International Journal of Community Currency Research...money) flow out of a community, 2) show how...
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To cite this article: Masayuki Yoshida and Shigeto Kobayashi (2018) ‘Using Simulation and Gaming to Design a Community Currency System’ International Journal of Community Currency Research 2018 Volume 22 (Winter) 132‐144 <www.ijccr.net> ISSN 1325‐9547. DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.15133/j.ijccr.2018.011 International Journal of Community Currency Research 2018 VOLUME 22 (WINTER) 132‐144 USING SIMULATION AND GAMING TO DESIGN A COMMUNITY CURRENCY SYSTEM Masayuki YOSHIDA* and Shigeto KOBAYASHI** * Joetsu University of Education, Japan, Email: [email protected] ** Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Japan Email: s‐[email protected] Both authors contributed equally to this paper. ABSTRACT We position gaming and simulation as one method for designing a community currency (CC) that matches the local customs and institutions at the introductory stage and discuss the effects of this method by analysing the results of the attempts made so far. In order to learn the CC system and to promote common understanding among different stakeholders, we made The Community Currency Game (CCG). We implemented the gaming to the residents who were planning to introduce a CC into their town. In the gaming, participants’ attitudes towards the diversity of money were positively affected and they began to recognize that the social network created by CC is important to the region. We found that through the virtual use of a CC in gaming, it is possible to share knowledge of participants’ perception of the CC and their resulting behaviours and utilize this knowledge to discuss a fundamental aspect of the CC and its design. We constructed a computer simulation model based on CCG to identify the factors that promote the circulation of CC. We found that the purchase rates of the area within town increased within three parameters: the premium rate of CC, the proportion of the CC in salaries, and the probability of volunteers with CC. As residents began to offer discounts according to the premium rate of the CC, shop evaluations inside the area increased. Therefore, this policy stimulates the local economy. However, the cost of the CC issue increased owing to the premium. On the other hand, policies in which the resident agents’ salaries were paid with CC and volunteers were paid by residents with CC are sustainable. These policies do not directly stimulate purchases inside the town. However, the purchase rate of the area within town gradually increases with the ratio of the CC in salaries. Moreover, the probability of volunteers increases according to habitual use of CC, community‐oriented values, and the balance of CC. In this study, we found that simulation is an excellent method of presenting specific scenarios for a CC design based on the discussion in the gaming. Within the cooperative relationship between community residents and researchers, a method utilizing both gaming and simulation can be effective in designing a CC in the introductory stage, which until now, has been carried out on an ad hoc basis． This paper focuses on the diverse development of modern community currencies (CCs) in Japan and provides a classification of them by type. Modern CCs appeared in the early 1970s and since then various types have circulated globally. With the increase in CC practices, academic research into CCs has emerged as a growing area of interest. However, since CC systems are diverse, it is difficult to obtain a commonly recognized definition of CCs, or criteria for their classification according to their characteristics. Since this problem is shared even by international researchers, it has become an important issue in the field. In this study, we confirm the definition and classification of CCs by surveying previous studies on Japanese CCs. Furthermore, this paper reveals the reality of CC systems that continue to evolve through a process of development and decline, by looking back at their history. In order to explain the evolutionary process, we employ the concept of
Transcript of International Journal of Community Currency Research...money) flow out of a community, 2) show how...
Tocitethisarticle:MasayukiYoshidaandShigetoKobayashi(2018)‘UsingSimulationandGamingtoDesignaCommunityCurrencySystem’InternationalJournalofCommunityCurrencyResearch2018Volume22(Winter)132‐144<www.ijccr.net>ISSN1325‐9547.DOIhttp://dx.doi.org/10.15133/j.ijccr.2018.011
International Journal of
Community Currency Research 2018 VOLUME 22 (WINTER) 132‐144
USING SIMULATION AND GAMING TO DESIGN A COMMUNITY
CURRENCY SYSTEM
Masayuki YOSHIDA* and Shigeto KOBAYASHI**
*JoetsuUniversityofEducation,Japan,Email:[email protected]
**JapanAdvancedInstituteofScienceandTechnology,JapanEmail:s‐[email protected]
Bothauthorscontributedequallytothispaper.
