Intergroup relations and precursors of ethnic identity among immigrant children living in Italy

Intergroup relations and precursors of ethnic Intergroup relations and precursors of ethnic identity among immigrant children living in Italyidentity among immigrant children living in Italy

Ugo Pace – UKE, University Kore Enna – ItalyUgo Pace – UKE, University Kore Enna – Italy

Nationalism and National Identities Today: Multidisciplinary PerspectivesNationalism and National Identities Today: Multidisciplinary Perspectives

Centre for Research on Nationalism, Ethnicity and Multiculturalism (CRONEM)Centre for Research on Nationalism, Ethnicity and Multiculturalism (CRONEM)

12 – 13 June 200712 – 13 June 2007

Analysis of feelings and attitudes mutually developed by individuals Analysis of feelings and attitudes mutually developed by individuals belonging to different ethnic-cultural groups sharing the same living belonging to different ethnic-cultural groups sharing the same living spacespace

WHATWHAT factors can influence both self and others’ descriptions and factors can influence both self and others’ descriptions and the quality of interethnic relationship in a multiethnic societythe quality of interethnic relationship in a multiethnic society??

ISSUESISSUES

HOWHOW ethnic distinctions are employed in the process of adapting to ethnic distinctions are employed in the process of adapting to a multiethnic contexta multiethnic context??

Developmental and Social Psychologists tasksDevelopmental and Social Psychologists tasks

In order to answer these questions, it seems important to analyze In order to answer these questions, it seems important to analyze how, since childhood, feelings of belonging influence the individual’s how, since childhood, feelings of belonging influence the individual’s

identity, attitudes and social relationshipsidentity, attitudes and social relationships

In this perspective, the present study sought to examine how the In this perspective, the present study sought to examine how the objective ethnic belonging and the emergence of self-ideas wrapped objective ethnic belonging and the emergence of self-ideas wrapped

to an ethnic group membership influence the quality of peer to an ethnic group membership influence the quality of peer interethnic relationships interethnic relationships

PRESENT AIMSPRESENT AIMS

Ethnic Belonging, Ethnicity and Ethnic IdentityEthnic Belonging, Ethnicity and Ethnic Identity

Several studies on interethnic relationships in a multicultural society Several studies on interethnic relationships in a multicultural society have focused interest on two constructs referring to people ethnic have focused interest on two constructs referring to people ethnic

belonging: belonging:

EthnicityEthnicity Ethnic identityEthnic identity

In the early works, In the early works, ethnicityethnicity was defined as the objective belonging was defined as the objective belonging to an ethnic groupto an ethnic group

More recently, researchers have stressed the narrow meaning of More recently, researchers have stressed the narrow meaning of such a definition and have underlined that ethnicity can be such a definition and have underlined that ethnicity can be considered as something more than the simple ethnic belonging considered as something more than the simple ethnic belonging linked to the state of birth linked to the state of birth

Strictly related to ethnic belonging is Strictly related to ethnic belonging is ethnic identityethnic identity, defined as the , defined as the feeling of belonging to an ethnic group or as that part of one’s feeling of belonging to an ethnic group or as that part of one’s thoughts, beliefs, behaviours, attitudes and values which result from thoughts, beliefs, behaviours, attitudes and values which result from membership of such a groupmembership of such a group

In the course of development, individuals acquire a wider and more In the course of development, individuals acquire a wider and more appropriate awareness and, during adolescence, besides the appropriate awareness and, during adolescence, besides the achievement of a personal identity, all knowledge about the “Ethnic achievement of a personal identity, all knowledge about the “Ethnic Self” becomes part of a generalized representation of the self and Self” becomes part of a generalized representation of the self and enables the formation of a mature kind of ethnic identity enables the formation of a mature kind of ethnic identity

From an operational viewpoint, studies on influence of From an operational viewpoint, studies on influence of ethnicityethnicity or or ethnic identityethnic identity on psychosocial development are very different: on psychosocial development are very different:

