür

Yayınları).

Yıldırım, A. ve Şimşek, H. (2006) Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri[Research Methods Qualitative

Survey in social Science] (Ankara, Seçkin Yayıncılık).

Yüksel, A, Mil, B. & Bilim, Y. (Edit.) (2009) Nitel araştırma: neden, nasıl, niçin? (Ankara, Detay Yayıncılık).




33

PREDICTING FACTORS AFFECTING UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TO

ADOPT E-LEARNING IN INDIA USING TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Vandana MEHRA

Panjab University, Chandigarh, INDIA

Faranak OMIDIAN


ABSTRACT

In today’s global and competitive environment which is marked by the coming of information society, using

the technologies of e-learning becomes a widely accepted way of training because of the flexibility and the

standardization of the overall educational process they offer. This paper examines factors that predict

university students' attitudes to adopt e-learning at Panjab University in India . Understanding the nature of

these factors may assist these universities in promoting the use of information and communication technology

in teaching and learning. The main focus of the paper is on the university students, whose decision supports

effective implementation of e-learning. Data was collected through a survey of 400 post graduate students at

the Panjab University. The technology acceptance model is used as the baseline model in this study. Three

more independent variables are added to the original model, namely, technological and pedagogical support ,

pressure to use and e-learning stressors. The results demonstrate that the most useful subset of variables that

can be used in predicting students’ attitude to adopt e-learning includes perceived usefulness, Intention to use,

Ease of Use, pressure to use, E-learning stressors and Technical and pedagogical support ( F=135.645, df=6 , R

square =.674, P < 0.01 ).

Keywords: E-learning; perceived usefulness; intention to use; ease of use; pressure to use; e-learning stress;

technical and pedagogical support.

INTRUDUCTION

In today’s global and competitive environment which is marked by the coming of information society, using the

technologies of e-learning becomes a widely accepted way of training because of the flexibility and the

standardization of the overall educational process they offer. (Tuparova,Tuparov, Karastranova and Peneva,

2006). The concept of e-learning is described in a lot of literature sources. According to Dunstan and Dick

(2004) the definitions of e-learning are abound computer –based instruction (Zaham, 2000, Coppola and Myre,

2002), online or web-based training (Volery and Lord 2000; Urdan and Weggan, 2000), virtual learning

environments (Hiltz, 1988; Piccolo et al, 2001) distance learning (Webster and Hackley , 1997; Hall and Sbider,

2000). Connolly and Stansfield (2006) stated the difference among blended learning, online learning and e-

learning. They described online, as any class that offers its entire curriculum via the internet by allowing

learners to participate regardless of geographic location (place-independently). Blended learning is a

combination of online learning and traditional classroom instruction. E-learning as a generic term encompasses

both (fully) online learning and blended learning.

Nipper (1989) also identified three generations of distance education. The first generation “correspondence

model” is provided mostly through paper-based instruction and characterized by the mass production of

educational materials. The second generation referred to as the multimedia model is provided through




34

integrated multimedia such as delivering courses via television or introducing material like audio, video, tapes

and computer–based learning (CBL) in addition to printed material. The third generation is provided through

two-way communications media such as audio/ video - conferencing and broad - cast technology.

Despite the growing technology in higher education several recent studies (Link and Marz, 2oo6; Hayashi,

Chen, Ryan and Wu; 2006) have advocated that universities have been slow to bring computer use, e-learning,

on line learning into the main stream and maximize the potential benefits in the classroom. They discovered

that failing to acknowledge the importance of understanding e-learning was an important issue. Many students

may lack the necessary skills to use e-learning effectively and are therefore handicapped. Yet colleges and

universities continue to invest large sums of money in automation and electronic communication facilities. For

this reason, Martinze (2004) suggests that the study of student’s attitude towards e-learning can in many ways

help managers better prepare in light of e-learning for the future. Asan and Koca (2006) reveal there is a

relationship between students’ attitude towards e-learning and positive learning outcomes. Perez Cereijo

(2006) proposes that students’ attitude towards e-learning provides a beneficial construct to predict learning

outcomes.

The theory of technology acceptance model was really designed to test user’s attitude to accept new

technology. This theory proposed by Davis (1983) explains a variety of human behaviors based on intentions

that are jointly determined by attitudes (figure 1). According to TAM, perceived usefulness and perceived ease

of use shape an individual’s attitudes for using the technology.

Figure 1

The technology acceptance model (Davis 1989).

Davis (1989) defined perceived usefulness (PU) as the degree to which a person believes that using a particular

system will enhance his or her job performance. He defined perceived ease of use as the degree to which a

person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort (Halawi and McCarthy, 2009). In addition,

the original TAM has since been extended and is recognized today as TAM2.

Davis (1993) mainly suggests that added external variables be utilized in future research using TAM (Halawil

and Mccarthv; 2007). A substantial amount of work has been done investigating a variety of external factors to

extend technology acceptance model (Table 1).

Hence, the technology acceptance model gives relevance to the current study which investigates the factors

that affect student’s attitude to adopt e-learning.

Specifically, this study tries to answer the following research questions:

� What are the students’ attitudes towards e-learning?

Perceived usefulness (PU)

Perceived ease of use (PEOU)

Attitude toward Using (A)

Behavioral intention (BI)

Actual use




35

� What is the best group of factors that can predict students’ attitudes to adopt e-learning?

Table

External Factors Based On Selective Literature Review

Research Significant external factors

Pisarski, Drennan and Kennedy, 2005 locus of control , perceived usefulness

Chakraborty , Hwa Ha and Cui; 2006

cognitive style , perceived usefulness ,

perceived ease of use and

computer self-efficacy

Jung, Loria, Mostaghel and saha 2006

perceived ease of use of the e-learning

system as well as the student’s perceived

usefulness of that system are significant

predictors of the student’s attitude towards

the e-learning system .

Sam, Othman and Nordin (2005)

computer self efficacy and anxiety

as other external factors which

influence attitudes toward the internet .

Abdel-Wahab (2008)

perceived usefulness of e-learning ,

perceived ease of e-learning use ,

pressure to use e-learning and

the availability of resources needed

to use e-learning

Rezaei, Mohammadi, Asadi,

Kalantry (2008)

computer self efficacy and anxiety

METHOD

Designing the Instrument

To accomplish the objectives of the study, a 83 –item scale in 5-point Likert format was developed to gain as

much information as possible regarding the factors that affect students ‘attitude to adopt e-learning .

Table 2 shows the reliability of the measurement scale. Cronbach’s alpha reliability scores were all over 0.7,

which is considered very well (Hair et al. 1998). Hence, the results demonstrate that the questionnaire is a

reliable measurement instrument.




36

Table 2

Descriptive statistics of the measurement scale

Scale Cronbach’s alpha

Perceived usefulness of e-learning 0.84

Intention to adopt e-learning 0.71

Ease of e-learning use 0.78

Technological and pedagogical support 0.70

E-learning stressors 0.81

Pressure to use e-learning 0.82

Attitude towards e-learning o.71

Survey Sample

Stratified sampling technique was employed in the present study . 400 post graduate students at the University

of Panjab from different faculties were the sample of the present study (Table 3).

Table 3

Sample details

Arts Science

Department Number Department Number

Education 40 Computer science 40

Mass communication 40 Biotechnology 40

Geography 40 Statistics 40

Psychology 40 Physics 40

Political science 40 Chemistry 40

Personal characteristics of respondents

Approximately 94.8% of students who participated in the study were between 19 to 25 years and only 5% more

than 26 years old. 46.53 % of respondents were male and 53.5% were female.

Analysis of Data

In order to test the research questions, data analysis were made throughout the SPSS version 17. To answer

question 1, descriptive analysis was used to determine the percentage of negative and positive respondents. In

addition, t-test was applies to find the differences across the various six variables (Perceived usefulness of e-

learning , Intention to adapt e-learning, Ease of e-learning use, Technological and pedagogical support, E-

learning stressors and pressure to use e-learning.

Further, a multiple regression model was computed to create a regression equation to answer the research

question: what are the best groups of factors that can predict students’ attitudes to adopt e-learning?

The model included six predictor variables (Perceived usefulness of e-learning, Intention to adapt e-learning,

Ease of e-learning use, Technological and pedagogical support, E-learning stressors and pressure to use e-

learning) simultaneously to determine the joint effect (attitude towards e-learning ) of these variables .




37

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The level of respondent’s Attitudes Towards E-learning

The computed total attitude scores was categorized as negative and positive. As figure 2 shows that 76.0%

Students were significantly positive towards e-learning. However 24% of students had negative attitude

towards e- learning.

Figure 2

Pie chart showing students’ attitude towards e-learning

Table 3 shows a higher mean rating that suggests that students were more in agreement with six factors.

