Interdisciplinary Research for Higher Socioeconomic Value ... · 3 Session 2. Forest utilization...
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Abstracts of International Baltic Sea Region Scientific Conference Interdisciplinary Research for Higher Socioeconomic Value of Forests June 10-12, Riga, Latvia
Transcript of Interdisciplinary Research for Higher Socioeconomic Value ... · 3 Session 2. Forest utilization...
Abstracts of
International Baltic Sea Region Scientific Conference
Interdisciplinary Research for Higher
Socioeconomic Value of Forests
June 10-12, Riga, Latvia
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"Interdisciplinary Research for Higher Socioeconomic Value of Forests", June 10-12, Riga, Latvia
Conference programme
June 10, 2013 Venue: conference hall "Berlin" in MARITIM
Park Hotel
7:30 Registration
8:30 Welcome, introduction, technical announcements
Session 1. Economic and policy aspects of forest management
Main session
9:00 Keynote Vilis Brukas. Socio-economic value of Forests: for whom and what for?
9:30 Kuc M., Piszczek M. Raw wood manufacturing and consumption changes and its influence on wood prices in Poland
9:50 Donis J. et al. Assessment of contribution of forest non-wood products and forest services to Latvia's national economy
10:10 Piszczek M., Jodlowska A. Revenues, expenses and financial result of hunting economy in Regional Directorate Katowice of National Forest Holding "State's Forests" in years 2006-2010
10:30 Baumanis J. et al. Economic aspects of game management in Latvia
10:50 Coffee break
11:10 Sadauskiene L. Accounting for forest assets: Lithuanian case study
11:30 Lazdins A. et al. Review of the national forest management reference level in Latvia
11:50 Spendel Z. et al. An impact of the Natura 2000 upon forest management planning and management practicing in Poland
12:10 Rendenieks Z., Nikodemus O. The influence of Latvian forest policy on state forest landscape structure on the turn to 21st century
12:30 Lunch break
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Session 2. Forest utilization and products
Main session
13:30 Keynote Andrejs Domkins, Uldis Spulle. Wood products' ecological, social and economic aspects
14:00 Rizhikovs J. et al. Isolation of suberinic acids from extracted outer birch bark depending on the application purposes
14:20 Vedernikovs N. et al. New pre-treatment of birch wood for bioethanol production
Shortened presentations
14:40 Pazhe A. et al. Selective solvents for extraction of triterpenes from Betula pendula outer bark
14:55 Puke M. et al. Influence of the amount of catalyst on the furfural yield obtained from birch wood during biomass pre-treatment process
15:10 Brazdausks P. et al. Influence of the amount of catalyst on acetic acid formation from birch wood in biomass pretreatment process
15:25 Coffee break
Session 3. Short-rotation and multifunctional forestry
Main session
15:50 Keynote Katrin Heinsoo. Short rotation forests in Europe
16:20 Daugaviete M. et al. Research of prerequisites for development of multifunctional forestry in rural areas of Latvia
16:40 Iordache E., Popa B. The investment opportunity in energetic wood plantation in Romania
Shortened presentations
17:00 Makovskis K. et al. Management plan calculations for short rotation willow plantations in Latvia
17:15 Rytter L. et al. Land areas available for future biomass production, current biomass production and its use in the Nordic and Baltic countries
17:30 Closing of day 1
20:00 Conference dinner in Old Riga
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June 11, 2013
Venue: conference hall "Berlin" in MARITIM Park Hotel
Session 1. Environmental services provided by forests: carbon, soils and biodiversity
Main session
8:30 Keynote Nicholas Clarke. Environmental services provided by forests - an overview
9:00 Lesinski J. Does sustainable forest management safeguard provision of all forest goods and services?
9:20 Brumelis G. Reconciling biodiversity with other ecosystem services in relation to drivers of biodiversity change along a boreal to temperate zone gradient
9:40 Armolaitis K. et al. Carbon and nutrient losses with biomass removal for bioenergy from Scots pine stands
10:00 Lazdins A. et al. Temporary carbon stock changes in forest soil in Latvia
10:20 Coffee break
Shortened presentations
10:40 Gudauskiene A. et al. Soil nitrogen in forest and agro ecosystems on Luvisols
10:55 Čiuldiene D., Armolaitis K. Soil condition in Lithuanian alien forest stands
11:10 Lazdins A. et al. Preliminary results of evaluation of carbon stock in historical cropland and grassland
11:25 Bardulis A. et al. Carbon accumulation in root biomass and root morphology aspects of young Scots pine stands in flat land of Zemgale in Latvia
11:40 Lunch break
Session 2. Environmental services provided by forests: increasing production
Main session
12:40 Purina L. et al. Quality and productivity of Scots pine plus-trees in Latvia
13:00 Jansons A. et al. Pruning effect on Norway spruce growth and quality
13:20 Neimane U., Jansons A. Environmental factors determining formation of lammas shoots in young stands of Norway spruce in Latvia
13:40 Jansons A. et al. Effect of climatic factors on annual height increment of Scots pine in experimental plantations in Kalsnava, Latvia
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Shortened presentations
14:00 Zeps M. et al. Within- and among-stand genetic diversity of common aspen (Populus tremula L.) in Latvia
14:15 Kanberga-Silina K. et al. Integration of genetic and physiological information for better understanding of wood formation of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)
14:30 Coffee break
Session 3. Recreational values as the main goal of forest management
Main session
14:50 Keynote Liisa Tyrväinen. Perspectives of recreation and nature-based tourism in Finland
15:20 Grilli G. et al. The economic value of recreation in mountain forests: a meta analysis
15:40 Jankovska I. et al. The impact of Riga urban forest management regime on visitors' economic welfare
16:00 Donis J., Straupe I. Assessment of forest stand visual attractiveness by students of different specialities
16:20 Pizika L. Recreational activities in natural landscape areas
16:40 Closing of day 2
17:30 Departure to Lāči bread bakery by bus from Maritim Park Hotel. Expected return to Riga approx.20:00
Poster session
1. Lazdins A. et al. Preliminary results of evaluation of area of organic soils in arable lands in Latvia
2. Sable I. et al. Hybrid aspen wood - precious raw material for products with high added value
3. Jansons A. et al. Environmental factors determining formation of lammas shoots in young stands of Scots pine in Latvia
4. Marozas V. et al. Changes of ground vegetation near nitrogen fertilizer factory
5. Paleja I. Tree trunk form dependance of the position of tree in the group of trees
6. Sasnauskiene J., Marozas V. Biological and chemical features of Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth. and Calamagostis arrundinacea (L.) Roth. in the non-clear cuttings of pine forests
7. Kondratovics T.et al. Methods suitable for mass-propagation of hybrid aspen: Implementation to Latvian forest management
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June 12, 2013
Full day scientific trip
8:30 Departure from MARITIM Park Hotel by bus.
10:00 Arrival in Skriveri dendrological park, short object introduction, walk in the park, discussion (Recreation, research)
12:00 Departure to the next stop
12:20 Short -rotation plantation near Skriveri, short object introduction, discussion (Agroforestry)
Coffee break in the plantation
13:30 Departure to the next stop
14:00 Lunch in the forest near Kalsnava
15:00
Walk in the research forests near Kalsnava, research objects, discussion (Biodiversity, recreation, research, education, production)
17:30 Arboretum in Kalsnava, short object introduction, walk in the arboretum, discussion (Biodiversity, recreation)
Coffee break in the arboretum
19:30 Departure to MARITIM Park Hotel. Expected return to Riga approx.20:30-21:00
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10.06.2013
Session 1. Economic and policy aspects of forest
management
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Keynote
SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE OF FORESTS: FOR WHOM AND WHAT FOR?
Vilis Brukas Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
Introduction: examining Lithuanian forest rotations
This contribution takes up the challenge to examine the phronetic premises for the leitmotif of the
conference, namely the “research for higher socioeconomic value of forests”. Expressed in simpler
terms, the paper will discuss the meaning and the purpose of researching socio-economic forest
value based on “practical wisdom” and examples from own experience.
More than a decade ago, back in times of my PhD studies, we examined effects of discounting if
applied in Lithuanian forestry (Brukas et al. 2001). Lithuanian forestry was and still is based on the
“management for volume” paradigm with the ultimate aim to achieve sustainable flow of timber.
This rests on two main principles. First, silviculture is focused on obtaining maximum timber
volume to be harvested during the final fellings, after a stand reaches minimum allowable rotation
age (MARA). The latter is defined according to the so-called technical maturity, i.e. the stand age,
at which the mean annual increment of sawlog assortments reaches maximum. The criterion is
applied taking average site conditions for a species. For example, MARA for Scots pine is fixed at
101 years in all commercial forests. Second, forest management planning is based on strict area
control, striving to allocate harvesting areas in equal annual portions.