ABSTRACT
Wepositiongamingandsimulationasonemethodfordesigningacommunitycurrency(CC)thatmatchesthelocalcustomsandinstitutionsattheintroductorystageanddiscusstheeffectsofthismethodbyanalysingtheresultsoftheattemptsmadesofar.InordertolearntheCCsystemandtopromotecommonunderstandingamongdifferentstakeholders,wemadeTheCommunityCurrencyGame(CCG).WeimplementedthegamingtotheresidentswhowereplanningtointroduceaCCintotheir town. In thegaming,participants’ attitudes towards thediversityofmoneywerepositivelyaffectedandtheybegantorecognizethatthesocialnetworkcreatedbyCCisimportanttotheregion.We found that through the virtual use of a CC in gaming, it is possible to share knowledge ofparticipants’perceptionoftheCCandtheirresultingbehavioursandutilizethisknowledgetodiscussafundamentalaspectoftheCCanditsdesign.WeconstructedacomputersimulationmodelbasedonCCGtoidentifythefactorsthatpromotethecirculationofCC.Wefoundthatthepurchaseratesoftheareawithintownincreasedwithinthreeparameters:thepremiumrateofCC,theproportionoftheCCinsalaries,andtheprobabilityofvolunteerswithCC.AsresidentsbegantoofferdiscountsaccordingtothepremiumrateoftheCC,shopevaluationsinsidetheareaincreased.Therefore,thispolicy stimulates the local economy. However, the cost of the CC issue increased owing to thepremium.Ontheotherhand,policiesinwhichtheresidentagents’salarieswerepaidwithCCandvolunteerswerepaidbyresidentswithCCaresustainable.Thesepoliciesdonotdirectlystimulatepurchasesinsidethetown.However,thepurchaserateoftheareawithintowngraduallyincreaseswiththeratiooftheCCinsalaries.Moreover,theprobabilityofvolunteersincreasesaccordingtohabitualuseofCC,community‐orientedvalues,andthebalanceofCC.Inthisstudy,wefoundthatsimulation is an excellentmethod of presenting specific scenarios for a CC design based on thediscussion in thegaming.Within the cooperative relationshipbetween community residentsandresearchers,amethodutilizingbothgamingandsimulationcanbeeffectiveindesigningaCCintheintroductorystage,whichuntilnow,hasbeencarriedoutonanadhocbasis． Thispaperfocusesonthediversedevelopmentofmoderncommunitycurrencies(CCs)inJapanandprovidesaclassificationofthembytype.ModernCCsappearedintheearly1970sandsincethenvarioustypeshavecirculatedglobally.WiththeincreaseinCCpractices,academicresearchintoCCshasemergedasagrowingareaofinterest.However,sinceCCsystemsarediverse,itisdifficulttoobtainacommonlyrecognizeddefinitionofCCs,orcriteriafortheirclassificationaccordingtotheircharacteristics. Since thisproblem is sharedevenby international researchers, it hasbecomeanimportant issue in the field. In this study,we confirm the definition and classification of CCs bysurveying previous studies on Japanese CCs. Furthermore, this paper reveals the reality of CCsystemsthatcontinuetoevolvethroughaprocessofdevelopmentanddecline,bylookingbackattheir history. In order to explain the evolutionary process, we employ the concept of
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“countermovement,”asadvocatedbyeconomicanthropologistKarlPolanyi.Basedonouroutcomes,wedescribethreestagesintheevolutionofCCs,whicharethereciprocalrealm,integrationbetweenthereciprocalandmarketrealms,andnewrealms.
KEYWORDS
gamingsimulation,multi‐agentsimulation,institutionaldesign
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ThisresearchwassupportedbygrantsfromFOST,JoetsuUniversityofEducation(ResearchProjectforYoungScientists),andGrant‐in‐AidforYoungScientists(B)GrantNumber25750122.