Students perceived e-learning usefulness (significant at the 0.001). They also perceived use of e-learning easy

(significant at the 0.05). Furthermore, they intended to adopt e-learning (significant at the 0.001). Students

believed that the university had got the ICT infra structure and pedagogical support for the applying of e-

learning (significant at the 0.001). However, they were anxious about e-learning stressors such as their ability

for using e-learning, slow internet connection, the quantity and quality of department computers (significant at

the 0.01). Moreover, students thought that e-learning could help students reduce pressures caused by travel

related stress or living in remote areas, etc (significant at the 0.001).




38

Table 3

Mean ratings and t-test results for six factors

between negative and positive attitudes towards e-learning

Mean

score

Standard

deviation

T-test

Perceived usefulness

of e-learning

4.06

.49

-8.687***

Intention to

Adapt e-learning

3.77

.62

-10.224**

Ease of e-learning

use

2.93

0.069

-2.545*

Technological and

pedagogical support

3.12

0.89

-4.020***

E-learning stressors

3.11

1.13

-3.107**

Pressure to use

e-learning

4.27

.78

-6.289***

* Significant at the level of 0.05 level

** Significant at the level of 0.01 level

*** Significant at the level of 0.001 level

Predicting Students2 Attitudes Towards E-Learning

A multiple regression equation was computed to distinguish whether students’ attitude towards e-learning can

be predicted by above factors. A multiple regression equation was computed that included all predictor

variables simultaneously to determine the joint effect of these variables on students’ attitude to adopt e-

learning.

The R-squared (R2) value indicates how well a set of variables explains variation in the dependent variable. A

strong model high R-squared indicates a large percentage of variation in a dependent variable.

Table 4 reveals that the R2 value for this dataset was .468. This indicated that %46/8 of the students’ attitude

toward e-learning was explained by the independent variables of mentioned ABOVE. Figure 3 confirms these

results.

The statistical significance of the predication equation was analyzed by looking at the ANOVA Table: 2. the data

showed significance at the P<.000 level (F=135.645).




39

Table 4

Analyses of variance: Regression

Sum of

squres

df Mean Square F Sig R Square Adjusted R

square

Regression

12106.132

6 2017.689 57.602 .000a .468 .460

Residual 13765.945 393 35.028

Total 25872.078 399

� Predictors: (Constant), intention to use, e-learning stress, pressure to use, ease of e-learning use,

technological and pedagogical support , perceived use of e-learning

� Dependent Variable: total attitude mark

To further investigate the findings that showed significance, the Beta weights (standardized coefficients) were

analyzed. The standardized Beta coefficients provide a measure of the contribution of each variable to the

model (see Table 5.) these values represent the contribution of each independent variable to the dependent

variable. The t and p values provide an indication of the impact of each independent variable on attitude

towards e-learning. A large absolute t value and small p value suggest that a predictor variable is having a large

impact on the criterion variable. Table: 2 shows that the most useful subset of variables that can be used in

predicting students’ attitude towards e-learning includes Usefulness (U) , Intention (I) Ease of Use (EOU),

pressure to use (PTU), E-learning stress (ES), Technical and pedagogical support (TPS). Accordingly, the best

regression model that can be used in predicting student’s attitude towards e-learning is:

Attitude=-21.489 +.287 U + .287 I + .237 (EOU) +.079 (PTU) + .091 (ES) + .082 (TPS)

Table 5

Multiple regression analysis: Coefficients

Variables

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

t P

(sig)

B Std. Error Beta

(Constant) -21.489 3.362 -6.392 .000

Perceived usefulness of

e-learning

.203

.032

.287

6.253

.000

Intention to adapt

e-learning

.440 .065 .287 6.725 .000

Ease of e-learning use .289 .052 .237 5.609 .000

Technological and pedagogical

support

.111 .056 .082 1.976 .049

E-learning stress .102 .050 .091 2.037 .042

Pressure to use e-

learning

.213 .108 .079 1.968 .050




40

Figure 3

Normal probability plot

DISCUSSION

The objective of this study was to find the best group of predictors that can be used in modeling students’

attitudes to adopt e-learning .This study investigates factors which affect students’ attitude to adopt e-learning.

The theory of technology acceptance model was really designed to test users’ attitude to accept new

technology. Drawing on a recent review of TAM research, this paper investigates factors which affect students’

attitude to adopt e-learning. The results show that there are six factors that can be used in predicting students’

attitude to adopt e-learning. These factors are perceived Usefulness of e-learning (U), Intention to use (I), Ease

of Use (EOU), pressure to use (PTU), E-learning stressors (ES), Technical and pedagogical support (TPS). In

addition, perceived Usefulness of e-learning (U), Intention to use (I), Ease of Use (EOU) are more important in

determining attitude than another factors. The findings are In agreement with Devis (1989) who found the

strong links among , perceived usefulness (U), perceived ease of use (EOU), intentions (I) and user’s attitude (

A). Hence, Program managers can focus on these factors that are expected to affect students’ attitude to

adopt e-learning.

Although the factors that are used to model e-learning explain 46/8 % of the variation of the dependent

variable (attitude to adapt e-learning), further studies should be carried out to explore more variables that can

be used to get better insight into the research questions.




41

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF AUTHORS

Vandana MEHRA

Reader, Department of Education,

Panjab University, Chandigarh

Work address: Department of Education,


Assoc. Prof. Dr. Vandana MEHRA


Phone: +91-9815010538

Faranak OMIDIAN

Reasearch Scholar, Panjab University, INDIA

Home address: NO.1535-11D, Chandigarh, INDIA

Faranak OMIDIAN


Phone: +91-9855363288


REFERENCES

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.Asan, A. & Koca, N. (2006). An Analysis of students’ Attitudes Towards Internet.

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Chakraborty, I,. Hwa ha, P., J. & Cui., D (2006). Examining cognitive style on technology acceptance decisions.

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Connolly, T. & Stansfield, M . (2006). Using Games-Based e-learning Technologies in Overcoming Difficulties in

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Coppola, N. & Myre , R. (2002). Corporate software Training : Is web-based training as affctive as instructor-led

training . IEEE transaction on professional communication, Vol. 45, N3 .

Davis, F. D. (1989). ” Perceived usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use , and User Acceptance of Information

Technology ,” MIS Quarterly (13:3) , 1989 , pp. 319-339 .




42

Davis,T. R. and Luthans ,F. (1980). A social learning approach to organizational behavior. Academy of

Management Review, V.5,281-290.

Davis, F. (1993). User Acceptance of Information Technology: System Characteristics, User Perceptions and

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conference on informatics education research, Washington, DC, December 2004

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learning, Vol.1, No. 1, pp 44-47.




44

EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTANCE EDUCATION THROUGH MODIFIED

SUMMATIVE EVALUATION: A Case Study

Assist. Prof. Dr. Sabina YEASMIN

Bangladesh Open University, BANGLADESH

Assist. Prof. Dr. Nasirul ISLAM

Bangladesh Open University, BANGLADESH

ABSTRACT

Assessment techniques are important tools for assessing the learner competence. In distance education

system, the summative assessment gives us more message than that of other assessment techniques. Although

evaluation sometimes breaks down in the field of assessment situation yet we can take some rearrangement

on the same. However theoretically sound approaches to the exist for determine the effectiveness of learning

system, along with the many different methods or modified summative assessment techniques for obtaining

answers to the relevant questions.

Keywords: Distance Education, Summative, Effectiveness, modified, evaluation

INTRODUCTION

“Evaluation is the process for gathering information about the worth or quality of something as a way of

making decisions designed to increase its worth or quality” Newby et al, 2000. It is the systematic acquisition of

feedback on the use, worth or impact of some activity, programmed or process in relation to its intended

outcome. Though evaluation is put at the end, it is in fact continuous and on-going process that takes place at

all the stages of the training cycle. Depending on the time of evaluation, we can categorize evaluation as

formative and summative.

A frequent criticism of distance education has been that it is a package programmed to education underpinned

by a behaviorist model of teaching and learning (Islam and yeasmin, 2005, Harris, 1987). The desirability of

encouraging student to be more autonomous and self critical by requiring them to self-evaluate their efforts at

search on student ratings of courses had identified several common dimensions or groups of items that can be

evaluated (Renner and Greenwood 1985). For course appraises the majority of instruments devised are:

organization of course and its structure, and even workload and difficulty. Other categories include marking

examination and assignment, the learning value of course, the breadth of converge, some impact of the course

on students and the global of overall effectiveness of the course.