Brukas et al. (2001) found that application of financial criteria such as net present values would
have tremendous impacts. Applying a discount rate as low as 3% would turn a lot of currently
middle-aged stands into “financially mature” forest harvestable by final fellings. Increased
harvesting levels in turn would make significant impact on the national economy during an
extended period of 1-2 decades. Adoption of discounting and diminished MARA’s would
completely change the “legally allowable” silvicultural playroom as for state forest managers and
private owners. Brukas et al. (2001) argued that the concept of the classical normal forest with equal
proportions of all age classes below the technical MARAs should be replaced by the concept of
sustainable normal forest. Under this concept, commercial forests would be harvested following
lower financial MARAs; and a significant share of forest is assigned non-commercial status. Such
non-commercial forests are grown for considerably longer rotations or set aside with the primary
purpose to produce other ecosystem services than timber.
Authors foresaw that a radical reduction of MARAs is unlikely at least in the short-term due to
professional traditions of foresters as well as the public opinion. On the other hand, this and other
studies demonstrated that even if applying technical maturity, site productivity has a significant
impact on the optimal rotation age. For a certain species, it can differ up to 30-50 years depending
on the site conditions. Any forest practitioner can easily see that on the most productive sites Scots
pine stand can reach optimal sawlog sizes in some 70-80 years, while 150 year might not suffice on
the poorest swampy sites. This is not a novel insight, differentiation of MARAs according to the
site productivity was proposed by Lithuanian researchers already in the Soviet era. It could be more
rational to apply moderated financial criteria or to at least differentiate the ages by site productivity
(or to apply target diameters) for a number of reasons including but not limited to: (i) importance of
profitability under market conditions; (ii) flexibility for forest owners and managers; (iii) necessity
to increase harvest for certain species in order to smoothen the currently highly uneven age class
structure. However, the modification of the MARAs has not been of the policy agenda in Lithuania
and it hardly foreseeable in coming years.
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Wicked versus gentle problems
When examining the socio-economic value of forests, we face issues that, by their complexity and
the nature of interests, could be tentatively grouped into two categories:
A. “Wicked problems” that involve conflicting interests and complex interdependencies. Referring
to our example, choosing financial versus technical maturity criteria is a wicked problem. First,
while it certainly leads to a higher financial value for a forest investor or owner, financial
MARAs are likely to lower environmental or recreational value, which might be of primary
interest for the general public. There is no way to say which rotation would be “best” in terms of
“optimally” balancing all the socio-economic values. Second, switching from technical to
financial MARAs in Lithuania would require a radically changed mindset as by the general
public, as by the influential cohorts of forestry professionals. It is not so surprising that such a
wicked problem is being avoided on the forest policy arena.
B: “Gentle problems” that can be resolved without causing major interest conflicts and where
science can prove with high certainty that alternative X is more valuable than alternative Y. In
our case, differentiation of rotation ages according to the site productivity is an example of a
gentle problem. MARAs could be differentiated while maintaining roughly the same average
MARA for a species. If politically necessary, we can still use the same criterion of technical
maturity. If is easy to proof that differentiated ages better fulfil the intended purpose; such
differentiation would neither cause major public outcries, nor require change of management
paradigms and professional norms.
Nevertheless, complications do arise even in case of gentle problems, e.g. if those in power are
indifferent or even do not wont to hear the truth. What could be the reason for not differentiating
MARAs in Lithuania, even though the country embraced market economy for more than two
decades ago? We can only provide some reasoned guesses. First, economic efficiency is not a top
priority for the Lithuanian forestry authorities and it is perceived to be safer to not even touch such
issues as MARAs. Second, in the current rigid system of area control, it is quite convenient to apply
one generic MARA per tree species. A planner simply divides the whole area (or certain age class
area) by the length of the rotation (or the length of the chosen age class) and easily obtains the
annual cutting norms. One can just run the algorithm keeping the belief in its magic powers to
achieve long-term even timber flow.
Implications for forest research
Implications are many but, saving the space, we can turn attention to two important aspects.
First, despite the tough odds, forest science should not avoid the wicked problems. Quite on the
contrary, an important mission of the science is to challenge “the establishment”, i.e. to question the
prevailing ideology, professional norms, and legislative requirements; and to put uncomfortable
questions and findings to the governing authorities. This of course might require strong guts.
Especially in small countries where everybody knows everybody, foresters being the members of
the cozy “foresters’ family”; or in countries with strong forestry hierarchies where “almighty
generals” decide on many things, including the bulk of forest research funding.
Second, when examining the socio-economic values of forests, the scientists should strive to be
explicit about the rationale, i.e. what is the principle motivation for examining the chosen socio-
economic values and from whose perspective are those values valued. Concomitantly the
researchers can demonstrate higher maturity by explicitly stating their own values underlying the
research question, rather than wearing the well-worn mask of neutral scientist.
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Main Session
RAW WOOD MANUFACTURING AND CONSUMPTION CHANGES AND ITS INFLUENCE ON WOOD PRICES IN
POLAND Maria Kuc, Marcin Piszczek
University of Agriculture in Krakow, Faculty of Forestry
The aim of this study is to introduce changes in raw wood manufacturing and their influence on
wood supply amount and structure as well as wood prices in Poland. The data from Central
Statistical Office in Poland applies to the period of 1990-2010, which has been analyzed in five-
year long terms. Reported prices are nominal (current prices). Rapid change of polish economy
from socialist-style planned economy into a market economy in the beginning of 90‘s and strongly
diversified inflation rates caused that affects on inflation in the period of 1990-2010 were
differentiated too much to compare constant prices from 1990-2000 with real prices from 2001-
2010. In 1990 inflation accounted for almost 600%. Next year it applied to 70,3% but only after
2000 it leveled off. Since 2001 inflation has been stable and accounted for approximately 2,5% in
various years (max. 5,5%). The data, which presents sale volumes and wood prices regards to the
values achieved by National Forest Holding ‘State Forests’, which harvested from 90,3% in 1990 to
95,0% of timber in 2010.
It is necessary to mention that wood market in Poland is not regulated by market mechanism. Some
serious formal and material limitations could be observed within this system. The first regulation is
providing by Forest Management Plan (FMP). Each forest district of Forest Holding follows this
document, which defines maximal wood volume which could be harvested in 10-year long period.
The second one is recommendation of Minister of Environment. It says that only up to 65% of
annual wood increment can be harvested each year. What is more in case of disasters, harvesting in
final cuts is limited because of increased fellings unplanned in FMP. Another point is that wood
import to Poland has been limited by restrictive fitosanitar demands till 2004. But not only legal
limitations in wood supply should be taken into account. Also wood structure is diversified.
Especially assortments structure depends on way of harvesting: within final cuts, thinings, early or
late cleanings (non commercial thinings) and site type of forest.
Considerable production growth of goods made from non-large-size wood is synchronized with
constant growth of medium-size wood supply and prices. Since 1990 production of particle boards,
fibreboards, paper and paperboars has dynamically grown. Production of wood pulp has risen in
the last 10 years as well. The most dynamic increase of production has been observed within
particle boards and fibreboards. Mostly it reached more than 30%. What is more, it accounted for
116,6% between 1990 and 1995 for particle boards and 107,7% between 1995 and 2000 for
fibreboards. Fluctuations in manufacturing of these goods in whole investigated period between
1990 and 2010 amounted to: 534% (for particle boards), 483% (for fibreboards) and 247% (for
paper and paperboards).
In relation to described production growth, which reflects demand, supply of relevant wood
assortments has risen as well. Positive dynamic of growth has been observed in supply of medium-
size coniferous and deciduous wood for industrial uses and fuelwood (coniferous, deciduous and
slash for fuel). Between 1990-1995 more dynamically increased prices of medium-sized coniferous
wood (935,3%). That time supply growth applied to 50,2%. It was caused by growing requirements
of pulp and paper industry. During this same period of time, prices of medium-size deciduous wood
rose only 284,9%, while supply growth increased 61,5%. In the period of 1996-2000 prices of
medium-size coniferous wood were constantly rising faster (23,4%) than prices of non-coniferous
wood, while its supply increased 66,0%. Prices of medium-size deciduous wood rose only 1%,
while supply accounted for 39,1%. Between 1990-2000 industry demand on medium-size
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deciduous wood was growing very slowly. Prices of this kind of wood were stable, and National
Forest Holding was looking for purchasers. Situation changed in the period of 2001-2010. Growth
of sell volume has fallen to 23,4% (2001-2005) and 19,6% (2006-2010) while prices of this material
has risen more dynamically: 20,3% and 40,3%. Supply of medium-size deciduous wood was
increasing slower: 19,4% (2001-2005) and 3,6% (2006-2010). On the other hand, industry
requirements for this kind of wood were getting bigger and bigger. That was the reason why prices
of medium-size deciduous wood has started to grow rapidly: 18,2% and 39,9%. Especially wood
board industry boosted the purchase volume. What is more, since 2002 this kind of wood has been
employed to energetic purposes in powerhouses. Another fact is that prices of alternative demands
(coal, gas and electricity) has risen in the period of 1995 so that wood started be a popular fuel in
polish households. Production growth of goods made from medium-size wood was higher than its
supply growth. Because of that purchasers had to compete, what caused significant increase of
prices of medium-size wood.