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1. PROBLEMSININTRODUCINGCOMMUNITYCURRENCIES
Sincethe2000s,manytypesofcommunitycurrencies(CCs)havebeenissuedandutilizedinJapan(Nishibe2013),someofwhichhaveencounteredsustainabilityproblems.Yamazaki(2013)reportedthatabout60%ofCCsinJapanwereterminatedorsuspendedbecauseofacirculationfailurewithincertainareas.SomearticlespointedoutthatCCsencounterseveraltypesofproblems.Sakata(2009)mentionedthatitisnecessarytobuildafundandhumanresourcesforaCCtosupportsustainableregionaldevelopment.However,Nishibe(2006)saidthatmanyorganiza‐tionsthatissueCCsaredependentonsubsidiesandvolunteerwork;therefore,theseorganizationswillnotfunctionefficientlyifsubsidieswerecutandthenumberofvolunteersdecreases.
However,CCsdonotcirculateeveniftheproblemoffundsandhumanresourcesisresolved.NakazatoandHira‐moto(2011)pointedoutthatCCtransactionsareconductedaspartofanorganization’spractice.Therefore,theorganization’spracticedecidesthemannerofCCtransactions.Konaka(2005),fromaresearchsurveyontheEGG—aCCimplementedintheEkimaeGinzaGenkiStreetinShizuokaPrefecture—explainedthenegativeperceptionofthisCC,andconsequently,theuseofEGGdidnotspread.Therefore,whenintroducingaCC,itisnecessarytocon‐sidernotonlyissuesoffundingandhumanresourcesoftheorganizationthatwillmanagetheCCanditscirculation,butalsoconsiderthesocialandculturalbackgroundofthetargetarea.However,inmanyareasofCCintroduction,itwasdifficulttodesignacirculationschemethatconsideredsocialandeconomicsystems,includingthecustomsandinstitutions,intheintroductionstage.However,itisalsofactthatresearchersandpractitionersareyettodevisemethodstodesignsuchacirculationschemeforCCs.WepositiongamingandsimulationasamethodofdesigningaCCthatmatchesthelocalcustomsandinstitutionsintheintroductionstageanddiscusstheeffectsofthismethodthroughananalysisoftheresultsofattemptsmadesofar.
2. PREVIOUSSTUDIESINCCDESIGN
Toresolvetheseproblems,itisnecessarytoestablishaplatformonwhichdifferenttypesofindividualscanuseCCsthatreflecttheirtradingsituations.LietaerandHallsmith(2006)focusonthepurposesofintroducingCCs.TheydefineCCsasallowing“localitiesandregionstocreaterealwealthintheirlocaleconomybymatchingtheunmetneedswiththeunderutilizedresources”(LieterandHallsmith2006,2).Theystatethefollowingstepsinestablish‐ingaCC:1)setcurrencyobjectives,2)choosetheappropriatecurrency,3)recruittheleadershipteam,4)choosetherightmechanisms,and5)establishacirculationsystem.Usingaworksheet,anorganizationconsideringaCCcansatisfythesepointsanddesignaCCsystem.However,sharingtheexperienceofusingaCCwithvarioustypesofstakeholdersisdifficultanditisnecessarytoprovidesuchsharingopportunities.
PowellandSalverda(1999)createdtheCommunityCurrencyRolePlaytosharetheexperienceofusingaCCwithparticipants.Theydefinetheobjectivesofthegameasfollows:1)createawarenessofhowresources(especiallymoney)flowoutofacommunity,2)showhowCCS(communitycurrencysystem)helpsplugsomeofthoseleaks,3)showhowpurchasingpowerincreasesthroughtheuseofCCS,4)demonstratethepowerofCCStocreateinter‐est‐freecredit,5)explaintheoperationofabasicCCS,6)createawarenessofhowacommunitycanre‐assessvalue(prices)withinthecommunity,and7)astartingpointfordiscussionsonwhetheraCCSwouldbefeasible/desirableunderlocalcircumstances(PowellandSalverda1999,3).ThismethodprovidesanopportunityofusingaCCandsharingthisexperiencewithparticipantsthroughdiscussions.ItisnecessarytoestablishtheCCsysteminadvance;however,severaltypesofparticipantsinthegamemakeitdifficulttosetpurposesforintroducingaCCS.Examiningthesemethods,wefindthatonefocusesonsettingpurposesforintroducingCCsandtheotheronunderstandingthemechanismofaCC.Theproblemseemstobethatthesemethodslackaprocesstosystematicallyincorporatebothpurposesettingandthelearningprocessandfeedbackoneachother’sachievements.Furthermore,itisnec‐essarytoincludenotonlyleadersbutalsovariousstakeholdersinvolvedintheCCsystem.WeconsiderthegamingsimulationsuitableforlearninghowtouseaCC1.Gamingsimulationis“ahybridform,involvingtheperformanceofgameactivitiesinsimulatedcontexts”(Greenblat1988,15).Gamingsimulationenables“anoperatingmodelofcentralfeaturesofelementsofarealorproposedsystem,process,orenvironment”(ibid,14).Furthermore,gaming
1 See Yoshida (2012)
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simulationissuitablefordesigningCCsandintroducingthemintocommunities2.Participantscandiscusscondi‐tionstoexamineforaCCtocirculatebasedontheresultsofthegame3.However,astherulesofCCsandtransactionsaredeterminedforgaming,itisdifficulttotransformthemintoreferencematerialswhensettingthedetailedpa‐rametersforCCdesign,whichmustbesetinadvance.ItisalsodifficulttodiscussandinvestigatethesustainabilityofCCcirculationfromgamingwithalimitednumberoftransactions.