Not all rating instruments incorporate all the evaluation criteria, but the majority includes evaluations of

organization and work load. Adel man and Alexander (1982) examined the usefulness of workload rating,

finding them to be much more satisfactory than the other internal group based techniques that tend to be

affected by group biases. Rather than describing individual categories and questions at length, however, it is

simple to present typical categories and items drawn for an examination of existing questions. Islam and

Yeasmin (2006) discussed about the formative assessment techniques and located how to obtain the answer

the relevant Question of the assessment techniques when faces problem between distance learner and face to

face learners. . Bangladesh Open University has been very careful in this aspect from the beginning. In this




45

paper, we explain assessment techniques and the effectiveness of distance education through modified

assessment by Summative evaluation with an example based on examination system of Bangladesh Open

University.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Assessment

Assessment is important to gain knowledge of the learner’s Competence. In particular, what competence did

they bring to the learning and what competence have they acquired. There are two main purposes for

assessment.

� Formative assessment and

� Summative assessment

Formative Assessment: It is concerned with identifying the weaknesses during the process of education. It

allows us to monitor the progress of the learner and make appropriate changes to the education plan to attain

the desired proficiency level. Formative evaluation is also called continuous evaluation.

Summative Assessment: As the term indicates, it is evaluation at the end of the class teaching. Such evaluation

can tell us about the worth of a education programmed, though it can also indicate how we can improve the

quality of the programme and what areas can be improved upon.

Assessments mainly belong to the level of formative and summative support of a learner. If F=Formative,

S=Summative, and A=Assessment then, A∈ {FUS} i.e. assignment gives the information about the strength and

weakens of a student that implies assessment of educational performance of a student. But sometime the

performance of education assessed may right or wrong. If we make again assess through assignment on the

same then we have truly achieve the result about the learner learn i.e. assignment impact on bloom’s matrix.

Bloom’s matrix contains three components; Cognitive domain, Affective domain and psychomotor domain.

Each of three factors is interrelated among of them. If the three factors are interrelated is indicate the

presence of Multicollinearity (See, Islam et.al.-2001).

Assessment Factors

Continuous assessment of work done during courses, end of course assessment of work done during courses

and end of course assessment of work done at end of course are three major factors (cognitive domain,

affective domain and psychomotor domain) for assessing the educational performance of a learner. Among of

the factors respectively belongs to the formative and summative support of a learner. In remarking

assessment, technique mark of the final courses and remarked through assignment of the same are inter-

related where may be or not present collinearity.

We pointed out some character about assessments factor as follow:

� We need to distinguish among evaluation and assessment.

� Assessment refers to measuring learner’s performance, thus assessment can be the part of an

evaluation but assessment and evaluation aren’t synonymous. More importantly comparing assessment

scores for different learning system is a serious, but common, error

Outcomes of the Construction

Performance measurement generally present the most common types of data collection for summative a

distance courses. A proper arrangement should be need for assessing distance student performance is to come

with the learning out come of distance student to those learners in the same class on campus. Such

companions ignore many factors that influence learning and falsely attribute success.




46

Summative Evaluation

Summative evaluation usually aims at assessing the effectiveness of a learner completion. The intention of

conducting summative evaluation may be either reporting or validating a course. The following questions may

be considered while adopting a summative approach:

� What did the learner achieve?

� What lessons were learnt for the future?

In other words, in a course summative evaluation is used to judge the quality of distance teaching components

or effectiveness of support system to see if they have worked as intended.

The evaluation of teachers or instructors may wish to evaluate a ‘bought in’ course or if they intend to modify

or supplement those parts, which they consider inadequate for their learners, then, they would be carrying out

a formative evaluation. If the course fell below the expected standard, whether technically or pedagogically or

academically, then, it might be expected that the evaluator/ instructor would decide not to use it at all. In other

words, the evaluation would be transformed into summative evaluation. We consider that the evaluation is

formative when it is used with the intention of developing or improving of an activity or the effectiveness of a

component. Where the intention is judgment or conclusion about the merits and demerits of a course or

programmed, then, we focus on summative evaluation. In this section, we will consider the pretest-post test or

experimental approach through which the students are tested before and after the programme are

implemented. In this approach an experimental design (Figure: 1) is adopted to determine the effect at the end

of examination. It involves controlled comparison between the learners and other ‘treatments’ and may

compare effectiveness for different types of learners.

Figure 1

Experiment design

However, this approach does have limitations because of trying to control all the variables except for the

experimental one. Aathe other drawbacks of experimental approach are:

� dropouts from the test group, possible effect of other variables, effects on the group of constant test

� pre-test and post-test evaluation is inadequate for elucidating complex problem areas and provides little

effective input to the decision making process because observation, interviews with participants

(students, trainees, counselors and course writers and administrators) questionnaires and analysis of

documents and background information are also essential to evaluate. This kind of approach is

concerned with description and interpretation rather than measurement and prediction. It may deal in

detail with rationale, programme planning and operational.

Test statistic: Student T-test are consider prove the performance of the learners. The test statistics are as

follows:

~

1

1

1

1

21

21

−+

−

= −

nns

t xx t-distribution with 221 −+ nn d.f

Where, [ ]∑ ∑ −+−−+

= 222

211

21

2 )()(2

1xxxx

nns

Pre-test End of

Examination

Post-test




47

Data Collection

Two measures of data are concentrating i) quantitative and ii) qualitative measurements are as follows:

Quantitative :Participants take tests that measures changes in their knowledge skill levels and or values beliefs.

The test scores are recorded in the assessment records and compared to the pre-test scores i.e. examination

record.

Qualitative: Observations are made by teachers or tutors on the extent of change in learners’ knowledge skill

levels and/or attitudes.

Analysis

Our analysis of learning outcomes relies on assessment of our distance learner performance at two levels. Each

module has assignments, many of which are graded not only at the module level, but that also contributed to a

student work. At the end of the program, the event is a faculty committee review of each student’s to

determine if they have acquired the necessary skills and knowledge as delineated by the professional standards

of our field. Student grades from individual modules and the results provide helpful measures demonstrating

that they effectively produce the intended learning outcomes. Programmatic effects were also collected at the

end of our first cohort cycle. Data such as number of students served, their geographic locations, program

attrition rates, and professional impacts of their experience, help define our reach and justify the program’s

continuation.

Summative evaluation can be express though the example-

Example: Bangladesh Open University has already conducted B.Ag.Ed Examination. Groups of student are

randomly selected from ATI GAIBANDHA under Rangpur R.R.C and obtained the pretest mark and post test

(final mark) marks as

Final Marks: Pretest (x1) Posttest (x2)

40.0 (40) 65.9

31.3 (31) 60.3

42.5 (42.5) 67.9

30.3 (30.3) 61.3

25.2 (25.2) 58.5

The test statistic

~11

21

2

21

nns

t xx

+= −

t-distribution with 221 −+ nn d.f

Where, [ ]∑ ∑ −+−−+

= 222

211

21

2 )()(2

1xxxx

nns

t = 7.875

∴ |t| = 7.875

At 5% level of significance tabulated value of two at 8 D.F. is 2.365

Above t-calculated value is greater than that of tabulated t at 8 d.f. So, we can say the performance

achievement of the learner is significant. Now, our analysis of learning outcome relies on assessment of our

distance learner performance at two levels




48

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Attitudinal outcome data was collected at the end of each examination and also upon completion of the

degree. Perhaps the most revealing information came from reflective statements written by students at the

end of the program. While the program’s intended learning outcomes clearly were being achieved, since

students demonstrated the targeted skills, the program’s faculty found it especially rewarding to know that our

learners felt that their experience and efforts were worthwhile and professionally beneficial.

CONCLUSION

To create an evaluation plan that determines the success of a distance delivered course or program, begin by

defining what you mean by “success.” It is increased more academic in perspective, meaning outstanding

learner performance, or higher satisfaction of the learners. Success is most likely defined as a combination of

these factors, prompting the need for an evaluation strategy that is comprehensive and carefully planned. We

hope summative evaluation plan of assessment answering the question of quality in distance education.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF AUTHORS

Sabina YEASMIN is an assistant professor of Open School of the Bangladesh Open

University. I have obtained B.Sc (Hons.) and M.Sc degrees from University of Dhaka,

Bangladesh. After graduating with excellent academic record I have joined BOU as a

lecturer in January 1996. I have already submitted my M.phil thesis paper (Social Security

and Working Women: A Case study in Dhaka City) to Dhaka University authority. Now I am

doing my PhD (Study on Design and Development of Self-Learning Materials for Open

Schooling with particular emphasis on Gender-Sensitivity: a Case of Bangladesh Open

University) at IGNOU, Delhi. I have received many national and international training on

distance education concept, instructional design, and preparation of audiovisual materials from International

Extension College, Cambridge, UK.

Assist. Prof. Dr. Sabina YEASMIN

Open School, Bangladesh Open University

Gazipur-1705, BANGLADESH

Phone: +8802-9663744

Mobile: +8801715835899


Nasirul ISLAM is an assistant professor of Open School of the Bangladesh Open University.