Supply of large-size general purpose coniferous wood was increasing slower than supply of
medium-size wood. It accounted for: 19% (1990-1995), 26,4% (1996-2000), 7,7% (2001-2005) and
19,0 (2006-2010). Demand on large-scale wood was increasing slowly, what was connected with a
scale of sawn timber production (the production was periodically decreasing). Because of that
prices has lightly increasing (max. 27,1%, 1996-2000), or decreasing (-1,9%, 2000-2005). Supply
of large-size general purpose deciduous wood in the period of 1990-2005 was increasing faster than
supply of large-scale coniferous wood. It applied to: 21,6 (1990-1995), 40,7% (1996-2000), 16,6%
(2001-2005). Between 2006 and 2010 it rose only 0,9%. Simultaneously the price increase (max.
17,3%, 1996-2000) was much more smaller than price increase of coniferous wood. It allows to
presume market interest in large-size coniferous wood was bigger than interest in deciduous wood.
Against a background of described changes in supply and prices of medium-size wood for industrial
uses, contrary trends could be observed within the large-size special wood. The sell volume and
prices of the large-size special coniferous and deciduous wood decreased. Special coniferous wood
supply decreased in 1995 4,6%, in 2000 27,9%, in 2005 13,3% (in 2010 was equal). Prices
decreased in 2005 16,3% and in 2010 1,3%. Deciduous special wood supply declined in 2005
16,1% and 2010 15,4%. Concurrently prices decreased 4,6% and 8,7%.
Conducted research allows to presume proportions of prices within different assortments that were
stable through the decades are dynamically changing now. The reason for that is considerable
growth of demand on medium-size wood. Till now, it has been relatively cheap and has been
employed to production of inexpensive fabrications. Nowadays, industrial process development
allows to produce goods made from small-size wood, even with drawbacks. Those products replace
goods made from solid wood. This process is observed mainly in building trade and furniture
joinery. Supposedly, further growth of demand on medium-size and slash wood will cause increase
of its price up to a point, in which products made from such kind of wood will be no more
competitive in relation to goods made from high-quality, large-size wood. Then the price of large-
size wood will grow faster than in the last 20 years.
Both in European forestry and polish forestry, monoculture coniferous forests are getting less and
less popular. In return, growth of broadleaf forests, resistant to biotic and abiotic disorders is
observed. Yet those forests are less productive. As a result, supply of deciduous wood will be
increasing, and supply of coniferous wood will be decreasing. Conducted research shows that
demand on medium-size coniferous wood was dynamically increasing, in turn demand on large-size
deciduous wood was lower than demand on large-size coniferous wood. If consumer (industry)
preferences is constant, prices of large-size coniferous wood possibly will be rising in the future.
Keywords: Wood market in Poland, wood demand, wood supply, wood price changes, sell volume
changes
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ASSESSMENT OF CONTRIBUTION OF FOREST NON-WOOD PRODUCTS AND FOREST SERVICES TO
LATVIA`S NATIONAL ECONOMY Jānis Donis
1, Inga Straupe
2, Ilze Jankovska,
2 Jānis Baumanis
1,2
1Latvian state forest research institute “Silava”;
2Latvia University of Agriculture
Forest covers more than 50% of territory of Latvia and it has significant economic, ecological and social
value. In earlier times with term `forest value` it was understood value of timber. Recently there is
increasing emphasis on non-wood products and services provided by forests.
Research was carried out within framework of the project ‘Additional research for the development of
integrated forest accounts model in Latvia` (Ministry of agriculture of Republic of Latvia). Goals of this
study were 1) to assess importance of non-wood products and services as well calculate contribution of
them to national economy of Latvia within framework of integrated environmental and economical
accounting for forests and 2) prepare guidelines for future assessments.
Importance of non-wood products and services and their contribution to national economy were
assessed in following steps: preparation of list of non-wood products and services, preparation of list of
criteria and indicators for assessment of importance of products and services to Latvia`s economy;
assessment of importance according to C&I.
List of non-wood products was made based on International report forms (SoEF - State of European
Forests, Enquiry on MCPFE indicators for SFM, IEEAF – integrated environmental and economical
accounting for forests); classifiers (CPA 2008 - Statistical Classification of Products by Activity; SEEA
2003 - Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting; CEPA 2000 - Classification of
Environmental Protection Activities and Expenditure; NACE 2.red - Statistical classification of
economic activities in the European Community); literature reviews, expert judgements.
For assessment of importance for national economy were selected following C&I:
Criterion 1. Economical importance:
• indicator 1. Volume of supply in pfysical terms;
• indicator2. Share of supplied product in the product group;
• indicator 3. Monetary value (per unit) and total;
• indicator 4. Demand for products;
• indicator 5. Influence on other sectors of national economy (e.g., manufacturing branches,
damage to forestry, agriculture, infrastructure);
• indicator 6. Legality of product supply.
Criterion 2. Social importance:
• Indicator 1. Number of inhabitants (percentage), which get private benefit from product/
service;
• indicator 2. Employment in production of product;
• indicator 3. Feasable threats to society (e.g., spread of deseases etc.).
Assessment of relevant sources of information was done in following steps:
• preparation of list of information sources: (government institutions which collect information
on nature resources; forest enterprises (forest owners); food production enterprises which use
forest non-wood products; enterprises purchasing forest non-wood products; non-
governmental organisations; public opinion poll.
• Assessment of availability of information and terms of use.
Elaboration of methods for information retrieval was done in following way:
• Assessment of methods (full inventory; statistical methods; expert judgement)
• Preparation of proposal for interviews:
• Public opinion poll CATI 1000 respondents;
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• Poll of public opinion of Hunter clubs and hunters (Postal poll 100 hunter clubs,
350 hunters);
• Government institutions;
• Enterprises and non-governmental organisations;
• Internet search;
• Expert judgement.
There were evaluated following groups of non-wood products and services:
• Groups of non-wood products (total and marketed)
Mushrooms, Wild berries; Sap; Ornamental products; Game meat.
• Groups of services (total and marketed)
Recreational services, Environmental services; Protective services; Other services.
Main results are summarized in Table 1
Table 1. Output related to wooded land by industry and type of output (million LVL)
Products Industries Total
output
by
product
Type of output
Forestry and products of
forest
Agricult
ure
Forestry
&
logging
Recreation
al, cultural
and
sporting
activities
Other
industr
ies
Market
output
Output
for own
final use
Other
non-
market
output
1 2 92
Products of forestry and
logging
Natural growth
Wood in the rough 0
Other forestry products
(1)
0
Forestry and logging-
related services
16.35 16.35 1.9 13.9
Afforestation and
reafforestation
0
Other services 0
Other products related to
wooded land
0
Agricultural products
growing in forests (2)
0
Meat, fur, skin from
hunting and trapping
51.1 51.1 7 44
Recreational services in
forests (3)
4.5 4.5 0.12 4.4
Other products (4) 25.54 25.54 1.94 23.6
Other products 0
Total output by industry 55.6 16.35 25.54 0 97.49 10.96 62.3 23.6
Proposal for information retrieval in the future is collaboration of Institutions of public
administration& Research institutions
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REVENUES, EXPENSES AND FINANCIAL RESULT OF HUNTING ECONOMY IN REGIONAL DIRECTORATE
KATOWICE OF NATIONAL FOREST HOLDING ‘STATES FORESTS’ IN YEARS 2006-2010
Marcin Piszczek, Anna Jodłowska
University of Agriculture in Krakow, Faculty of Forestry
The aim of the research was to state the amount and structure of revenues and expenses, unitary
revenue and costs as well as financial result of hunting economy in chosen forest inspectorates
managed by Regional Directorate in Katowice (a part of National Forest Holding “States Forests”)
in period 2006-2010. Only 9 of 38 forest inspectorates in Regional Directorate Katowice managed
hunting economy and those were investigated.