Therefore,tosolvethesegamingproblems,weusecomputersimulationstopresentpossiblescenariosofCCcircu‐lation and investigate specific CC designs. Methods for analyzing and evaluating multiple assumed measuresthroughcomputersimulationhavepreviouslybeenusedinthefieldofsocialsimulation.Deguchi(2013)statedthatsimulationsarethemosteffectivemethodofinvestigatingtheinfluenceofparametersandtheevaluationsofvari‐ousoptions.Inaddition,Terano(2013)discussedsimulationsasamethodtodemonstratetheinitialandboundaryconditionsnecessaryfortheanalysisanddesignofsocialsystems.Inthisstudy,weconsidertheeffectivenessofsimulationandgamingastoolsforacommonunderstandingofthegoalsofaCCsystemandexplorepossiblesce‐nariosthatmightresultfromtheintroductionofCCs.
3. GAMINGSIMULATIONTOFORMCOMMONRECOGNITION
3.1 TheCommunityCurrencyGame(CCG)
TheCommunityCurrencyGame(CCG)isamulti‐player,face‐to‐face,analoggame.4 ThepurposeofthegameistolearntheCCsystem(howtouseaCC?)andpromotecommonunderstandingamongdifferentstakeholders(whatisthegoalofintroducingaCC?).
Themainrulesofthegameareasfollows5:
Determinefivetoeighttypesofresidentsinatown(businessperson,student,etc.);eachparticipantis
assignedoneoftheserolesandhastradingrecordsheets(seeFigure1).
Theparticipantsthrowadicetodeterminetheirtradeingoodsandservices.Whenparticipantsbuy
goodsandservices,theymustchooseashopwithinoroutsidethetown.Thepriceofgoodsandser‐
vicesinsidethetownishigherthanthatoutside.
Participantsfacesomeproblems(snowremoval,etc.),whicharedeterminedbythedice.Otherpartici‐
pantscanvolunteertohelp.Iftheyperformvolunteerservice,theirincomefromoutsidethetownre‐
ducestenpercentontheirnextturn,asthecostofvolunteerwork.Inthesesituations,theymust
choosetopursueeitherself‐interestorpublicinterest.
Thegameconsistsoftwophases.Thefirstphaseconsistsoftwoturnsandparticipantstradeonlywith
legaltender(yen)inthisphase.Thesecondphaseconsistsofthreeturns,inwhichtheytradewithle‐
galtenderandCC.Inthisphase,participantsmustdecidetheproportionofCCusedtopaytheselling
priceoftradedgoods.Further,participantsmustdecidewhethertoreceiveCCforvolunteerservices
rendered.
Weexplaintotheparticipantsthatthistownhastwobigproblems:thedeclineofthelocaleconomy,
2 SeeYoshida(2013),YoshidaandKobayashi(2014a),(2014b),(2015).3 SomeresearchershaveusedgamingsimulationtoinvestigatetheconditionsforthecirculationofCCs(HayashiandYosano2008).ThesestudiesnotedthattheeconomicdividewithinacommunityaffectsthecirculationofaCC.However,asCCissuerscannotoperatethiscondition,itisdifficulttoapplythesestudiesindesigningaCCsystem.WedevelopagamingsimulationtosearchfortheoperableconditionsthataffectthecirculationofaCC. 4 ThisgameisinspiredbyPowellandSalverda(1999)withasubstantialchange. 5 Fordetails,seeKobayashi,etal.(2013),YoshidaandKobayashi(2014a).