He has obtained B.Sc (Hons.) and M.Sc degrees from University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh. He

has awarded his M.Phil and Ph.D degree in Statistics from Jahangirnagar University,

Bangladesh. I have joined BOU in 1995. I have received extensive training on principles of

instructional design and educational planning specially for lifelong learning and flexible

learning module from the University of Waterloo and the University of Guelph, Canada. He

has published more than 15 research articles and 5 books at university levels.

Assist. Prof. Dr. Md. Nasirul ISLAM

Open School, Bangladesh Open University

Gazipur, Bangladesh

Phone: +88029291109




49


REFERENCES

Adelman, C. and Alexander, R. (1982). The self evaluation instillation, London; Methane.

Harris, D. (1987). Penness and closure in distance education. The falser press, Briston.

Islam. M. N and Yeasmin. S. (2005). Assignment Regain the Assessment of Examination System for Higher

Education: Journal of JSTR vol. 1 pp-75-82, 2005.




50

A PROPOSED SKETCH OF A DISTANCE EDUCATION MODEL FOR THE ENRICHMENT OF

ADULT LITERACY IN PAKISTAN

Ph. D. Research Scholar Mumtaz AHMAD

Allama Iqbal Open University,

Islamabad, PAKISTAN

ABSTRACT

Various efforts have been made to overcome the problem of illiteracy throughout the world, particularly in the

developing countries. But, none of these had valuable results. Therefore, in most of the developing countries

like Pakistan governments are concerned about handling the literacy problem effectively. The present research

paper “A Proposed Feasible Sketch of a Distance Education Model for the Enrichment of Adult Literacy in

Pakistan” was conducted in view of the poor literacy condition in Pakistan. The study revealed that there was

no use of broadcast media or the motivational techniques to attract the illiterate people to the literacy centers.

Above all there was no consistency in the literacy programmes due to political factors. The main objectives of

the study included analyzing the past literacy programmes in Pakistan and creating a distance education

literacy model for Pakistan. Some modern ways for imparting literacy should be used rather than following the

conventional methods. For this purpose a distance education model for enhancing literacy is proposed to be

used in Pakistan.

Keywords: Adult Literacy, distance education, Model, Enrichment.

INTRODUCTION

Literacy is a basic human need. It has meaning only when it leads to participation in cultural and social

activities. It is empowerment that means ability to make decisions and control affairs of one’s own life,

economically, socially and politically, it is the first step in a life-long learning process of man and women. Life

without literacy is life without hope, security and freedom. It is the foundation of all skills and pre-requisite for

economic development (Niaz, 1995, p.1). Moreover, according to Stromquist (2005, p. 12) in modern societies

literacy skills are fundamental to decision-making, personal empowerment, active and passive participation in

local and global social community.

The concept of distance education has evolved as an alternative to the formal system of education after an

increasing realization that it is not perfectly coping with the educational needs and demands of the rapidly

growing population. To cope with the increasing demand of education, there was a need of finding such a way

that may help the people in fulfilling their educational thrust which was discovered in the form of distance

education. According to Ansari (1992, pp. 25-26);

As it was conceived the formal system of education was not sufficient to meet the increasing demands for

education, this led to the search of a via-media which could be alternatively used to expand and fulfill

educational needs of all. Instead of bringing students to the seats of learning, it was proposed to take schools to

the students and hence this concept of distance education came into existence.

In addition to the failure of formal system of education to fulfill educational needs of the people, there are

many other causes for the emergence and growth of distance education. These are according to Perraton

(1991, p. 1) as under:




51

� to cope with the rapidly increasing educational demands of masses.

� to provide mass education at very low costs.

� to enable people to acquire education at any stage of their life.

� to uplift the professional qualifications of people who work.

The emergence of distance education has provided an alternative that may prove useful in this regard. Hence,

according to Wardani (2001, p. 1) “the department of education in each developing country is challenged to

find out ways of eliminating illiteracy and increasing the quality of human resources. One way that needs to be

explored is distance education that sounds promising”. It is believed that distance education can reach all

illiterate people, even though they reside in very remote areas. Literacy programmes can be developed in the

form of printed learning materials, or audio and videocassettes, at the national level or at the regional level.

IMPORTANCE OF LITERACY

Literacy is helpful in the development of human relations, the economy, the political and social structure of

nations. Literacy is useful at the individual level in inculcating humanistic etiquettes and manners. The human

benefits are related to factors such as the improved self-esteem, empowerment, creativity and critical

reflection that can be produced by participation in adult literacy programmes and the practice of literacy.

Human benefits are intrinsically valuable and may also be instrumental in realizing other benefits of literacy like

improved health, increased political participation and so on (UNESCO, 2006, p. 137). Bown (1990, p.21) claims

that with the acquisition of literacy, masses become more confident and courageous. The awareness produced

among them because of the newly imparted knowledge help them to demonstrate decisive and confident

behaviour. They become more active in their social and private activities. It can also empower learners to take

individual as well as collective action in various contexts of their everyday life, such as household, workplace

and community (Lind, 1996; Easton, 2005).

Literacy has a wide range of advantages and benefits for economic, social and political development of a

country. The positive relationship between economic development and literacy levels and the impact of

investment in education on economic growth are well established (Darlene, et al., 2001; Osberg, 2001;

Orazem and Gunnarsson, 2003; Sosale, 2000). Likewise, the services of literacy regarding social life are much

obvious in four major aspects namely health, gender equality, education, and reproductive behaviour. Above

all literacy has implications for the safety of the communities (Maddox, 2005). Along with the traditional

components of literacy, citizens may need higher order thinking and problem-solving skills, computer and other

related skills, literacy skills necessary for workplace, and literacy skills appropriate for family life.

Literacy has an important relation with the culture. This relation is of two modes. Firstly, literacy influences the

culture. It is helpful in bringing the cultural change and preservation of the present cultural values and norms

((Farah, 2005). Moreover, the transformation of culture, in one way or the other, is also dependent of literacy.

Secondly, literacy itself is influenced by the prevailing cultural environment as planning of a literacy

programmes is usually done according to the present culture along with the future needs and requirements.

That is why the literacy materials, and the strategies of literacy imparting always correspond with the cultural

aspects.

Literacy Efforts in Pakistan

Since the inception of Pakistan government, it has adopted number of measures for the improvement of

literacy rate in the country. But these measures did not prove much helpful in improving the literacy rate in the

country. According to Ghafoor and Khan (1994, p. 12) since independence there has been a thrust on

quantitative expansion of primary education making it accessible to the specific age group (5-9), children by

gender and geographic region. But despite hectic efforts, the number of illiterates continued to increase at a

gradual speed eating up all the endeavours initiated by the government of the Pakistan. For example, the




52

number of illiterates increased from 20.25 million in 1951 to 48.8 million in 1998 (UNESCO 2002, p. i). Literacy

and adult education have been recognized as essential elements of human resource development. Therefore,

since independence, literacy and adult education have been an integral part of educational policies and

national plans. The impact of these policies and plans can be assessed when they are converted into

programmes/projects and are actually implemented on the ground (PMLC, 1997, p. 3).

Following are the various adult literacy drives and schemes launched in Pakistan since independence;

� Village Agricultural and Industrial Development Programme (1953)

� Literacy Programme under Basic Democracies (1964-69)

� People’s Works Programme, 1973 (Sipah-E-Khidmat)

� Literacy Programmes through Local Councils in Punjab Province (1974-81)

� Pakistan Television’s Adult Functional Literacy Project 1973.

� Experimental Pilot Project Integrating Education and Rural Development 1977

� Rural Education and Development Programme 1982-83

� Functional Education Project for Rural Areas (1982 to 1985)

� 100% Literate Islamabad Project (1983-84).

� The National Literacy Plan (1983-93).

� Television Literacy Centres 1983-84.

� President Ten Points for Literacy Promotion (1984-85)

� Iqra Pilot Project 1987-88

� Nai Roshni Schools Project (1987-89)

� Training of Unemployed Educated Youth Project (1990-91)

� Quranic Literacy Project (1991-95).

� Islamabad Literacy Project 1992-95.

� Eradication of Illiteracy Project (EIP) 1992-93

� Ten Year National Literacy Plan (1993-2003)

� Non-Formal Basic Education Community Schools Project (1995)

� Crash Literacy Programme (1998)

� ICT Adult Literacy Project (2001)

� Adult Literacy Centres (2001-06)

ROLE OF DISTANCE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN LITERACY ENHANCEMENT

The process of distance education is currently providing a structured learning environment in which the

teacher and student(s) are separated by time and geographical place with some form of technology being used

for the transmission of all teaching and learning. According to Kaur (1996, p. 1) “It may be considered a

revolutionary development because it marked significant break from the centuries old formal teaching system

and led to the development of an innovative multi-media teaching for learning system”. As far as the

relationship of literacy and distance education is concerned, Fleischman (1998, p. 81) states that very little is

known about what works and what doesn’t when using distance education with Adult Basic Education (ABE).