Studies on influence of Studies on influence of ethnicityethnicityhave stressed the importance of have stressed the importance of

objective belonging on some objective belonging on some psychological, attitudinal and psychological, attitudinal and

social outcomessocial outcomes

Studies on influence of Studies on influence of ethnic ethnic identityidentity have stressed the have stressed the

importance of it as importance of it as developmental process, focusing developmental process, focusing

on its on its

precursors during infancyprecursors during infancy

the emergence of children’s ethnic identity can be inferred by the emergence of children’s ethnic identity can be inferred by criteria such as the type of self-description (Rotheram & Phinney, criteria such as the type of self-description (Rotheram & Phinney, 1987), the understanding of ethnic constancy across time and 1987), the understanding of ethnic constancy across time and situations (Aboud, 1984, 1987) and the use of ethnic group behaviors situations (Aboud, 1984, 1987) and the use of ethnic group behaviors (Bernal, Knight, Garza, Ocampo & Cota, 1990). (Bernal, Knight, Garza, Ocampo & Cota, 1990).

Self-descriptionSelf-description can be can be defined as the ability defined as the ability to select an attribute, to select an attribute,

such as descent or such as descent or kinship, nationality, kinship, nationality, religion, language, religion, language,

skin colour or group skin colour or group name, defining the name, defining the membership of an membership of an ethnic group in a ethnic group in a

particular mannerparticular manner

Understanding of Understanding of constancyconstancy concerns concerns the awareness that the awareness that one’s own ethnic one’s own ethnic

identity is constant identity is constant across time and across time and

situations despite situations despite external changesexternal changes

Use of ethnic group Use of ethnic group behaviourbehaviour such as such as values,values, styles and styles and

customs that reflect customs that reflect ethnic culture can be ethnic culture can be considered initially considered initially

determined by determined by family’s educative family’s educative practice and may practice and may

begin very early in lifebegin very early in life

Ethnic Belonging and Intergroup RelationshipsEthnic Belonging and Intergroup Relationships

Attitudes toward the ethnic in-group are generally positive and Attitudes toward the ethnic in-group are generally positive and comprise pride in and pleasure, satisfaction and contentment with comprise pride in and pleasure, satisfaction and contentment with one’s own group (Aboud, 1987; Phinney, 1990); they are commonly one’s own group (Aboud, 1987; Phinney, 1990); they are commonly defined as defined as preferencepreference, , ethnocentrismethnocentrism or or acceptanceacceptance – the second – the second particularly in studies involving Black subjects particularly in studies involving Black subjects

Attitudes towards other ethnic groups are generally negative and Attitudes towards other ethnic groups are generally negative and the term the term ethnicethnic prejudiceprejudice is often used to define them. is often used to define them. These two These two dimensionsdimensions are independent and are not as the opposite ends of a are independent and are not as the opposite ends of a continuum where preference for the in-group has, as its automatic continuum where preference for the in-group has, as its automatic consequence, prejudice towards out-groups (Aboud, 2003; Nesdale, consequence, prejudice towards out-groups (Aboud, 2003; Nesdale, 2004).2004).

??

Ethnicity and Ethnic AttitudesEthnicity and Ethnic Attitudes

First, belonging to an ethnic group means to share a common set of First, belonging to an ethnic group means to share a common set of beliefs, values and attitudes towards the own and the other ethnic beliefs, values and attitudes towards the own and the other ethnic groups groups

How could ethnicity affect ethnic attitudes?How could ethnicity affect ethnic attitudes?

Moreover, when the focus is directed to immigrant people, belonging Moreover, when the focus is directed to immigrant people, belonging to an ethnic group usually means belonging to a minority group to an ethnic group usually means belonging to a minority group within a larger culture (Rotheram & Phinney, 1987). The social within a larger culture (Rotheram & Phinney, 1987). The social status of an ethnic group is an extremely important variable in the status of an ethnic group is an extremely important variable in the quality of ethnic relationships: belonging to a majority or minority quality of ethnic relationships: belonging to a majority or minority group significantly influences feelings, beliefs and attitudes towards group significantly influences feelings, beliefs and attitudes towards one’s own and other ethnic groups one’s own and other ethnic groups

Ethnic Identity and Ethnic AttitudesEthnic Identity and Ethnic Attitudes

What kind of relationships does occur between subjective ethnic What kind of relationships does occur between subjective ethnic belonging and ethnic attitudes? belonging and ethnic attitudes?