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anddecreaseinmutualaidinthecommunity.Wemakeparticipantsthinkforsolutionstotheseprob‐
lems.Asperthegamesetting,themoretheparticipantsuseaCC,theeasieritbecomestoresolvethese
problems.
Figure 1 Trading record sheets: employee
Figure 2 Situations in the Community Currency Game
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3.2Researchmethod
WeapplythegamingtotheresidentsofthreetownsinJapan:Iide,Tsubata,andNomi.WechoosethembecauseaCCisplannedforthesetownsinthefuture.IideisatowninthemountainousYamagataPrefecture.ThereareplanstointroduceaCCtopromotevoluntaryworkinagriculture.TsubataisasmalltownintheIshikawaPrefecture.TheintroductionofaCCisplannedtheretopromotevolunteerworkandrevitalizethelocaleconomy.NomiisatownintheIshikawaPrefectureandthereareplanstointroduceaCCtopromotevoluntaryworkincommunities.WeconductedthegamingonDecember4,2013inIide,onJanuary25,2014inTsubata,andonFebruary13,2015inNomi.InIide,12peopleparticipated;16inTsubata,and13inNomi.
Westudiedtwotypesofchangesinthegame.First,westudiedthechangesinbehaviorofparticipantsusingtheCC.Inparticular,wefocusedonchangesinpurchasingandvolunteeringwhentheCCwasintroduced.ThesechangeshelpedusexaminewhetherparticipantscanlearnusingaCC.Second,westudiedchangesintheirunderstandingofandattitudetoaCCduetotheirexperiencewiththegame.Wegatheredsurveydataonattitudetowardmoneyandcommunity‐orientedvaluesthroughpre‐andpost‐gamequestionnairesandanalyzedtheresponses.Wefocusedparticularlyontheparticipants’cognitivesocialcapitalandtheirattitudetowardmoney(Kobayashietal.2013).
Wehadtwotypesofdebriefingsinthisgame.Thefirstwasconductedafterthegaminganditsgoalwasforpartici‐pantstosharetheirexperiencesinthegame.EachroleannouncedtheirfinalbalanceoflegaltenderandCC.Then,theparticipantsdiscussedtheirexperiencesinthegameandtheirunderstandingofaCC.Thesecondtypeofde‐briefingwasconductedafteranalyzingthetradehistoryandpre‐andpost‐questionnaire.Inthisdebriefing,wefedbacktheseresultstotheparticipants.Aftersharingtheirbehaviorinthegame,theparticipantsdiscussedasuitableCCschemeanditsintroductionintheirtownorcommunity.ThegoalofthesecondtypeofdebriefingissharethevisionsofintroducingCCsintotownsorcommunitieswithseveraltypesofstakeholders.
3.3Designoftheworkshopusingthegamingresults
Thetradehistoryofthegamingnotedthat:1)theproportionofitemsboughtinsidethetownincreasedafterCCintroduction(Figure3);and2)therateofvolunteeringincreasedafterCCintroduction(Figure4).6 Fromthepre‐andpost‐gamequestionnaires,3)participants’attitudestowardsthediversityofmoneywerepositivelyaffected;and4)participantsbegintorecognizethemeaningofaCCnetwork(Table1).7
6 Fordetails,seeYoshidaandKobayashi(2014a),(2014b).
7 Fordetails,seeKobayashiet.al.(2013).
Figure 4 Volunteering rates
Figure 3 Proportion of buying items inside vs. outside the town
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Table 1 Changes in consciousness through the CCG
TheseresultssuggestthatthegamingdoesnotonlyteachparticipantstouseaCCbutalsochangestheirviewsonmoneyandcommunity.8 Indebriefing,participantscancreateacommonunderstandingamongmanydifferentstakeholderswiththeseresults.