This is probably due in part to the fact that literacy programmes have historically been the last to access new

technology, primarily due to the lack of funding to the literacy field in general (Turner, 1998, p. 68). In the same

way distance education can support the literacy in the following ways.

� Training of literacy personnel.

� Enhancement Adult learners’ motivation.

� Provision of literacy at the doorsteps of illiterates.

� Provision of literacy in the cheap mode

� Public-private partnership for literacy purposes.

� Increased possibilities of the use modern technologies




53

In different countries of the world, distance education has proved itself as effective as the formal system to

deliver mass literacy. Drawing upon the well known model of the British Open University, countries such as

Pakistan, India and China have combined modern methods of teaching with emerging technologies in order to

provide low-cost instruction for basic literacy and job training. Turkey has recently joined those nations

involved in large scale distance learning. Only twelve years old, their distance education programme has

enrolled almost one million students and is the 6th largest distance education programme in the world. The

first programme to provide education out-of-school was the Indian Open School project in 1979, which after

ten years became the National Open School (NOS). Pakistan established the Mass Education Programme in

1982 and Bangladesh initiated the Open School of Bangladesh in 1992, both were off-shoots of their national

open universities (Edirisingha, 1999, p. 6).

In Indonesia, some aspects of distance education have been implemented for Kejar Paket A, a programme for

those who cannot finish formal elementary school. Another experience related to the use of distance and open

education is again from India. In 1988, the Salaam Balaak Trust (SBT), a non government organization (NGO),

ran a centre for street children and working children between the age of three to 18, by applying non-formal

and open learning method. In 1990 Vietnam launched literacy and a post-literacy programme (Wagner and

Robert 2003, p. 11). In the same way the Gobi Women Project, started in the early 1990s, is a non-formal

distance learning programme utilizing print and radio lessons to communicate and renew a number of survival

and income-generating skills important to the nomadic women of the Gobi Desert. Many post-colonial African

countries could not expand the conventional schools within their shrinking budgets, even within a generation

or more (Perraton, 1982). They chose distance education as an alternative model, which was becoming popular

in rich countries at that time. Study Centre model was the particular organisational structure that was

established to provide education at a distance in three countries in Sub-Saharan Africa: Malawi, Zambia.

Learners study at the study centres, under the supervision of facilitators, using the print materials specially

prepared for them. Radio and other audio-visual media are also used to some extent (Edirisingha, 1999, p. 5).

Working on the similar pattern in Kenya a non-governmental organization named African Medical and Research

Foundation (AMREF) started a distance education literacy programme to provide training in the health related

issues. Application of distance education for the promotion of literacy in the modern era is being made with

the support of information and communication technologies (ICT). ICT in various forms has been used with

some success to support the initial acquisition of literacy skills. For example in the UK, according to Pennells

(2005, p. 3) ICT has been used to enhance literacy in primary schools under a government initiative. Another

literacy programme which adopted the distance education mode was organized by the British Broadcasting

Corporation. The first step in this field was taken in Pakistan in 1974 when Allama Iqbal Open University was

established. Later on IGNO, Indira Gandhi National Open University in India also launched some adult literacy

programmes. In the light of the above few examples, it is obvious that distance education can be successfully

used for literacy purposes. Previously it was considered effective only to enhance the existing skills or the

continuing education but, in the present era mixture of styles is making it possible to launch literacy campaign

through distance education.

CONCEPT AND TYPES OF LITERACY MODELS

A model is not the real world but merely a human construct to help understanding real world systems better.

In general all models have an information input, an information processor, and an output of expected results.

As far as the concept of literacy model is concerned Greane (2005, p. 25) describes in International Reading

Association that literacy model is the application of multiple strategies to assist content area

teachers/facilitators in developing active and competent readers with in the respective discipline. There are

number of ways of looking at models for literacy programmes. The most common types of literacy models are;




54

� Intensive model: Intensive model is a traditional style classroom delivery with an instructor. Teaching

strategies may be customized but the mode of delivery is the classroom experience. This model allows

easy measurement of pre- and post-testing.

� Immediate model: Immediate Model is the just-in time model. It features a traditional class format, but

focuses on a specific, immediate need. The immediate model is not necessarily sequential in nature, and

typically has a short life and planning cycle.

� Integrated model: In the integrated model work and learning are interconnected. Basic skills

programmes analyze what is happening in the workplace and how the basic skills training can support

achieving the desired outcomes.

� Intervention model: The intervention model is also known as “horizontal” model. The instructor can be

at the workplace for one full day.

There is another way of description of literacy models. It deals with the functions of literacy and its

components. In different periods of the history, nature and functions of literacy has been changing with the

change in individuals’ needs and requirements. Moreover, the change in national or local preferences has also

forced an amendment in the nature and functions of literacy. Therefore, models of literacy had been

undergoing changes with the passage of time.

All the literacy models mentioned above had played an important role at their respective places but the need is

to upgrade these models so that they can meet the needs and interest of the adult learners in the

technologically dominated societies and can enable them to participate in social activities in a productive way.

Statement of the Problem

The study is designed to propose a sketch of a distance education model for the Improvement of Adult Literacy

in Pakistan.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Following were objectives of the study:

� To assess the need of literacy among Pakistani illiterates.

� To specify the role of distance education for the provision of literacy in Pakistan.

� To propose a sketch of a distance education model for the improvement of Adult Literacy in Pakistan.

Delimitations of the Study

In view of the limited time and resources at the disposal of researcher, the study was delimited to:

� Propose a sketch of a distance education model for the improvement of Adult Literacy in Pakistan under

the administrative control of Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad.

� Adult male illiterates living in the rural areas of the Punjab province of Pakistan.

� Literacy instructors and Executive District Officers (EDOs) literacy working in Punjab province during

2004-2005.

Procedure of the Study

This study is descriptive in nature and to achieve data for the study, survey was made.

Population and Sample

� Personnel of Department of Distance and Non-formal Education, and Institute of Mass Education of

Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad. Total number of these people was 13 and the whole were

taken as sample.

� All the 29 Executive District Officers literacy working in different districts of Punjab province were taken

as sample.




55

Development of Instrument

Separate questionnaires for EDOs literacy, personnel from Allama Iqbal Open University and literacy instructors

were developed on five point rating scale.

Collection and Analysis of Data

For data collection, questionnaires were personally delivered or mailed to the E. D. Os literacy and personnel

from Allama Iqbal Open University. To analyze data collected through the questionnaire of the personnel of

AIOU, mean score of their responses was calculated. The following scale value was assigned to each of five

responses (Noll, 1965, p.535).

Statements Scale Values

Strongely Agree (SA) 5

Agree(A) 4

Uncertain (UN) 3

Disagree (D) 2

Strongly Disagree(SD) 1

To calculate the mean score following formula was used.

Mean Score = 5(FSA) + 4(FA) + 3(FUNC) + 2(FDA) + 1(FSDA)

Table 1

Analyses of the Data Collected through Questionnaire for the Personnel of AIOU.

Percentage (%) of Level Item

No.

Statement

SA A UN D SD

1 Instructors of literacy programme

have appropriate knowledge of

adult’s psychology.

00 18.1 00.0 54.6 27.

3

2 Feedback is provided to learners in

existing literacy programmes.

18.2 00.0 54.6 27.3 27.

3

3 Present literacy materials are

interesting for adult learners

09 09 00 18.2 63.

7

4 Evaluation of literacy programmes

is made.

00 00 00 72.7 27.

3

5 Continuous feedback is necessary

for the adult learners

72.7 27.3 00 00 00

6 IME can supervise nationwide

literacy programme

36.4 54.6 09.8 00 00

7 Telephonic feedback is helpful for

solving problems of illiterates

18.2 45.4 18.2 09.1 09.

1




56

8 IME and NGOs can work

collaboratively to run a literacy

programme

18.2 00 00 54.6 27.

3

9 Early experiences of adult learners

are utilized to make them literate

54.6 36.4 00 00 00

10 It is possible to launch literacy

programme through distance

education mode

54.6 45.4 00 00 00

11 Television assisted teaching proves

helpful to teach writing skills

54.6 27.3 18.2 00 00

12 The skill of reading can be taught

through television programmes

54.6 27.3 00 18.2 00

13 Adult learners are in cooperation

with their fellow learners

54.6 27.3 00 18.2 00

14 Literacy programmes through

distance education reduce

administrative problems

54.6 27.3 18.2 00 00

15 Distance education literacy

programmes are economical

36.4 36.4 18.2 09.1 00

16 Literacy programmes through

distance education can prove

successful in Pakistani situation

36.4 54.6 09.1 00 00

17 Casual meetings between adult

learners and instructors are

necessary to solve literacy problems

36.4 45.4 00 18.2 00

18 Mass media motivates adult

illiterates to join literacy

programme

36.4 36.4 18.2 09.1 00

19 Radio helps in creating awareness

about literacy programmes

27.3 45.4 27.3 00 00

20 Computer can be applied to teach

literacy skills

36.4 27.3 18.2 18.2 00

Data shown in Table No. 1.1 reflects that AIOU personnel agreed with the Statements No.5 (72.7%), 6 (54.6%),

9 (54.6%), 10 (54.6%), 11 (54.6%), 12 (54.6%), 13 (54.6%), 14 (54.6%) 15 (54.6%) and16 (54.6%). In the same

way, these personnel showed their disagreement towards the Statements No. 1 (54.6%), 3 (63.7%), 4, (72.7%),

and 8 (54.6%). However, majority of the personnel remained uncertain to the Statement No. 2 (54.6%).