Social and developmental psychologists have often related the Social and developmental psychologists have often related the expression of this kind of attitudes to self-identification phenomena. expression of this kind of attitudes to self-identification phenomena. In this way, Social Identity Theory (SIT) explicitly links intergroup In this way, Social Identity Theory (SIT) explicitly links intergroup bias to identification with the in-group and to self-categorizationbias to identification with the in-group and to self-categorization

Research examining the relationship between identification with Research examining the relationship between identification with cultural and ethnic groups and the formation of children and cultural and ethnic groups and the formation of children and adolescents’ ethnic attitudes in multiethnic societies has produced adolescents’ ethnic attitudes in multiethnic societies has produced contradictory results (Bennett, Lyons, Sani & Barrett, 1998)contradictory results (Bennett, Lyons, Sani & Barrett, 1998)

On the one hand, it has been found that national or ethnic On the one hand, it has been found that national or ethnic identification can be related to the preference for one’s own group identification can be related to the preference for one’s own group and to a less favourable attitude towards other groups (Verkuyten, and to a less favourable attitude towards other groups (Verkuyten, 1998); on the other hand, it has been underlined that identification 1998); on the other hand, it has been underlined that identification with one’s own social group is not always related to children’s with one’s own social group is not always related to children’s attitudes towards their own or other groups (Barrett, 2004). attitudes towards their own or other groups (Barrett, 2004). Barrett (2004) has provided a possible explanation for these Barrett (2004) has provided a possible explanation for these discrepancies regarding national identity. discrepancies regarding national identity.

Children, daily, have access to socially shared information regarding Children, daily, have access to socially shared information regarding social groups. The nature of this information is not neutral, but may social groups. The nature of this information is not neutral, but may contain evaluations and judgments regarding their own and other contain evaluations and judgments regarding their own and other groups. Therefore, in this way, children’s cognitions and attitudes groups. Therefore, in this way, children’s cognitions and attitudes toward social groups have, to some degree, a social origin, and result toward social groups have, to some degree, a social origin, and result from social influence processes from social influence processes Accessibility and use of ethnic labels constitute more than an Accessibility and use of ethnic labels constitute more than an individual difference variable, but it is also inherent in the culture of individual difference variable, but it is also inherent in the culture of the society (Verkuyten, et al., 1995) the society (Verkuyten, et al., 1995)

Goals of the ResearchGoals of the ResearchThe study was aimed at exploring the influence of objective ethnic The study was aimed at exploring the influence of objective ethnic belonging (ethnicity) and some precursors of ethnic identity on the belonging (ethnicity) and some precursors of ethnic identity on the quality of ethnic attitudes of Maghrebian and South-Asian children quality of ethnic attitudes of Maghrebian and South-Asian children living in Italy. Particularly, two kind of ethnic attitudes were living in Italy. Particularly, two kind of ethnic attitudes were considered: a positive attitude toward the in-group (ethnic considered: a positive attitude toward the in-group (ethnic preference) and a negative attitude toward the other groups (ethnic preference) and a negative attitude toward the other groups (ethnic prejudice). prejudice). As regards the influence of objective As regards the influence of objective

ethnic belonging on ethnic ethnic belonging on ethnic preference and prejudice, on the preference and prejudice, on the

basis of previous research performed basis of previous research performed with Maghrebian and South-Asian with Maghrebian and South-Asian children living in Sicily (Lo Coco et children living in Sicily (Lo Coco et

al., 2000, 2002), it was predicted that al., 2000, 2002), it was predicted that South-Asian children would show South-Asian children would show higher levels of ethnic preference higher levels of ethnic preference

than Maghrebian children but they than Maghrebian children but they would not differ with regard to the would not differ with regard to the

levels of ethnic prejudice levels of ethnic prejudice

With regard to ethnic identity, in line With regard to ethnic identity, in line with Social Identity Theory, it was with Social Identity Theory, it was

expected that a strong ethnic identity expected that a strong ethnic identity would be associated with higher would be associated with higher

levels of ethnic preference. Although levels of ethnic preference. Although results from the studies focused on results from the studies focused on this topic are often contradictory, this topic are often contradictory,

this prevision is supported by several this prevision is supported by several recent studies (Davey, 1983; Davey & recent studies (Davey, 1983; Davey &

Norburn, 1980; Nesdale, 2000; Norburn, 1980; Nesdale, 2000; Verkuyten, 1992; Verkuyten & Verkuyten, 1992; Verkuyten &

Neukee, 1999). Neukee, 1999).