Fromtheseresults,weunderstandthatalthoughwithinthevirtual‐spaceofgaming,therechangestobehaviorandconsciousnessoccurthattoacertainextentreflectcustomsinreality.GaminggivestheparticipantstheexperienceofusingaCCbypresentingtheresultsofthequestionnaireandmacrodata,suchastheirtransactionhistories.The
8 Infact,wefoundapositivefeedbackrelationshipbetweenusingaCCbyvolunteeringandcommunity‐orientedvalues.SeeSection4.
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circulationvolumesofthelegalcurrencyandtheCCarealwaysestablishedforadebriefingtoenableeachpartici‐panttoreflectonwhytheseoutcomesoccurred.Thismakes it possible tonotonlydeepen theparticipants’understandingoftheCC,butalsoforthemtodiscussCCdesignassumingamorerealisticimageofthelocalcommunity.
Weconductedworkshopsinanumberofloca‐tionstodesignaCCusinggaming.Forexample,inTsubata,9 various typesof stakeholders in‐volvedintheintroductionoftheCC(includingresearchers and members of the town hall,chamberofcommerceandindustry,andthesocialwelfarecouncil)participated,andwhilereferringtothegameasawholeandtheresultsofthequestionnaire,theydiscussedtheeffectofCCintroductionandwhatwasnecessarytocirculateit.
TheparticipantsexpressedpositiveopinionsontheCC,“usingaCCallowsustobecomemoreawareofthecommu‐nity,”andthat“membersofthecommunitycaninteractwitheachother.Itdevelopscompassion.Itleadstoem‐ployment.”However,theyalsoexpressedsomenegativeopinions,suchas“IdonotthinkthattendercurrencywillbeconvertedintoaCCandusedforpurchasesinthecommunityuntilafeeiscollected”and“IfeelthatitisgoodthatthecommunitywillberevitalizedbytheCC,butIalsofeelthatitsusabilityismadeworsebytherestrictionsandrules.”ThediscussionafterthegameconfirmedthattheCCistobepositionedasamethodtorebuildthelocalcommunitynetworkofmutualhelp,cooperation,andaidbyusingthefamiliarshoppingstamps,andthatitwillbeimportanttocollaboratewiththirdpartiessuchasthechamberofcommerceandindustry,townhall,andthesocialwelfarecounciltoconstructthecirculationsystem.ThroughthevirtualuseofaCCingaming,itwaspossibletoshareknowledgeonhowwe,andothersaroundus,perceiveCCsandourresultingbehaviors,anddiscussafunda‐mentalaspectoftheCC:howtodesignit.
However,thesameresultsmightnotappearforallcommunitiesintherealworld.ThenumberoftransactionsinthegamewasfiniteandtheparametersweresetassumingthattheCCwillcirculatetoacertainextent.Therefore,itisnecessarytodiscussandinvestigatethesustainabilityoftheCC’scirculationaftercomparingthegamesituationtotheactualsituationinthecommunity.
4. ComputersimulationforsettingtheCCscheme
4.1Thecomputersimulationmodel
WeconstructedacomputersimulationmodelbasedonCCGtoidentifythefactorsthatpromotethecirculationofCC(Kobayashietal.2012).Inthismodel,eachresidentagentinthetownprobabilisticallyselectsapurchasingshopfromthreeareas:insidethetown,outsidethetown(near),andoutsidethetown(far) (seeFigure5).Theirselec‐tionsareaccordingtothefollowingfivefactors(probabilities):habitualuseofCC,habitualuseoflegaltender,com‐munity‐orientedvalue,evaluationofshops,andthebalanceofCC.Theprobabilitiesofthesefactorsforeachagentcanchangedependingontheagent’spurchasingbehavior.
Eachshophasthreeelements:distance,price, andconvenience.Inthismodel,wesettheseelementsasfollows:
9 Weareinvestigatingtheuseofshoppingstampsissuedbythechamberofcommerceandindustryavailableasrewardsforvolunteers.Thebackgroundtothisinvestigation
arethetownproblems,suchasthedeclineofitscommercialdistrictandincreaseinthenumberofelderlywhorequireshoppingassistance.Theideaofturningtheshopping
stampsintoaCCwasputforwardasasolutiontotheseproblems.