57

Table 2

Analyses Of The Data Collected Through The Questionnaire For E. D. Os Literacy.

Percentage (%) of Level Item

No.

Statement SA A UN D SD

1 Community surveys are conducted for need

assessment before launching a literacy

programme

66.7 20.8 00 8.3 4.2

2 The literacy centres are approachable for the

adult illiterates

58.3 25.0 8.3 4.2 4.2

3 The instructors’ attitude toward the adult

illiterates is polite

58.3 16.7 4.2 8.3 12.5

4 Instructor is able to build up teamwork

environment during the teaching and learning

process

8.3 8.3 00 54.2 29.2

5 Instructors are capable of creating pleasant

teaching learning environment at literacy

centres

20.8 20.8 00 41.7 16.7

6 The progress of learners is regularly evaluated 20.8 12.5 00 58.3 8.3

7 Tape recorder is used during teaching 8.3 8.3 00 54.2 29.2

8 VCP/VCR is provided at literacy centre to teach

adult learners

00 00 00 29.2 70.8

9 Supervisors facilitate the instructors at literacy

centre

00 00 8.3 62.5 29.2

10 Literacy programmes are launched on regular

basis.

00 00 00 16.7 83.3

11 Instructors highlight the importance of literacy

in the society

20.8 8.3 00 45.8 25.0

12 Instructors are punctual 41.7 37.5 00 16.6 4.2

13 The instructors need training in how to deal

with the illiterate persons

33.3 45.8 00 20.8 00

14 The administration provides learning material

to the adult learners free of cost

33.3 50.0 00 16.7 00

15 Local community avoids

literacy personnel

16.7 16.7 00 50.0 16.7

16 Instructors are appointed from local

community

41.7 33.3 00 25.0 00

17 Instructor motivates the people to join literacy

programmes

54.2 25.0 00 12.5 8.3

18 Broadcast media provide supplementary

support to the literacy programme

4.2 4.2 00 62.5 29.2

19 Audio-visual material is available at literacy

centres

8.3 8.3 00 16.7 66.7

20 The material developed for literacy is easy to

understand

37.5 50.0 00 12.5 00

21 The material used for literacy is interesting 16.7 00 00 66.7 16.7

22 The supervising staff of literacy programmes is

sufficient

87.5 12.5 00 00 00




58

It is reflected from the analysis of data for the questionnaire of AIOU personnel that despite the importance of

feedback and availability of instructors at telephone the adult learners are not properly guided. Moreover AIOU

personnel agreed that the distance education mode for the provision of literacy is best alternative for the

developing countries as it reduces the administrative problems and saves funds. Similarly, it was agreed by the

AIOU personnel that through the use of broadcast media, especially radio and television, literacy skills like

reading and writing can be imparted. Therefore, through the use of broadcast media and casual meetings

between adult learners and the literacy instructors, literacy programmes can be easily launched in Pakistan.

Analysis of data in Table No. 1.2 shows that E. D. Os literacy agreed with the Statements No.1 (66.7%), 2

(58.3%), 3 (58.3%), 17 (54.2%) and 22(87.5%). Similarly, these officers showed their disagreement towards the

Statements No. 4 (54.2%), 6 (58.3%), 7, (54.2%), 8 (70.8%), 9 (62.5%), 10 (83.3%), 18 (62.5%) and 21 (66.7%).

The analysis of the responses of E. D. Os literacy showed that the literacy programmes in Pakistan are poorly

funded with inadequate facilities for the adult learners as well as the literacy instructors. There is no support

material available at the literacy centres. The aspect of evaluation and feedback was almost missing in these

programmes although it was agreed by the E. D. Os literacy that there is sufficient staff available for this

purpose. Despite the local appointment of the instructors, they are unable to motivate the people to join

literacy programmes.

CONCLUSIONS

� There exists need for literacy among Pakistani illiterates and due importance is given to literacy by them.

� Moreover, local people cooperate with the literacy personnel and community welcomes the literacy

programmes.

� Community surveys are not conducted for need assessment before launching a literacy programme in

Pakistan and no proper arrangements are made for the mobilization of community.

� New coming governments do not continue on the on-going literacy programme of the previous

governments.

� Despite insufficient funding from the government for literacy programmes, free of cost learning material

and financial assistance is provided to the adult learners.

� Literacy materials for the literacy programmes in Pakistan are not locally prepared.

� Literacy instructors are appointed on merit from the local community. Therefore, they highlight the

importance of literacy in the society. Occasionally volunteers are deputed to teach adult illiterates

� Literacy instructors are not trained to teach adult illiterates and because of the absence of training they;

� face difficulties in handling adult learners

� do not motivate adult illiterates to join literacy class

� never relate the literacy work to the everyday life of adult learners

� are not familiar with the needs of adult learners

� do not show polite attitude towards the adult illiterates

� are not punctual

� There are no proper facilities at literacy centre as there is lack of furniture and unavailability of A. V.

Aids, like tape recorder, VCP/VCR teaching machines and Flip chart / Flash cards. In the same way

literacy centres are not established at an easy access of learners.

� There is no use of broadcast media to support literacy programmes.

� Literacy programmes through distance education can prove successful in Pakistani situation as;

� basic infrastructure to launch such programme is available

� literacy programmes through distance education reduce administrative problems

� literacy programmes through distance education are economical, and

� casual meetings between adult learners and instructors can solve their literacy problems




59

� Any distance education literacy programme can be made successful by the effectiveness of media

support, telephonic feedback, usefulness of print material, face to face interaction and through the

guidance and counselling of adult learners instructors and supervisors

� IME and IET can mutually cooperate for the need analysis, planning, development of print materials and

provision of media support to the adult learners, moreover; Regional Directorates can help IME during

the phases of training and Evaluation.

RECOMMENDATIONS

� Literacy should be seen as a continuous process that requires sustained learning and application. There

are no magic lines to cross from illiteracy into literacy. All policies and programmes should be defined to

encourage sustained participation and celebrate progressive achievement rather than focusing on one-

off provision with a single end point.

� Governments have to lead responsibility in meeting the right to adult literacy and in providing

leadership, policy frameworks, an enabling environment and resources. They should:

� ensure cooperation across all relevant ministries and linkages to all relevant development programmes,

� work in systematic collaboration with experienced civil society organizations,

� ensure linkages between all the relevant agencies, especially at the local level, and ensure relevance to

the issues in learners’ lives by promoting the decentralization of budgets and of decision-making over

curriculum, methods and materials.

� The Ministry of Education along with the EFA Wing should co-operate the agencies and institutions who

desire to contribute in the literacy enhancement efforts.

� Such NGOs should be encouraged who wish to work under the umbrella of an established institution

and supports the literacy efforts at the grass root level.

� Governments should take responsibility to stimulate the market for production and distribution of a

wide variety of materials suitable for new readers, for example working with publishers / newspaper

producers. They should balance this with funding for local production of materials, especially by

learners, facilitators and trainers.

� For effective literacy instruction, trained literacy instructors are needed who are expert in adult

psychology and the teaching of adults.

� It is needed to make the literacy programme consistent and regular. Even the change of governments

should not affect the literacy programmes.

� There is need to increase funding for the literacy programmes.

� There is need to involve the local community in the literacy programme to make it acceptable by all

sections of society.




60

Proposed Distance Education Model for Enhancement of Literacy in Pakistan

The distance education model for enhancement of literacy runs as

� Allama Iqbal Open University is the mother institute for distance education literacy model and the

Institute of Mass Education is the fundamental element of the model.

� Need analysis is made by the IME.

� On the bases of need analysis, literacy programme is planned and prepared.

� Material for the literacy programme is then prepared both for the adult learners and the literacy

personnel in the form of literacy primers and manuals.

AIOU

IME

Literacy Cards

A V Aids Flip Chart

Internet

IET

Radio Video Programm

Television

Feedback

Evaluation

Adult Learner

Need Analysis

Material Development

Delivery of Material

Improvement

Literacy Center

Training of Literacy Personnel

Supervisor Instructor

Programme Preparation

Media Support




61

� The developed material is then delivered to the concerned people.