MethodMethodParticipants Participants 95-second generation immigrant children (41 boys and 54 girls), 95-second generation immigrant children (41 boys and 54 girls), aged from 6 to 10 years old, were tested. The mean age was 8 years aged from 6 to 10 years old, were tested. The mean age was 8 years and 4 months. The children belonged to the two larger ethnic groups and 4 months. The children belonged to the two larger ethnic groups leaving in Palermo city (Italy): Maghrebians (including children leaving in Palermo city (Italy): Maghrebians (including children from Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) and South-Asians (including from Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) and South-Asians (including children from India, Sri-Lanka, and Bangladesh). They were drawn children from India, Sri-Lanka, and Bangladesh). They were drawn from three elementary schools situated in the historical centre of the from three elementary schools situated in the historical centre of the city. Children belonged to intact families with medium-low social city. Children belonged to intact families with medium-low social economic status.economic status.

Ethnic IdentityEthnic Identity

Ethnic Self-IdentificationEthnic Self-Identification. E. Each child was presented four boxes in ach child was presented four boxes in which photographs depicting the different target ethnic groups were which photographs depicting the different target ethnic groups were applied, and was asked “In what box would you put your picture?”. applied, and was asked “In what box would you put your picture?”. Use of Ethnic BehavioursUse of Ethnic Behaviours. E. Each child was asked six questions about ach child was asked six questions about religion, traditions, language, food, etc.. The child had to say the own-religion, traditions, language, food, etc.. The child had to say the own-ethnic group’s behaviours he/she generally used. The experimenter said ethnic group’s behaviours he/she generally used. The experimenter said the child “There are things that only a ............. (for example, the child “There are things that only a ............. (for example, Maghrebian) child do, and the other children do not do: which of these Maghrebian) child do, and the other children do not do: which of these are things that you do?”. are things that you do?”.

MeasuresMeasures

Ethnic AttitudesEthnic AttitudesPreference and Rejection toward Partners in Sharing ActivitiesPreference and Rejection toward Partners in Sharing Activities. Each . Each subject was shown some photographs depicting children (boys and subject was shown some photographs depicting children (boys and girls) of the four target ethnic groups and was asked (a) “With girls) of the four target ethnic groups and was asked (a) “With whom would you like ................ ? and (b) “With whom would not whom would you like ................ ? and (b) “With whom would not you ever like ................ ? Children had to answer to 4 questions. you ever like ................ ? Children had to answer to 4 questions.

Two total scores were obtained: Two total scores were obtained: - preference for ethnic in-group- preference for ethnic in-group, by summing the positive choices , by summing the positive choices addressed to the same ethnic group partners and addressed to the same ethnic group partners and - rejection towards the ethnic out-groups- rejection towards the ethnic out-groups, by summing the negative , by summing the negative choices towards the partners of ethnic out-groupschoices towards the partners of ethnic out-groups

MeasuresMeasures

Ethnic AttitudesEthnic AttitudesStereotypes TestStereotypes Test. In order to assess subjects’ attribution of traits to . In order to assess subjects’ attribution of traits to children belonging to the four target ethnic groups, each child was children belonging to the four target ethnic groups, each child was provided five little boxes, four corresponding to the four target provided five little boxes, four corresponding to the four target ethnic groups and one named “nobody”. The child was presented ethnic groups and one named “nobody”. The child was presented ten cards, each of them showing an adjective (five positives and five ten cards, each of them showing an adjective (five positives and five negatives) and was asked to put each of them into one of the boxes negatives) and was asked to put each of them into one of the boxes corresponding to the four ethnic groups. If the child thought that corresponding to the four ethnic groups. If the child thought that some adjective did not fit any ethnic group, he/she could put the some adjective did not fit any ethnic group, he/she could put the card in the “nobody” box. card in the “nobody” box.