The financial data were made available by management of Regional Directorate in Katowice from
accounting files of forest inspectorates leading hunting economy. The data concerning the amount,
structure and hunted game was obtained form annual hunting plans and annual hunting reports.
Number of living antlerless deer as well as hunted game was evaluated in deer’s units (1 red deer =
2 fallow deer = 5 roe deer).
The area of 113 835 ha, divided into 16 hunting units, managed by 9 forest inspectorates was
researched. Hunting units were classified into 4 categories on the basis of: area, average number of
game and number of hunted game during passed three years, the share of forest area, quality of site
type of forest, occurrence of natural water and meadows. Three of researched hunting units were of
very high quality, 8 were good, 4 medium and 1 was of poor quality. Majority of hunting units were
covered by forests, only two were agricultural. The biggest hunting unit had an area of 20 840 ha,
the smallest 3 340 ha. Elk, deer, fallow deer, roe deer, wild boar, badger, raccoon dog, marten, red
fox, hare, pheasant, partridge, quail were common game in the investigated hunting units. Protected
species such as: European bison, wolf, lynx, beaver, otter, capercaillie, black grouse also lived on
researched area. The offer of hunting services offered by investigated hunting units was addressed
to Polish, as well as to foreign hunters by the hunting agency. A lot of hunters from Germany,
Switzerland, France, The Netherlands and Denmark had successful hunt in researched area. The
most favorite and common hunted game were: deer, roe deer and wild boar. Annual average harvest
of game in investigated forest inspectorates were1274 deer’s units in period 2006-2010.
Annual revenues of hunting economy in all researched forest inspectorates fluctuated from
2 833 630 PLN (2006) (691 130 EUR) to 3 657 160 PLN (2007) (891 990 EUR). Average annual
revenues in period 2006-2010 were 3 347 770 PLN (816 529 EUR) (in Regional Directorate
Katowice. Average unit revenues in individual forest inspectorates amounted from 16,87 PLN · ha‾
¹ · year‾ ¹ (4,11 EUR · ha‾ ¹ · year‾ ¹) to 47,11 PLN · ha‾ ¹ · year‾ ¹ (11,49 EUR · ha‾ ¹ · year‾¹), in
whole Regional Directorate Katowice – 29,40 PLN · ha‾ ¹ · year‾ ¹ (7,17 EUR · ha‾ ¹ · year‾ ¹) .
The sale of carcass was the most important revenue – 46,2% of total amount. The second place in
revenues structure had selling of hunting licenses – 42,2%. The rest 11,4% constitute other revenues
like: letting out hunting residence, fees for wounded game.
Total cost of hunting economy in individual years amounted from 4 406 030 PLN (2006)
(1 074 641 EUR) to 5 619 350 PLN (2008) (1 370 573 EUR), average was 5 254 010 PLN
(1 281 466 EUR) in all forest inspectorates in Regional Directorate Katowice.
Average unit cost in individual forest inspectorates fluctuated from 29,59 PLN · ha‾ ¹ · year‾ ¹ (7,22
EUR · ha‾ ¹ · year‾ ¹) to 61,85 PLN · ha‾ ¹ · year‾ ¹ (15,08 EUR · ha‾ ¹ · year‾ ¹), in whole Regional
Directorate Katowice it amounted to 46,15 PLN · ha‾ ¹ · year‾ ¹ (11,26 EUR · ha‾ ¹ · year‾ ¹).
The cost of forest stands protection against game’s damages had the highest importance in hunting
economy cost structure – 28%. Other important costs were: farmer’s compensation (17%), Forest
Service salary and cost of Forest Service transportation facilities (16%), making the hunting unit
15
productive and providing supplementary feed (16%), hunt organizing (8%). The lowest importance
had others costs (8%) and local community fee (1%).
The financial result of hunting economy in whole researched period was negative. The smallest
balance sheet loss took place in 2006 and the greatest in 2008. Only one forest inspectorate in one
year (2006) during whole investigated period had positive financial result. Average unit loss in
Regional Directorate Katowice in 2006-2010 amounted to 16,75 PLN · ha‾ ¹ · year‾ ¹ (4,08 EUR ·
ha‾ ¹ · year‾ ¹).
Costs of forest protection against game highly influenced the value of balance sheet loss. These
costs are variable and depended on size of area being reforested and fenced in a given year, as well
as winter’s fierceness. It is important to underline, that salary of Forest Service officers and cost of
Forest Service transportation facilities, systematically rose during the whole researched period. The
value of revenues had less influence on financial result. In 2007, when revenues were the highest,
the balance sheet loss was very similar to checked off in 2006, when revenues had the smallest
value.
Hunting economy in forest inspectorates of Regional Directorate Katowice (National Forest
Holding ‘State Forests’) in researched period was not profitable. It is necessary to underline, that
wildlife management in forestry is compulsory according to the Wildlife Management Act, the
Forestry Act and the Nature Protection Act. The duty of conservation and development of wildlife
population rests on forestry managers (forest inspectors) as well as hunting units managers
(gamekeepers).
The forest farm co- finance wildlife management by conserving and creating suitable biotopes and
by incurring extraordinary losses caused by praying game, as well as by incurring extraordinary
costs of forest protection against wildlife (e.g. fencing reforested areas).
After analysis of costs and financial result structure authors may declare that limitation of balance
sheet loss of hunting economy should be done by Forest Service maintenance (as cars, fuel,
personal salary) costs reduction. Also expenses on making productive hunting unit and providing
supplementary food should rise, which will reduce outlays on farmer’s compensation and cost of
forest protection against game.
Key words: hunting economy, revenues, costs, financial result, Regional Directorate of National
Forest Holding ’States Forests’ in Katowice
16
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF GAME MANAGEMENT IN LATVIA
Jānis Baumanis1, Inga Straupe
2 Jānis Donis
1
1Latvian State Forestry Research Institute “Silava”
2 Latvia University of Agriculture
Game management is a system that is aimed at a balanced use of natural resources not only by
engaging in acquisition of game products, but also ensures the permissible number of the game
animals and preserves the natural habitats of such animals. Hunting, as well as game management is
directly linked with other sectors of economy, such as forestry and agriculture, for instance,
unlimited reproduction of the game animals may cause significant damages to the aforementioned
sectors. Forests and forestry play an important role in Latvia’s economy; however, the concept of
“forest value” is often narrowed down to include only the wood, sometimes the concept also
includes the cadastral value or the market value of the land. The rest of the forest values, namely,
the non-wood forest values (such as ecological and social values) are often disregarded, since there
are methodological and practical difficulties in terms of determining the monetary value, in order to
compare the non-wood value with the value of wood and land. At different points in the history
there have been attempts to evaluate the volume and value of separate game-related goods and
services in Latvia; however, so far there have been no comprehensive studies covering the role of
the game management and its impact on Latvia’s economy. Such data would be necessary not only
to evaluate the impact of the game management on Latvia’s economy, but also to set appropriate
priorities in cases where game animals cause damage to other sectors of economy. In order to
evaluate the role of the game management in the national economy, lists of the game-related goods
and services have been drafted, sources of information have been identified to determine the
volume and monetary value of the goods and services in the 2009/2010 hunting season, as well as a
methodology has been developed to acquire the missing information.
As a part of the research the primary sources of information have been identified, such as the state
institutions that are required by the law to maintain information on game products and services,
companies that are engaged in buying and processing of game products, service providers, as well
as hunters and hunter organisations. In order to obtain general information on the types and volumes
of game products and services, questionnaires have been drafted and distributed among hunter
organisations (hunting clubs) and individual hunters. In order to acquire as unbiased information as
possible, (the questionnaires contain questions regarding economic and financial performance of
hunting clubs) the survey is anonymous.
Within the framework of this research a list of game products in Latvia has been produced. In
conformity with the preparatory guidelines for the report on the State of European Forests
(SoEF2011) there are the following game product categories in Latvia:
Game animals;
Game animal meat;
Hides, furs and trophies.
The product “game animal” includes several other products such as game animal meat, furs, hides
and trophies, as well as various game services. Therefore, the product has only been accounted for
in quantitative values, since it is impossible to precisely calculate the monetary value of the product.
Contribution to the economy can only be determined in terms of the hunted animals therefore, the
evaluation is based on the quantity of hunted animals.