� Media support is provided after delivering the material. For the media support Institute of Educational

technology is responsible to develop- the Radio, Television and Video programmes along different types

of non-broadcast media including A. V. Aids like Flip Charts and Literacy Cards. All the developed

materials are available through Internet to the adult learners as well as the instructors and other

officials.

� This media support is provided both to the adult learners and the literacy instructors.

� Adult learners have casual visits to the literacy center for face to face meeting with the literacy

instructor.

� Literacy instructors have a two-way contact with both the adult learners and the supervisor who on the

other hand is also responsible for supervising the literacy center.

� Training is provided to the personnel involved in the process of literacy impartation.

� Evaluation of the adult learners and media support is conducted.

� On the bases of evaluation, improvement is made and finally feedback is provided to the IME.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRES OF AUTHOR

Mumtaz AHMAD

Ph. D. Research Scholar,

Department of Distance, Non-formal and Continuing Education,

Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, PAKISTAN

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Bangkok, 26-29 March 2001.




64

SPHERICAL VIDEO RECORDING AND POSSIBLE INTERACTIVE EDUCATIONAL USES

Emrah Emre OZKESKIN

Aksaray University, Aksaray, TURKEY

Assist. Prof. Dr. Tuncay TUNC


ABSTRACT

Although videos are common instructional materials, traditional videos don’t let users to view the environment

from different angles and there is no interaction. On the other hand, creating virtual interactive environments

are expensive, time consuming and also it's difficult to create environments which reflects the real world.

Spherical videos have the advantage of reflecting the environment as it is. It takes less time and effort to

record. There is no need for an extra player or software other than Adobe Flash based players to display

interactive spherical videos. Video files can be streamed over the internet or can be transferred using flash disc,

CD etc. Recorded spherical videos can also be used in 3D applications as background.

Interactive Flash Panoramic video, by the help of approximately 360° view, lets user to focus any point on the

screen he/she wishes by using his/her mouse while video is playing or stopped. Learning can be strengthened

by watching the video multiple times from different angles. As an addition to these, embedding objects (sound,

picture, text, graphic, movie, and links) makes panoramic videos interactive. Learner has unique learning

experience by interacting with the objects during the film.

In this paper, interactive video was created using a spherical video camera discussed employing the example of

educational uses. For this aim, the videos which were shot by using spherical video camera were made

interactive using Ladybug PRO, Lucid Viewer and XML. This study shows how spherical videos can be prepared

as an instructional material.

Keywords: Spherical video camera, education, panorama, interaction.

INTRODUCTION

Using materials in education brings the actions, concepts and objects which are impossible to bring to the

classrooms. What makes learning materials so important is linear relationship between sensory organs and

learning. According to the research, students’ learning is facilitated by seeing 83%, hearing 11%, smelling 3,5%,

feeling 1,5% and 1% tasting. According to this information we can say that seeing is a major factor for learning

(Yalın, 2000).

One of the mass media which has been developed until today for education is video. On educational

perspective video is seen as a multi-dimensional and general means of communication. Video has the ability of

changing, transmitting, reflecting and presenting coded meaningful knowledge patterns. New technologies on

hardware and software can be seen each passing day and these new technologies are used for education. The

use of video in education is not new, but, is diversifying rapidly as technological developments make video

conferencing, video on compact discs and ‘interactive video’ more widely available (Garvin & Carrington, 1997;

Laurillard, 1995; Whalley, 1995; Shephard, 2001). However, the media and the audience have changed in

recent years. Fedale (1982) showed that a well-prepared and presented video lecture could be effective for

corporate training purposes and in higher education settings. With the capability to put sound and motion




65

pictures together, video is a very powerful communication media and a very effective information transfer

material.

Therefore, many educators use videos in their instruction programs and courses as well as recording videos

outside the class and bringing them to the class. In the meantime, they can use videos in web sites and DVDs.

The ability to stream video over the web, rather than relying on the distribution of physical video tapes or cable

and satellite links, has created the opportunity for greater numbers of students to be involved in distance

learning (Fedale, 1982).

Video has been used ‘off-line’ for many years to support student learning in a variety of settings. Recently

technological advances can make it available ‘on-line’ and ‘on demand’. Video can be ‘streamed’ over the

Internet to users who request it, for example, by clicking on a hyperlink within a web page. Users do not need

to download the video, which starts to play soon after the request is made (Gren, et al., 2003). Carr-Chellman &

Duchastel (2001) assert that there are two purposes for using video within a Web-based course. The first is to

motivate learning and the second is to enhance the students’ identification with the course content.

To accomplish these purposes, the instructor must effectively deliver the content of the video presentation.

The literature furthermore suggests that theatrical skills are essential in an effective video lecture environment

regardless of an instructor’s knowledge of the subject matter (Russell, et al., 2007).

Today, various technologies can be used for education. One of these is 3D learning environment designs. The

aim of these environments is to create more realistic and interactive learning environments. But the cost of

creation of these environments is high and takes a long time to design. At the same time, some problems

(models don’t fit the real ones, big environment models need powerful computers, causing misconceptions in

students, need of a special software etc.) may be faced with when transferring real life situations to the

educational environment.

Since 1990s Internet has a major impact with an expanding expectation that it will become the main power of

school development. In addition, panoramic pictures have been much popular in recent years. With the help of

special video recording hardware and photographing techniques, photos can be obtained with a wider angle.

After processing these photos with high technology firm wares and stitching them together, the image

obtained is called panoramic image. In this way, all the space is enabled to show in one photo with an angle of

360o. Panorama can be applied in a painting, drawing, photograph, film/video or 3D model.

The tradition of taking a circular series of photos from a single focal point in order to show broad views

originated in the mid-19th Century. These sets of photographs were often joined together into a single

panoramic image (Gancarson, 2006). Shortly, after the invention of photography in 1839, the desire to show

overviews of cities and landscapes prompted photographers to create panoramas. Early panoramas were made

by placing two or more daguerreotype plates side-by-side. In the late nineteenth century, cameras were

manufactured specifically for producing panoramas.

These cameras were either swing-lens cameras, where the lens rotated while the film remained stationary, or

360-degree rotation cameras, where both the camera and the film rotated. The first mass-produced American

panoramic camera, the Al-Vista, was introduced in 1898. Mass-produced panoramic cameras worked on the

swing-lens principle, used roll film, and did not need a tripod.

Mass-produced panoramic cameras made small panoramas, measuring no more than twelve inches long with a

field of view of almost 180-degrees. Developing the film was easy, and the resulting negatives could be contact-

printed or used for enlargements. The circuit camera used for taking panoramic photographs was patented in

1904.




66

It used large format film, ranging in width from 5" to 16" and was capable of producing a 360-degree

photograph measuring up to 20 feet long. Both the camera and the film rotated on a special tripod during the

exposure.

Circuit cameras were used mostly by commercial photographers to capture city views, group portraits, and

special events (The Library of Congress, 2010).

VIDEO PANORAMAS

The term motion picture (pan, panning, panama; the image obtained by rotating the camera) was derived from

panorama. Video panoramas are linked together to enable the user to create their own narratives through the

virtual handling of 3D artifacts, located in panoramic environments. This technology can be used to produce

different kinds of instructional materials. (For example,) using video panoramas, geological, geographical,

touristic and historical instructional materials can be created. Approximate spherical video image, enables the

person to watch the video in a routine way as well as heading to one point by moving the cursor whenever

she/he wants.

The same video can be watched from different perspectives again and again. Similarly, using a camera

mounted on a helmet, real actions like distinguishing a fire, hostage rescue operations, or simulated military

operations can be recorded. By creating interactivity, these panoramic videos can be used for pre-service or in-

service education of fireman and security staff.

Also, video panoramas can be used on the Web to provide virtual tours of hotels, museums, exotic travel

destinations, and the like. Discretely from normal video, video panoramas, present the whole environment and

only the user decides what part of the surrounding environment or action to watch or observe in more detail

(Kwiatek & Woolner, 2009). Besides, video panoramas can be ‘played’ in panoramic viewers providing the user

the ability to navigate a scene through the rotation and zoom functions (Huang, et al., 2008).

Recent developments in camera technology and computer software make it possible to record not only 360-

degree views of an entire scene but also to record 1 to 30 panoramas a second creating spherical panoramic

video. The process of recording 360-degree video is achievable with a spherical video camera. Panoramic

viewers; Panorama Flash Player, KrPano and Lucid Viewer based on Adobe Flash Player are supported by many

platforms: Windows, Mac and Linux. These viewers work with XML files (Kwiatek & Woolner, 2009).

Spherical video recording

Ladybug 2 and Ladybug 3 (Figure: 1) manufactured by Point Grey Research are 360º spherical digital video

camera systems that have six cameras that enable the system to collect video from more than 80% of the full

sphere, and an IEEE-1394b interface that allows streaming to disk at 30fps. While some computers may

provide a built-in IEEE-1394a port, 1394b ports are less common.