Figure 5 Area Model
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Distance:inside<outside(near)<outside(far)
Price:inside=outside(near)=outside(far)
Convenience:inside>outside(near)=outside(far)
Undersimulationconditions,wecontrolledthreeparameters:premiumrateoftheCC,proportionoftheCCinsal‐aries,andtheproprietyofvolunteerswithCC.Weobservedachangeinthepurchaserateoftheareawithintown.First,wefocusedonthepremiumrateoftheCCbecauseahighpremiumratetendstoincreasethevelocityofCCcirculationandenhanceeconomicrevitalization.Second,wefocusedontheproportionoftheCC.TheproportionoftheCCpaidassalariesmaycontrolstagnationofCCinshopsandpromoteitsuse.Finally,wefocusedontheproprietyofvolunteerswithCCbecauseKichijiandNishibe(2012)indicatedthatCCconnectspeopleinadistribu‐tionnetworkandnotonlybythecommercialuse.WeanalyzedthepromotionofCCcirculationwiththecomputersimulationmodelinNagaoka.
4.2Causalloopoftheincreaseinpurchaserate
Inthesimulation,thepurchaserateoftheareawithintownincreasedwiththethreeparameters:premiumrateofCC,proportionoftheCCinsalaries,andtheprobabilityofvolunteerswithCC.However,themechanismforincreas‐ingthepurchaserateoftheareawithintownisdifferent(seeFigure6).
Thepurchaserateoftheareawithintownincreaseswiththepremiumrate.Inthiscase,shopevaluationsinsidetheareaincreased,astheyofferdiscountsaccordingtothepremiumrateoftheCC.Iftheresidentagentpurchasesinsidethetown,theevaluationofshopswithintownincrease.Therefore,thispolicystimulatesthelocaleconomy.However,thecostofCCissueincreasedduetothepremium.Therefore,thispolicyisnotsustainable.
Figure 6 Causal loop of the increase in purchase rate
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Ontheotherhand,policiesinwhichtheresidentagents’salarieswerepaidwithCCandresidentspaidvolunteerswithCCaresustainable.However,thesepoliciesdonotdirectlystimulatepurchasesinsidethetown.ThepurchaserateoftheareawithintowngraduallyincreaseswiththeratiooftheCCinsalaries.PayingsalarieswithCCincreasesthebalanceofCCandshopswithintownaremorelikelytobechosen.Inaddition,theprobabilityofhabitualuseofCCalsoincreases.Moreover,whenresidentspayvolunteerswiththeCC,thepurchaserateofgoodsintheareawithintownincreasescomparedtonotpayingvolunteerswiththeCC.Thechoiceprobabilityaccordingtothecom‐munity‐orientedvaluealsoincreases,asthecommunity‐orientedvaluesofresidentagentsdevelopbyprovidingvolunteers.Moreover,assomeindividualsreceiveCCthroughvolunteerwork, thebalanceofCCalso increases.Consequently,theresidentagentshavemoreopportunitiestochooseshopswithintown.Furthermore,theproba‐bilityofvolunteersincreasesaccordingtohabitualuseofCC,community‐orientedvalues,andthebalanceofCC.
Therefore,computersimulationshaveanadvantageinthattheymakeitpossibletoinvestigatehowresidentagent’sinternalruleswillaffectthecirculationoftheCCthroughthelong‐termtransactionsconductedinthiscurrency,andhowtheinternalruleswillthemselveschange.However,whileitispossibleforresearcherstoevaluateassumedscenariosusingcomputersimulations, the interpretationof thesimulationresultsbytheCCmanagementbody,whichformulatesandimplementspolicies,andbythelocalresidents,willbelimitedduetodifficultiesinunder‐standingthemodelitself.Inaddition,itisnecessarytoconductsufficientanalysisandimplementationtoconstructamodelthatincludesthegamingresults.Thus,itispossiblethatdesigningtheCCwillrequiresubstantialtimeandmoney.
Weconsiderthatgamedesignandimplementationshouldpromoteanunderstandingofthemodelitself.Gotoetal.(2014)developedandconfirmedtheeffectivenessofagamingsystemtoenablethesubjectstounderstandthevalidityofthesimulationmodelanditsresults.ThesimulationmodelthatweimplementfollowsonepartofthestructureofaCCgame;however,byhavingcommonalitytothesimulationandgamingstructure,itmaybepossibletoredesignnotonlythemacropartofthesimulationresults,butalsothepartlinkingthemacrotothemicrosothatitcanbeinferredbytheparticipants.Constructingamodel(Hishiyama,2014)thatfollowsamulti‐agentgamingframeworkthatcan instantaneouslysimulatethechangestotheconsciousnessandbehaviorsof localresidentsfromthegamingresults,itispossibletoshiftfromgamingtosimulationandacceleratetheanalysis.