The following list of game-related services has been compiled based on the official payments made
by hunters, as well as the services required to ensure appropriate process of hunting:
Rental of the state-owned hunting areas / Rental of privately owned hunting areas;
Issuing of the seasonal hunting cards/ Issuing of hunting permits / Issuing of the seasonal
hunting cards and hunting permits to foreign hunters / Issuing of trophy exporting permits /
17
Issuing of hunter’s certificates / Hunter’s examination / Examination of the head of the
hunt;
Training courses for Hunters (applicant’s) / Heads of the hunt;
Organising of the hunt for foreign hunters / Organising of the hunt for local hunters;
Administrative penalties for illegal hunting / Compensation of damages caused by illegal
hunting;
Feeding of game animals (costs of the feed and arranging for the feeding patches);
Measures aimed at prevention of damages (repellents, fences, sound blasters, removal of
beaver dams, hunting in the damaged areas etc.);
Hunting infrastructure (tree-stands, shooting lanes, feeders, areas of preliminary processing
of the hunted game);
Transportation costs (fuel and maintenance of the vehicles);
Retail trade of hunting equipment (weapons, ammunition, clothing);
Hunting sports services (weapons, ammunition, rental of shooting ranges);
Treatment of game trophies, taxidermist’s services, participation in game trophy exhibitions;
Keeping of hunting dogs.
It has been determined that the total monetary value of the game-related products in Latvia in the
hunting season 2009/2010 was 3.66 million LVL. The largest part of the total value is constituted
by the game animal meat (3.6 million LVL), a part of which has been sold for the total of 122
thousand LVL (76.76 tons), while the own consumption accounts for the total value of 3.5 million
LVL or 2.7 thousand tons.
The total value of game-related services in Latvia in the hunting season 2009/2010 was 18.86
million LVL. The total value is constituted by the following most significant services in terms of
their monetary value:
Services related to retail sales of hunting equipment: 6.7 million LVL;
Transportation services (fuel and maintenance of vehicles): 4.6 million LVL;
Costs associated with keeping of hunting dogs: 1.8 million LVL.
The total contribution of the game management to Latvia’s economy in the 2009/2010 hunting
season has been estimated at 22.5 million LVL.
In the future, by carrying out similar studies, information regarding the volumes and values of game
products and services should be obtained from the state institutions responsible for accounting for
the game-related resources, as well as by means of surveying the relevant service-providers, hunters
and hunting clubs.
Key words: game management, game products and services, economical impact, market value
18
ACCOUNTING FOR FOREST ASSETS: LITHUANIAN CASE STUDY
Liana Sadauskienė Institute of Forestry, Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry
During Soviet Union period all forests in Lithuania belonged to the state. After the independency
the forests were restituted only to private owners and only from 2004 it is allowed to buy forests for
companies. According to the Forest Law of Lithuanian Republic (2001) the state forest land and
stands are not accounted and their value is not included into balance (capital) of state forest
enterprises. Therefore the forest valuation and accounting have not traditions in Lithuania.
The purpose of this study was to analyse how do private companies account their forests and does
the forest value in the financial reports reflect the fair value. The companies having forests and
those one doing accountancy services were surveyed. The questionnaire with 19 questions was
prepared and sent by email to 45 companies having forests and to 40 accountancy companies. The
emails were sent on 15 December 2012 then repeatedly on 22 January 2013 and 6 February 2013
for those which did not answer. Total amount of questionnaires answered was 27 or 32 % from sent
ones, from this amount 7 accountancy companies answered that they have not clients with forest
ownership.
The survey results revealed that 41 % of companies have problems doing forest accountancy. The
main problem is how to calculate the right values for forest land and stands when there is only one
price for all property set in the transaction contract. The other problem was that there is a lack of
suitable national accounting standards (NAS). The most of Lithuanian national standards is adapted
International accounting standards (IAS). But in Lithuanian 17 NAS “Biological assets”, which is
national version of 41 IAS Agriculture, the questions dealing with forestry were dropped.
53 % of companies stated that 17 NAS “Biological assets” should be revised and include forests.
Now 82% of companies accounted their forests as Inventories. Only one company has stated that
the value of forests planned to cut during the current year is accounted in Inventories and the value
of other forests is accounted in the group of Property.
Usually forest value presented in annual financial reports is measured at its acquisition cost less
value of felled wood. That was stated by 82 % of companies. Only 18 % of companies declared that
they use fair value method to calculate forest value.
After the cuttings stand value is reduced by the cost of harvested wood, which is calculated
multiplying harvested wood volume by average price of one cubic meter of wood. Average price of
one cubic meter of wood is total stand value divided by the wood volume. That was stated by 82 %
of companies.
The statements presented above leads to conclusion that forests are not accounted properly and that
forests value in financial reports do not reflects their fair value. One of the possible alternatives to
improve the forest accounting in Lithuania is to revise 17 NAS “Biological assets” and start using it
for forest accounting.
Keywords: accounting, standards, forest assets
19
REVIEW OF THE NATIONAL FOREST MANAGEMENT REFERENCE LEVEL IN LATVIA Andis Lazdiņš, Jānis Donis, Līga Strūve, Daiga Zute
Latvian State Forestry Research Institute “Silava”
In 2011 Latvia delivered to UNFCCC secretariat Submission of information on forest management
reference level (FMRL) subsequently followed by the technical assessment of the forest
management reference level in accordance with decision 2/CMP.6 and its appendix II. Construction
on the FMRL including projections were provided by the Joint Research Centre of the European
Commission (JRC), based on elaboration of the results of independent EU modelling groups,
coordinated by the International Institute for Applied System Analysis (IIASA), assisted by the JRC
and funded by the European Commission Directorate General of Climate Action (DG CLIM). The
FMRL value of Latvia is -16 302 Gg CO2 eq. including harvested wood products (HWP) and -
14 255 Gg CO2, if instant oxidation method is applied to HWP.
During the review of the FMRL Latvia expressed concerns whether it is possible to address national
circumstances of Latvia’s forest sector at sufficiently detailed level, and particularly underlined
concerns regarding the future projections. During the review Latvia also noted, that the
methodologies of the greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory are going to be updated, particularly, all
carbon pools will be included into calculations and more conservative, species specific approach
will be used in the biomass conversions.
The scope of the presented study is elaboration of the updated national FMRL of direct and indirect
GHG emissions and CO2 removals until 2020, considering that forest management is following to
the currently applied practices and legal frame being in force until 2009.
Specific tasks of the study:
elaboration of projections of net annual increment in forest in Latvia of the base of
information provided by the National forest inventory (NFI), including historically, legally
and economically based projections of commercial harvesting;
elaboration of the model for calculations of the HWP transformations and net emissions due
to commercial forest felling;
recalculation of historical forest growth and net CO2 emissions due to forest management
since 1990, and elaboration of projections of the GHG emissions and CO2 removals due to
forest management until 2020.
Two methodological solutions were provided to elaborate the FMRL:
improved methodology of the GHG accounting in land use, land use change and forestry
(LULUCF) sector, including those carbon pools, which were not accounted in the previous
GHG inventories (dead wood and litter) and more up to date biomass expansion factors, but
keeping current increment and harvesting projections;
improved methodology of the GHG accounting in LULUCF sector and updated increment
and harvesting projections for 2012-2020, as well as recalculated GHG emissions and CO2
removals in LULUCF sector since 1990.
The NFI data (the first cycle and limited amount of sample plots to elaborate mortality equations
from the second cycle) were utilized to elaborate increment and harvesting projections. The
estimations were applied to each particular NFI plot (only full plots having 500 m2 area were
considered) and then recalculated to the whole country assuming, that each plot represents certain
area of the country. Nature conservation and other protected areas were excluded from the
calculation.
Two alternative management scenarios for the 100 years period were calculated using the “Forest
expert” (Meža eksperts) software tool:
1. all forests are harvested as soon as they reach maturity (final felling age), commercial felling
is done according to the best practice recommendations;
20
2. optimized scenario assuming that harvested stock of different tree species is balanced in
different periods (duration of the period is 10 years).
According to the 1st scenario remaining growing stock in forests in 2021 would be 326 mill. m
3,
extractable stock is 399 mill. m3, including 345 mill. m
3 in final felling and 54 mill. m
3 in thinning.
Area of the final felling – 1.1 mill. ha. According to the 1st scenario average annual harvesting stock
until 2021 would be 40 mill. m3, but area of final felling – 110 kha annually. In the next decades the
1st scenario provides considerably smaller annual harvesting rate (14 mill. m
3 in average), because
all over-mature forests would be regenerated before 2021. The 2nd
scenario resulted in more
conservative harvesting rate – 153 mill. m3 until 2021, including 128 mill. m
3 in final felling and
25 mill. m3 in thinning; remaining growing stock in 2021 in the 2
nd scenario would be 572 mill. m
3.