The 1394a interface lets a data rate of 400Mb/s. On the other hand, 1394b interface doubles the data rate of

800 Mb/s. Ladybug images are saved in sets of stream files that are written to the hard disk of the laptop at up

to 80 MB/sec.

To accommodate this input, it is recommended to use a laptop configured with striped disks, such as provided

by a RAID 0 configurations.

The Ladybug cameras require 8 -30 volts of power. (Ideal voltage is 12V.) Since the IEEE-1394b ExpressCard for

notebooks does not provide any power to the camera external power is needed.




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If the notebook computer includes a built-in 1394a port with 6 pins, or any 1394b port, power can be supplied

directly to the camera through the FireWire cable. Ladbybug 2 has 0.8MP cameras where as Ladybug 3 has

2.0MP cameras.

(a) (b)

Figure 1

(a) Ladybug 2 (b) Ladybug 3 spherical digital video camera system from Point Grey Research

Using LadybugCapPro software, GPS NMEA data can be inserted into Ladbybug images. The data can then be

extracted at a later time to generate HTML data as a Google Map or KML (KML is a file format used to display

geographic data in an Earth browser) data for Google Earth. So the user can see/follow the coordinates on

google map as s/he changes position in the movie (Point Grey Research, 2010).

Processing the video

Videos are saved in PRG format. Using LadybugCapPro software, the file is converted to AVI. Then the video is

encoded to FLV to display on the web browsers and to be able to create interactivity.

To create interactivity, XML tags are used and photo, text, image, sound files are embedded.

Spherical videos are displayed like in Figure 2 on standard video players. To display the spherical video in

three dimensions, special video players like Lucid Viewer video player software should be used. Lucid Viewer is

a 3D compositing engine for building interactive, immersive environments (Villmer, 2010). It supports both

video and image content and includes compositing capabilities for incorporating interactive objects.




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Figure 2

A scene from a standard video player

THE AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study was to create an instructional material about earthquake. Since researchers did not have

spherical video camera, movies were downloaded from the CNN, Immersive Media web sites. The software

used for displaying the videos and interaction is unregistered copy of Lucid Video Player. Lucid video player can

display spherical videos in spherical view different from ordinary video players. By facilitating XML tags,

interaction was created.

There are some Lucid viewer tags to create interactivity. The tags we used are:

� scene

� object

� overlay

� model

Scene tag

Scene tag was used to show immersive environment. Each scene is represented by a number, 1, 2, 3 etc. There

are some parameters used with this tag.

� file: Path to spherical image or video file

� name : Scene name

� bar: sets bar mode for science

� play: plays video science automatically

� loop: loop video science automatically




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Here is an example usage of this tag:

<?xml version = '1.0'?>

<lucid>

<viewer mouse="track" bar="true" tooltips= "true" toolpanel=""/>

<scene file="sahne1.flv" name="Deprem Sahne 01" play="true" loop="true" </scene>

</lucid>

Object tag

Object tag is used to show three dimensional elements placed inside spherical elements. Objects are added

before the </scene> tag. There are some parameters used with this tag.

� File : path to object (image, video, or flash) file.

� Scale: Object size

� Time: Object in and out time values in seconds.

� Text: Mouse over text, color. Color is optional.

� Glow: Object glow color (on mouse over)

� Focus: Camera pans to object at it's in time, on mouse over, on mouse click

� Scene: Load scene # (on mouse click)

� Link: Load URL (in -blank window or -self) or send e-mail

� Popover: Mouse over opens pop-up using image, video, flash or text file

� Video: auto-play, loop, auto-close video file

� Video-action : Performs a video related action upon mouse-down:

• toggle

• rewind

• back

• forward

• end

Here is an example usage of this tag:

<overlay file="resimler/deprem1.jpg" align="lb" x="" y="" alpha="" scale=".2" text="" glow="" blend=""

scene="" link="" popover="" popclick="" camover=""

camout="" camclick="" audio="" project="" video_action= "" scene_action= ""/>

Overlay

Overlays are two dimensional objects in a fixed position on the screen. There some parameters used with the

tag:

� file : Path to object image or flash file

� align: Overlay's screen location:

• lt : left top

• lm: left middle

• lb: left bottom

• ct: center top

• center: center

• cb: center bottom

• rt: right top

• rm: right middle

• rb: right bottom

� scale: Overlay size

� text: Mouse over text




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� focus: Camera pans to Object at it’s in time, on mouse over, on mouse click

� Load scene # (on mouse click)

� Load URL (in _blank window or _self) or send email

� Mouse over opens pop-up using image, video, flash or text file

� Video action: Performs a video related action upon mouse-down:

• toggle: Toggles video playback (play/pause)

An example usage from our study of this tag

<overlay file="resimler/depremNedir.png" align="lb" x="" y="" alpha="" scale="1" text="" glow="" blend=""

scene="" link="" popover="" popclick="video/deprem.swf" camover=""

camout="" camclick="" audio="" project="" video_action= "" scene_action= ""/>

The first video was thought as an introductory menu. There were links to the other videos, information about

us, to the Bogazici University Kandilli Observatory and Earthquake Research Institute (KOERI) National

Earthquake Monitoring Center (NEMC) web site (current earthquakes in Turkey), e-mail, staff, help and on the

bottom right of the screen to the Aksaray University web site (Figure3).

Figure 3

Introductory screen

When the user moves his/her mouse over the icons, a short description becomes visible. When the animation

pops up or the user clicks on the button on the screen, an earthquake animation (a flash animation file) is

displayed (Fig 4). The User can read, animate and replay this informative object as many times as she/he wishes

and anytime appropriate.




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Figure 4

Instruction screen

Using XML, different objects like videos can be embedded into the spherical video. In the example the New Bay

Bridge video was embedded (Figure 5).

Figure 5

Embedding another video

By the help of the interactive video (dragging, clicking, using embedded flash files, pictures etc.) user can

observe the earthquake better. The users can pause, rewind, play and inspect the very same environment from

different angles, and two more different videos about Poland Krakow and New York were also added. Watching

these movies, the users can imagine and compare cities, architectural differences and make assumptions what

may happen if similar earthquake happens in these cities.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATION

Using interactive spherical video for education is different from using traditional video or traditional interactive

environments. Viewers of panoramic video become virtual participants immersed in the observed scene,




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creating a new interactive dimension in the way people perceive video imagery within a “virtual environment”

(Pintaric, et al.,2000).

Traditional videos do not let users to view the environment from different angles and there is no interaction.

On the other hand, creating virtual interactive environments are expensive, time consuming and also it is

difficult to create environments which reflects the real world. Spherical videos have the advantage of reflecting

the environment as it is. It takes less time and effort to record. There is no need for an extra player or software

to display interactive spherical videos. Video files can be streamed over the internet or can be transferred using

flash disc, CD etc. Recorded spherical videos also can be used in 3d applications.

Embedding different objects (sound, swf, fla, text and video files, direct texts) transforms videos from passive

learning material to highly interactive learning materials. It is obvious that a user cannot walk or move to any

direction s/he wishes. But assigning appropriate keys and video files, the user can walk in permitted space and

direction. Flash files can gather information about the user and track his/her progression.

Shooting experiments, straining or real life actions using spherical panoramic cameras also help researchers to

investigate more deeply and controlled way. While shooting an action or an experiment using ordinary

cameras, researchers may miss an important scene. Since, spherical cameras record approximately whole

scene (more than 80%), recorded video can be investigated several times from different angles.


Emrah Emre OZKESKIN graduated from Foreign Languages Department of the Faculty of

Education of Çukurova University and received his master degree from Computer

Education and Instructional Technologies Department of the Institute of Social Sciences

of Çukurova University. Currently serving as an Instructor at CEIT Department of the

Faculty of Education of Aksaray University.

Emrah Emre OZKESKIN

Department of Computer and Instructional Technology

Faculty of Education


Tel: +90505.2541708

Fax:+90.382.2801180





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Assist. Prof. Dr. Tuncay TUNC graduated from Physics Education Department of the

Faculty of Gazi Education of Gazi University and received his master degree from

Physics Education Department of the Institute of Sciences of Gazi University and

received his Ph.D. degree from Physics Education of the same institute. He worked as a

physics teacher in high schools for 13 years. Later, he worked as an author and

commission chairman for science and technology textbooks in Republic of Turkey

Ministry of National Education for 4 years. Currently serving as an Assist. Prof. Dr.

Science Education Department of the Faculty of Education of Aksaray University.

Assist. Prof. Dr. Tuncay TUNC

Science Education Department

Faculty of Education, Aksaray University

Aksaray, TURKEY

Tel: +90506.5057102

Fax:+00.382.2801180


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