5. SimulationandgamingasatoolforintroducingCC
AttheCCintroductionstage,theexperienceoflocalstakeholdersasparticipantsingamingcanbeusedtonotonlyobtainfindingsonCCmechanism,butalso—bycomparingthecirculationconditionsinthegamewiththoseinthecommunity—tofacilitateadiscussiononmattersthatarenecessarytodesigntheCC.Inaddition,theinteractionbetweentheparticipantsinthegameincreasesthepossibilitiesofobtaininggameresultsthatreflectthecustomsandinstitutionsoftheparticipants’communities.Researcherswhoconductgamingobserveandanalyzepartici‐pants’behaviorhistoriesandchangesinconsciousnessasquantitativedataandpresentthisdatatotheparticipants,whichmightenablestakeholderstolearnaboutCCdesignsthatreflectthesocialandculturalbackgroundoftheircommunity.
SimulationisanexcellentmethodofpresentingspecificscenariosforCCdesignbasedondiscussioninthegaming.Inaddition,utilizingtheparticipants’behaviorhistoriesandchangesinconsciousnessasdatatoconstructanagentmodelinthesimulationcontributestoincreasingthevalidityofthesimulationitself.Moreover,apartfromsimula‐tionmodeling,theycanbeusedtodesignthestructureoftheCCgameusingsimulation.WehavealreadyusedthesimulationtoadjustthebalanceoftheCCgame.Byusingthesimulationtoadjustthegameparameters(price,in‐come,etc.)inadvance,itbecomespossibletocreateagamethatreflectsthecirculationandtheincomestructureintheparticipants’actualcommunity.Thisnotonlygivestheparticipantsafeelingofrealitythroughthegame,butcanalsomakethegamingresultsmorecloselyresembletheactualsituationofCCintroduction.Thismethodcanbeusedtonotonlybringthegameclosertothecommunitysituation,butalsotocreateawarenessamongparticipants.
Asshowninthediscussion,withinthecooperativerelationshipbetweencommunityresidentsandresearchers,amethodutilizingbothgamingandsimulationcanbeeffectiveindesigningaCCintheintroductionstage,whichup
untilnowhasbeencarriedoutonanad‐hocbasis．
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However,thereareanumberofissueswiththismethod.Firstistheissueofvalidatingtheresultsofthegamingandsimulation.Particularlyingaming,theresultswilldifferdependingonthecharacteristicsoftheparticipantsandtheirfacilitation.Itisnecessarytodealcarefullywiththeinteractionscreatedbygaming,whichhaveahighdegreeoffreedom,andthescenarioscreatedbythesimulationresults.Onemethodtoaddressthisissueistocon‐ductadebriefingemphasizingthevariousinteractionsthatoccurredinthegamingprocess,ratherthanonthegam‐ingresults,andthenvalidatethescenariobydroppingthescenarioobtainedfromthesimulationevenfurtherintothegaming,andhavingthelocalresidentsplayagain.Therobustnessofthescenarioscanbeimprovedbyconduct‐ingadoublecheckthroughthesimulationandgaming.
Secondistheissueofwhetheracooperativesystembetweenthelocalresidentsandtheresearchersonthemethodofmanagement,thatis,theintegrationofthegamingandsimulation,canbebuilt.WhengamingandsimulationareusedtodesignaCC,itisvitaltohaveacooperationsysteminplacebetweentheresearcherswhoinitiatethemandthebodythatismanagingtheCC.However,whenintroducingtheCCthereisnotonlytheissueoftheschemeintermsofthecirculationpathwaysinthegamingandsimulation,butinmanycasestherearevariousotherissuesrelatingtothepeopleinvolved.Itwillbenecessarytosufficientlyinvestigatehowandtowhatextentresearchersaretobeinvolvedinbuildingthiscooperationsystem.
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