The total area of final felling in 2012-2020 would be 570 kha. According to the 2nd
scenario average
annual harvesting stock in 2012-2020 would be 15.3 mill. m3, and area of final felling – 57 kha. The
average annual harvesting stock in a 100 years period in both scenarios is similar – about
15 mill. m3 annually, because in case of the 2
nd scenario the program tries to extract all over-mature
forests in the last decade of the evaluation. The 2nd
scenario was used in the FMRL, considering that
it is more realistic from economical point of view.
The calculation model was elaborated, using Libreoffice software, to estimate the FMRL. The
model contains subsections for living biomass (gross annual increment of living biomass), mortality
(natural reduction of number of trees and decay), commercial harvesting (decay of harvesting
residues, fractions of incinerated and extracted biomass), harvested wood products (JRC FMRL
method, only locally produced HWP considered), emission from organic soils (mineral soils
considered CO2 neutral, except drained soils) and fire (incineration of harvesting residues and forest
fires). The model was recently extended with subsections for calculations of the GHG emissions
and CO2 removals due to deforestation (living biomass, litter, dead wood, soil) and afforestation
(living biomass, litter, dead wood).
According to updated methodology (keeping untouched increment and harvesting figures) the
FMRL in Latvia would be -10 828 Gg CO2 eq. including HWP and -8 731 Gg CO2 eq. considering
instant oxidation of HWP. However, this result were not considered realistic, because updated
figures of the NFI and recalculation of historical data demonstrated considerably higher increment
values. According to updated methodology and the activity data (increment, mortality and
harvesting) the FMRL is -14 928 Gg CO2 eq. including HWP and -12 458 Gg CO2 eq. considering
instant oxidation of HWP.
Obtained result demonstrates that the FMRL projections elaborated by the JRC overestimates the
net CO2 removals in forest sector in 2012-2020 making implementation of the FMRL very
challenging or even impossible without significant reduction of the forest management activities in
the country. It could lead in future to decrease of forest value and shrinking of forest industry
causing new wave of bankruptcies and growth of unemployment, especially in rural regions.
Therefore, it is very important to update Latvia's national FMRL using more accurate future
projections, historical data and calculation methods.
Keywords: forest management reference level, greenhouse gases, Kyoto protocol
The study is implemented within the scope of the National forest competence centre project
“Methods and technologies to increase forest value” (L-KC-11-0004).
21
AN IMPACT OF THE NATURA 2000 UPON FOREST MANAGEMENT PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
PRACTICING IN POLAND Spendel, Z.
1, Bodziarczyk, J.
2 & Lesiński, J.
2
1 Forest Management Planning and Forest Geodesy Office, Krakow, Poland
2 Institute of Forest Biodiversity, University of Agriculture, Krakow, Poland
Some 29 percent of the Poland’s area is covered with forests, of which some 84 percent are
managed by the National Forest Holding, while the remaining 16 percent of the forest area are
either under National Parks administration or are private or own by some municipalities,
communities, monasteries, etc. All State Forests districts (about 430) as well as forests of all 23
National Parks are managed according to the 10-years Forest Management Plans (FMPs).
Unfortunately, only some 20 percent of the forest area of other ownership is supplied with such
plans. FMPs are developed according to the legal act called Forest Management Manual, mostly by
the staff of any of twelve Forest Management Planning and Forest Geodesy Offices.
The Natura 2000 terrestrial network, consisting of SCIs (Habitats Directive) and SPAs (Birds
Directive) sites, when put together covers about 61 thou. km2, which makes about 19.5 percent of
the country area. The substantial number of these sites, covering roughly 28 thou. km2, is located in
the State Forests, thus almost some 37 percent of their area are subject of the biodiversity
maintenance oriented goals as expressed in the aforementioned Directives. Thanks to such
proportions, in any clashes eventually raised in connection with establishing of the Natura 2000
areas in Poland actually the State Forests managers and environmentalists used to argue with each
other, while the private forest owners remained almost uninvolved.
It has to be made clear that the establishment of the Natura 2000 sites in forest areas only slightly
affected the rules and procedures of the forest management planning in Poland. The reason behind
is that since the Rio Summit 1992, both forest management planning and management practice have
undergone a substantial adaptation to the contemporary, much less commercial than before,
expectations of the society. Including earlier separate Nature Conservation Programmes as an
integral part of the FMP for each forest district, is just one example with this respect. I has to be
also mentioned that a large scale inventory carried out in 2006-2008 on the whole State Forests
territory by some 700 State Forests managers, who have been trained and supported in the fields by
numerous scientists – specialists in specific issues, resulted in a rich and homogenous data base
(including maps) of species and habitats identified in the State Forests. It seems, however, that the
aforementioned inventory became a success story mainly by providing the involved forest
practitioners good knowledge on and better understanding of the nature richness characteristic of
each individual forest district.
The most important novelty connected with establishment of the Natura 2000 areas in forests
appeared to be the Strategic Assessment of the Forest Management Plan Effects against
Environment. It includes: agreeing upon the scope and level of the prognosis minuteness,
developing of the entire prognosis, evaluating of both the FMP and prognosis, and enabling making
possible evaluation of the whole Strategic Assessment by the society. The core of the Strategic
Assessment consists of: gathering information on which species and habitats have to be protected
and what silvicultural measures are planned in areas of their occurrence, analysis of possible effects
of these measures on species and habitats in matter, assessment of these effects, and revealing
possible management alternatives in order to minimize any adverse effects of the FMP on species or
habitats that otherwise might be badly affected. Both the FMP and Strategic Assessment are
developed by the same team of the forest management planners.
The newest version of the Forest Management Planning Manual demands including in the FMPs a
reliable information on the Natura 2000 areas and on the priority habitats outside of these areas,
allows distinguishing new forest compartments in places where the priority habitats occur, obliges
22
to adapt the forest management regime, and especially species composition planned for future
stands in a way enabling the maintenance of each specific habitat. Besides, an option of non-
intervention has been foreseen for the priority habitats being subject to periodical disturbances i.e.:
9180* Tilio-Aceron forests of slopes, screes and ravines, and 91E0* Alno-Padion, Alnion incanae,
and Salicion albae alluvial forests and for 91D0* Bog woodland occupying marginal sites. In spite
of the above, there is a lot of changes of lesser importance that substantially enrich contemporary
FMPs.
Keywords: Natura 2000 network, priority habitats, forest management planning, Poland
23
THE INFLUENCE OF LATVIAN FOREST POLICY ON STATE FOREST LANDSCAPE STRUCTURE ON THE
TURN TO 21ST CENTURY Zigmārs Rendenieks, Olģerts Nikodemus
University of Latvia, Faculty of Geography and Earth Sciences
Forest policy is expressed through legal acts and regulations by the Parliament and the Cabinet of
Ministers, for example, Forest policy of Latvia, Law on Forests and related regulations. Forest
management intensification in Latvia did not begin until 1991, when Latvia regained independence
and reintroduced market economy. Since that time, intensive harvesting, based on clear-cuts, has
quickly expanded and transformed the forest landscape. Forest policy has been changed several
times since, most recently in 2008 when the amount of annually harvested volumes was
significantly increased. Introduction of block cuttings in 2009 also impacted spatial properties of
forest landscapes.
This study analyzed the relation of forest policy decisions to the dynamics of clear-cut spatial
patterns and remnant forest matrix in state forest landscapes of four study areas in northern Latvia –
Salacgrīva, Staicele, Rencēni and Naukšēni. Study covered the period of 1988-2011 and was based
on stand-level forest inventory databases, provided by State Forest Service. The whole time span
was divided in smaller four-year sub-periods representing six different periods of forest
management intensity. FRAGSTATS and ArcGIS was used to analyze the spatial patterns of clear-
cut areas and remaining forest stands by calculating a set of landscape metrics, combined with
spatial analysis in GIS. The influence of forest edge created by clear-cuts was assessed in relation to
location of biodiversity values in woodland key habitats (WKH).
The increase of harvesting areas was observed in all study areas, similarly the decrease in remnant
forest patch proximity. The change of mean individual clear-cut size was less evident, but it had a
clear declining trend (decrease by 25-31%). Remaining uncut forest segments during the studied
time span gradually became more influenced by edges created by clear-cuts. The proportion of core
area decreased more or less at a constant rate, but mean matrix segment size decreased dramatically
in Salacgrīva landscape. Study revealed the presence of 368 WKHs within the studied landscapes
(245 with present rare species and 123 potential WKHs). In average 53 % of WKHs within the
landscapes were located nearby it or within the edge zone of 50 m from clear-cut made during the
particular sub-period. By number, density and biodiversity values WKHs of Naukšēni landscape
should be regarded as the most valuable regarding the conservation perspectives of an actual
biodiversity. High concentration of rare habitats and species are an evidence of more undisturbed
stands, which now are increasingly threatened by the influence of harvesting edges.