Two scores were obtained: Two scores were obtained: -positive stereotypespositive stereotypes towards the ethnic in-group and towards the ethnic in-group and -negative stereotypesnegative stereotypes towards the ethnic out-groups. towards the ethnic out-groups.

MeasuresMeasures

Ethnicity and Intergroup RelationshipsEthnicity and Intergroup Relationships ResultsResults

South-Asian children preferred to share their activities with same South-Asian children preferred to share their activities with same group partners more than Maghrebians children. group partners more than Maghrebians children.

Table 1. Means (and standard deviations) of Maghrebian and South-Asian children on preference and rejection scores

Maghrebians South-Asians FPreference in-group

1.07(1.25)

1.86(1.54)

7.38**

Rejection out-group

3.16(.89)

3.22(1.00)

.10

** p<.01

South-Asian children showed more positive in-group and more South-Asian children showed more positive in-group and more negative out-group stereotypes than Maghrebians counterparts.negative out-group stereotypes than Maghrebians counterparts.

Table 2. Means (and standard deviations) of Maghrebian and South-Asian children on stereotypes scores

Maghrebians South-Asians FPositive stereotypes in-group

.86(.82)

1.44(1.36)

5.99**

Negative stereotypes out-group

3.39(1.20)

3.94(1.08)

5.53**

** p>.02

ResultsResults

Ethnic Identity and Intergroup RelationshipsEthnic Identity and Intergroup RelationshipsChildren were classified into two extreme groups for ethnic identity Children were classified into two extreme groups for ethnic identity on the basis of their ethnic self-identification and their score at the on the basis of their ethnic self-identification and their score at the Use of Ethnic Behaviours test. Children who choose an “incorrect” Use of Ethnic Behaviours test. Children who choose an “incorrect” ethnic group in the “Ethnic identification” test and contemporary ethnic group in the “Ethnic identification” test and contemporary scored below the 33th percentile in the “Use of Ethnic Behaviours” scored below the 33th percentile in the “Use of Ethnic Behaviours” test were classified as “weak ethnic identity subjects”. test were classified as “weak ethnic identity subjects”.

ResultsResults

Children who choose the “correct” Children who choose the “correct” ethnic group in the “Ethnic ethnic group in the “Ethnic

identification” test and contemporary identification” test and contemporary scored above the 66th percentile in the scored above the 66th percentile in the “Use of Ethnic Behaviours” test were “Use of Ethnic Behaviours” test were classified as “strong ethnic identity classified as “strong ethnic identity

subjects” (N=26) subjects” (N=26)

Children who choose an Children who choose an “incorrect” ethnic group in the “incorrect” ethnic group in the “Ethnic identification” test and “Ethnic identification” test and contemporary scored below the contemporary scored below the 33th percentile in the “Use of 33th percentile in the “Use of Ethnic Behaviours” test were Ethnic Behaviours” test were

classified as “weak ethnic identity classified as “weak ethnic identity subjects” (N=21) subjects” (N=21)

Table 3. Cross-tabulation between ethnic groups and children’ extreme groups for ethnic identity

Maghrebians(N= 24)

South-Asians(N=23)

Weak ethnic identity(N= 21)

15 6

Strong ethnic identity(N=26)

9 17

X2 = 6.30, df = 1, p<.01

Most of children with a strong ethnic identity were South Asians, Most of children with a strong ethnic identity were South Asians, whereas most of children with a weak ethnic identity were whereas most of children with a weak ethnic identity were

Maghrebians. Maghrebians.

ResultsResults

Subjects with strong ethnic identity preferred partners belonging to Subjects with strong ethnic identity preferred partners belonging to the same ethnic group more significantly than subjects with weak the same ethnic group more significantly than subjects with weak

ethnic identity.ethnic identity.

Table 4. Means (and standard deviations) of children’ extreme groups for ethnic identity on preference and rejection scores

Weak ethnic

identity(N= 21)


F

Preference in-group

.86(1.20)

2.35(1.44)

14.41***

Rejection out-group

3.43(.75)

3.35(.89)

.11

***p<.001

ResultsResults

Subjects with strong ethnic identity expressed more positive Subjects with strong ethnic identity expressed more positive stereotypes toward their own ethnic group than subjects with weak stereotypes toward their own ethnic group than subjects with weak

ethnic identity. ethnic identity.