Study revealed the major increase in harvesting intensity after 2000 with the establishment of
coherent forest policy and management system in state forests. Study also gave an insight into
different effects of landscape configuration on their resilience against fragmentation. This work has
been supported by the European Social Fund within the project «Support for Doctoral Studies at
University of Latvia».
24
10.06.2013
Session 2. Forest utilization and products
25
Keynote
WOOD PRODUCTS' ECOLOGICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS
Andrejs Domkins, Uldis Spulle
Forest and Wood Products Research and Development Institute,
Dobeles iela 41, Jelgava, LV-3001
The growing use of timber as building construction material, is explained by high weight of other
kinds of raw materials, as well as willingness to reduce the negative environmental impact of
manufacturing and installation of these other materials that is often associated with their chemical
composition and increases the amount of emissions into the atmosphere. Also design of the finished
product is important.
Today the main topics in the field of research of wood products are possibilities for energy
reduction and use of renewable resources for wood products production, as well as research and
monitoring of functional andperformance characteristics, development of innovative wood products
and wood product joints. Invention of light weight panel with a trade mark Dendrolight is one of
the most distinguished wood industry innovations of the last decade. At present three layers cellular
wood panels have wide non-structural application. As usual every research has specific aim. In this
case aim of this research of wood materials with increased ecological value is the development of
materials and technologies for production of innovative self-supporting panels and elements of
timber cellular materials. The overall objective of the research is development of high ecological
value (HEV) timber materials which are used in constructions and living environment. At the same
time alsosocial and economic aspects of developed products are taken into account.
Acknowledgements This research was carried out within following projects:
1) “Elaboration of innovative self-supporting panels and building elements made of cellular
wood material” No. 2010/0248/2DP/2.1.1.1.0/10/APIA/VIAA/019 co-financed by the European
Union within the project framework of the European Regional Development Fund.
2) “Research of wood materials with increased ecological value” (No.L-KC-11-0004), co-
financed by the European Union within the project framework of the European Regional
Development Fund.
26
Main session
ISOLATION OF SUBERINIC ACIDS FROM EXTRACTED OUTER BIRCH BARK DEPENDING ON THE
APPLICATION PURPOSES Janis Rizhikovs, Janis Zandersons, Aigars Pazhe, Ausma Tardenaka, Baiba Spince
Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry
The research applies to silviculture and the utilization of wood material (bark) for obtaining of
triterpenes and saturated higher fatty acids, containing reactive hydroxyl and epoxy groups, which
are used to synthesize high added value derivatives for pharmacy, cosmetics, agriculture, the spirits
industry, emulsion production, the polymer industry, etc. Therefore, the application of the results of
our investigation has synergy with material science. The aim of the investigation was to increase the
utilization efficiency of birch bark and to inform the audience about the wide scope of high added
value products, which could be produced from this valuable raw material.
In Latvia’s plywood factories, along with veneer shorts, birch bark is burned up in boiler-houses for
steam and heat production. Silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) outer bark comprises 2.0% of the
veneer blocks’ mass. For producing 1 m3 of veneer, on the average, 2.7 m
3 of veneer blocks are
necessary, of which 28.6 kg is o.d. outer birch bark. If the plywood export was 246.1 thousand m3
in 2012, the total annual potential of such a valuable raw material can reach 7000 t in Latvia.
Besides triterpenes, about 45% of the outer bark mass is polyester - suberine, formed by higher
saturated oxyfatty acids with a unique and rarely naturally found location of functional groups in
the molecule. Simultaneously with producing 1 m3 of plywood, it is possible to obtain also about 17
kg of suberine from outer birch bark. Epoxy-hydroxy stearic acid or “HEPA” (18-hydroxy-9,10-
epoxy-octadecanoic acid), which comprises 27-28% of the total suberinic acids’ mass, can be
obtained by alkaline depolymerisation. HEPA is an interesting raw material for organic synthesis,
because it is encountered seldom in nature, and it is very difficult to obtain it synthetically. It can be
used as a starting substance of the fragrance ambretolide (oxocyclopentadec-10-en-2-one), with
application in domestic chemistry and in shampoo production.
Figure 1. Structural formula of 18-hydroxy-9,10-epoxy-octadecanoic acid.
The extracted outer birch bark, left-over from the isolation of triterpenes, was depolymerised in
alkaline (NaOH or KOH) solutions in water or an alcohol-water mixture. The use of different
alkaline solutions was determined by the necessity to preserve the reactive epoxy groups present in
the obtained individual suberinic acids. In the water medium, most of the epoxy groups are formed
by the hydroxyl groups at the C-9 and C-10 atoms. Two methods for obtaining of suberinic acids
were compared. Three parallel depolymerisation experiments were made for each method and two
parallel aliquots of each sample were analysed by triple procedures. The results represent the
average values of each experimental method, which do not exceed a 5% variation for both the
indices between the parallel aliquots and those between the parallel aliquots of the same sample. To
be acceptable for practical use, a method should be chosen, depending on the application purpose.
If it is necessary to retain epoxy groups or positioned hydroxyl groups in a suberinic acid molecule,
or isolated fractions of individual suberinic acids such as HEPA, certain pH and temperature ranges
are required, which certainly makes the process more complex and time consuming. However, the
O
HO
C (CH2)7CH CH(CH2)7 CH2OH
O
27
resulting products, namely, individual suberinic acids show valuable properties in the application
purposes related to organic synthesis. The fractionation of suberinic acids by sedimentation in
certain ranges of the solution pH made it possible to obtain suberinic acids with the HEPA content
up to 58% o.d. total suberinic acids (Table 1).
Table 1. Yield and properties of fractionated suberinic acids
pH of the
solution
Yield, % o.d. extracted
outer birch bark
Acid number,
mg KOH/g
HEPA content, %
o.d. total suberinic
acids
6.0 19.3 138.1 58.0
4.7 11.3 75.3 57.3
2.1 4.9 165.9 3.3
If it is planned to use salts of suberinic acids as an additive in surfactant compositions, or as a
component in an acidic form for polyurethane synthesis, there is no need to retain all functional
groups (hydroxyl or epoxy) during the preparation process. Therefore, also the technological
process does not require precisely fixed pH and temperature ranges. After the acidification of
sodium suberinates, it was possible to obtain a mixture of suberinic acids (45-50% o.d. extracted
outer birch bark) with the acid number 189.7 mg KOH/g and the HEPA content 21.1%. The mixture
of suberinic acids was successfully used as a hydroxyl groups containing component in
polyurethane synthesis. The obtained polyurethane foams showed very good mechanical and
dimensional stability properties, which can be developed into novel “green” composite materials
with tailored properties.
Looking for the utilisation of the process waste waters, the possibility of using potassium hydroxide
instead of sodium hydroxide in the neutralisation operation was envisaged. It may be advantageous
to use nitric acid in the acidification process, because then a potassium nitrate solution can be
obtained as a by-product and used as a fertiliser in gardening and floriculture.
Keywords: Birch bark, depolymerisation, suberinic acids, 18-hydroxy-9,10-epoxy-octadecanoic
acid.
The work has been financed by the European Regional Development Fund, contract No.
2010/0289/2DP/2.1.1.1.0/10/APIA/VIAA/058.
28
NEW PRE-TREATMENT OF BIRCH WOOD FOR BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION
Nikolajs Vedernikovs, Irena Kruma, Maris Puke and Prans Brazdausks
Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry, 27 Dzerbenes Str., Riga, Latvia
In the near future, due to the decreasing oil stock (Figure 1) [1], hardwood may be a real alternative
to oil as a raw material for production of motor fuel and chemicals. The problem is that hardwood
contains up to 30% of pentosans and polyuranides, and the main chemical product, which is
currently produced from pentosans and polyuronides, is furfural. The annual consumption of this
product in EU countries makes up 100 thousand tons, but 3 plants (Austria, Spain and Slovenia) can
produce only 7% of the amount needed for Europe. The rest of furfural is imported from China and
Dominican Republic.
Figure 1. Oil production worldwide ( ▬ ) and ultimate forecast (—),
including and excluding Persian Gulf countries
The new technology of furfural production from hardwood, patented in France, Italy, Japan,
Sweden, Germany, Russia and Latvia, was realized at 10 plants in 4 countries, with an increase in
the furfural yield by 30% on the average. The annual profit at 2 plants alone was more than 3
million USD. A license was sold, and contracts with firms of Slovenia, Hungary and Finland were
successfully performed.