Table 5. Means (and standard deviations) of children’ extreme groups for ethnic identity on stereotypes scores

Weak ethnic identity(N= 21)


F

Positive stereotypes in-group

.76(.77)

1.35(1.06)

4.50*

Negative stereotypes out-group

3.71(1.01)

3.92(1.20)

.40

*p<.04

ResultsResults

DiscussionDiscussion


South-Asian children displayed higher levels of in-group favouritism South-Asian children displayed higher levels of in-group favouritism and higher levels of negative stereotypes, but not rejection, towards and higher levels of negative stereotypes, but not rejection, towards the ethnic out-groups than Maghrebian peers the ethnic out-groups than Maghrebian peers

Growing up in Italy could be a different experience depending on Growing up in Italy could be a different experience depending on the ethnic group a child belongs to; particularly in Sicily, being a the ethnic group a child belongs to; particularly in Sicily, being a Maghrebian seems to be very different from being a South-Asian Maghrebian seems to be very different from being a South-Asian

Since centuries the relationships between Italian and Maghrebian Since centuries the relationships between Italian and Maghrebian people are common and frequent; this tradition of exchanges has people are common and frequent; this tradition of exchanges has made more and more similar behavioural traits, somatic features, made more and more similar behavioural traits, somatic features, life styles and the city planning of the two groups. life styles and the city planning of the two groups.



Differently, South-Asian children seem to prefer to establish Differently, South-Asian children seem to prefer to establish relationships with peers of their own ethnic group relationships with peers of their own ethnic group

On the one hand these they show a strong attachment to the group On the one hand these they show a strong attachment to the group and the ethnic dimension is very salient in their social preferences. and the ethnic dimension is very salient in their social preferences. On the other hand South-Asian children probably tend to consider On the other hand South-Asian children probably tend to consider in a negative fashion individuals who belong to a different ethnic in a negative fashion individuals who belong to a different ethnic group group



A strong ethnic identity was evidenced mostly among South-Asian A strong ethnic identity was evidenced mostly among South-Asian children than among Maghrebian ones. The clear-cut distinction children than among Maghrebian ones. The clear-cut distinction between South-Asians and majority group’s cultures, as underlined between South-Asians and majority group’s cultures, as underlined above, seems to lead South-Asian children to structure a stronger above, seems to lead South-Asian children to structure a stronger identification to their own group identification to their own group

In this sense the social context characterizing the encounter between In this sense the social context characterizing the encounter between minority and majority groups influences not only interethnic minority and majority groups influences not only interethnic relationships but also that part of personal identity linked to ethnic relationships but also that part of personal identity linked to ethnic belonging belonging

Children with a strong ethnic identity exhibit high levels of in-group Children with a strong ethnic identity exhibit high levels of in-group biases, measured by preference and stereotypes tests biases, measured by preference and stereotypes tests



Brewer (1999) has underlined how in-group favouritism could Brewer (1999) has underlined how in-group favouritism could represent such as an ancestral link that people feel with in-group represent such as an ancestral link that people feel with in-group membership, due to a real or just perceived relationship, that grants membership, due to a real or just perceived relationship, that grants individuals survival: in a developmental perspective, self-individuals survival: in a developmental perspective, self-identification, that is a very young children’s cognition acquired identification, that is a very young children’s cognition acquired around 3 years of age, could be the cognitive representation around 3 years of age, could be the cognitive representation associated to this feeling.associated to this feeling.



Rejection and stereotypes toward out-group are not correlated to the Rejection and stereotypes toward out-group are not correlated to the level of ethnic identity level of ethnic identity

Different studies have underlined that only in-group attachment Different studies have underlined that only in-group attachment emerges from self-identification process (Brewer, 1999), whereas emerges from self-identification process (Brewer, 1999), whereas out-group prejudice would implicate the ability of children to out-group prejudice would implicate the ability of children to transform a visual difference between them and peers from other transform a visual difference between them and peers from other ethnic groups into an evaluation (Aboud, 2003) ethnic groups into an evaluation (Aboud, 2003)

Intergroup relations and precursors of ethnic identity among immigrant children living in Italy

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