However, the joint production of furfural and bioethanol was not possible because, at all known
technologies, 40-50% of cellulose destructed in the furfural obtaining process. This problem was
successfully solved, and the destruction of cellulose in our furfural obtaining process decreases to 5-
7%. That is why it is possible now to produce bioethanol from the lignocellulosic residue after
furfural obtaining [2, 3].
Furthermore, before determination of cellulose polymerisation step in lignocellulosic residue after
hydrolysis process we separate the lignin with Klason Lignin method. And degree of polymerisation
of cellulose was determining by, establishing the viscosity of the cellulose solution in cadmium
ethylene diamine and calculating the degree of polymerisation from the Mark-Kun-Hawing
formula. The average results of tree parallel analysis can be seen in Figure 2. Degree of
polymerization of cellulose in the lignocellulosic residue after furfural obtaining decreases to 300-
400. This makes it possible to decrease the temperature and to shorten the duration of the
lignocellulosic residue hydrolysis to obtain a glucose solution for bioethanol production.
29
Figure 2. Changes in the degree of cellulose polymerization
during the furfural obtaining process
On the basis of theoretical studies, a new technology including two-step hydrolysis of hardwood has
been developed. For the first time in the world's industrial practice, this technology of yielding
bioethanol and furfural has been realized with the annual capacity 11 million litres bioethanol and
4.300 t furfural. The degree of the raw material utilization has grown 3 times as compared to
furfural production alone.
Keywords: hardwood, hydrolysis, furfural, fermentable sugars, bioethanol.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was supported by the European Regional Development Fund project
(No.2010/0288/2DP/2.1.1.1.0/10/APIA/VIAA/038)
References:
1. Kerr R. A. (1998): The Next Oil Crisis Looms Large and Perhaps Close. Science, vol.281, pp.
1128 – 1131.
2. Vedernikov N. A. (2008): Method for furfural and bioethanol common production. Latvian
patent No. 13676.
3. Vedernikov N., Puke M., Kruma I.: Furfural and Bioethanol Production From Hardwood and
Agricultural Waste. Renewable Energy Resources, Production and Technologies, In: 5th
UEAA
General Assembly and the Associated Workshop. - Riga, Latvia, 2008, pp. 176-191.
30
R= CH3 Lupeol
R = CH2OH Betulin
R = COOH Betulinic acid
Shortened presentations
SELECTIVE SOLVENTS FOR EXTRACTION OF TRITERPENES FROM BETULA PENDULA OUTER BARK
Aigars Pazhe, Janis Zandersons, Janis Rizhikovs, Galina Dobele, Vilhelmine Jurkjane,
Baiba Spince
Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry
The volume of birch plywood production in Latvia is illustrated by the 208 000 m3 of plywood sold
in 2011 and about 562 000 m3 of processed birch veneer blocks. Wood residues such as bark, veneer
shorts, cut off ends and others are used as a fuel. It would be more expedient to increase the birch
wood utilisation degree by involving also birch outer bark in the processing cycle. It makes up 2%
of the veneer blocks’ mass. At the J.S.C. “Latvijas Finieris”, about 6000 t per year of graded and
milled outer birch bark could be produced for further processing. Birch outer bark consists of
triterpenes, suberine, lignin and sugars, the content of which is ~35%, ~45%, ~9% and ~6%,
respectively. The content of lupane type pentacyclic triterpenes in Latvian silver birch (Betula
pendula Roth.) and downy birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) outer bark is among the highest ones for
the species. The main components of the triterpene mixture are betulin, lupeol and betulinic acid
(Figure 1), which are characterised by a poor solubility in organic solvents.
Birch outer bark and its extracts have been used in folk medicine for ages. Nowadays, interest in
triterpene derivatives, especially those of betulin, is increasing, since they are promising
biologically active substances for treatment of cancer, HIV, obesity, the herpes virus and other
diseases.
In the most popular methods for triterpene extraction from outer birch bark, polar solvents such as
ethanol and isopropanol or acetone are used. Unfortunately, these solvents, along with triterpenes,
dissolve polyphenols, tannins, carbohydrates and other components of outer birch bark. The
subsequent purification of extractives by recrystallisation is connected with the additional
consumption of the solvent and losses of both the end product and the solvent. These operations are
also labour-consuming.
Table 1. Results of 3-h intense extraction of outer birch bark.
*The composition of the joint extract is given
To obtain extractives with the maximum content of triterpenes, selective solvents should be chosen,
which dissolve triterpenes, but minimise the solubility of the undesired admixtures and, according
to the directive of the European Medicines Agency regarding the solvent residues in preparations,
would be permissible for obtaining pharmaceutical raw materials.
Solvents Yield of extractives Compositions of
crystals
Joint
extract-
ives
Crystali-
sed
extract-
ives
Betulin Lupeol
% o.d. outer birch
bark
% o.d. crystals
Ethanol* 33.34 - 64.76 8.73
Cyclohexane 13.18 6.07 90.85 5.02
Petroleum ether
90-100ºC 5.20 1.80 90.11 8.11
Petroleum ether
100-140ºC 10.63 6.27 91.60 6.15 Figure 1. Chemical structure
lupane type pentacyclic
triterpenes*
31
Based on the available information, we have chosen cyclohexane (CH) and petroleum ethers with a
boiling temperature of 100-140ºC (PE 140) for the experiments. The triterpenes’ solubility in such
solvents is improved by elevating temperature, but at the same time, the poor solubility of
admixtures is maintained.
Outer birch bark was milled, pelletised and crushed to prepare particles measuring 0.4-1.0 mm, used
for the extraction. In the Soxhlet apparatus, the yield of extractives after 33 h of extraction with
hydrocarbons was modest, namely, 28.4% and 17.4% on the o.d. birch bark mass basis for CH and
PE 140, respectively. Such a result showed the inefficiency of the stationary maceration type
extraction. Therefore, we have devised an intensive mass exchange extraction apparatus with the
possibility to shorten the extraction time and to obtain partially purified crystalline triterpenes with
a high content of betulin.
Table 2. Progress of the intense extraction of triterpenes with petroleum ether at 100-140ºC
and the accumulation of tannins in leftover extractives in the bulk of leached bark
Duration of
extraction, h
Leftover
extractives, %
o.d. bark
Triterpenes in leftover extractives Amount of tannins*, %
o.d. extractives Betulin Lupeol
% o.d. extractives
0 30.5 75.80 6.90 9.56
1 23.6 50.51 4.63 19.50
2 15.8 38.12 2.19 20.37
3 13.5 22.51 0.99 23.85
4 12.1 21.14 0.79 24.18
5 10.2 11.54 0.56 25.03
6 10.0 11.27 Trace 28.11
7 9.3 8.82 Trace 29.84
* Tannins calculated as tannic acid
The apparatus makes it possible, in a short period of time, to isolate a considerable amount of
extractives (Table 1). The extracts were analysed by gas chromatography. Two parallel aliquots of
each extract were analysed by triple injections. The gas chromatography analysis results shown in
Table 1 are average values, obtained from aliquots’ injections and separate extracts’ aliquots, for
which the mutual variation is less than 5%. The intensity of the extraction with ethanol is very high,
but the extracts, together with triterpenes, contain also coloured admixtures, and freeing from them
is a labour-consuming procedure, connected with losses of crystalline triterpenes and the solvent.
The intensive progress of the extraction with PE 140 and the gradual accumulation of the
admixtures in the extracted outer bark are shown in Table 2. It can be seen that, along with the
decrease in the amount of extractives in the extracted outer bark, the concentration of the remaining
triterpenes in the extract also decreases. At the same time, the content of polyphenols, the
concentration of which is characterised by the quantitatively determined amount of tannic acid in
the extractives remaining in outer bark, also increases. The data shown in Table 2 readily illustrate
the selectivity of PE 140 as a solvent relative to pentacyclic triterpenes. Taking into account the
directives of the European Medicines Agency, the recommended extractives for birch outer bark
triterpenes’ extraction could be carbohydrate solvents with boiling temperature in the range of 100-
180ºC, because their selectivity is appropriate and they do not contain aromatic carbohydrates,
which are more difficult to purify from the crystalline product.
Keywords: birch outer bark, triterpenes, extraction, hydrocarbons.
The work has been financed by the European Regional Development Fund, contract No.
2010/0289/2DP/2.1.1.1.0/10/APIA/VIAA/058.
32
INFLUENCE OF THE AMOUNT OF CATALYST ON THE FURFURAL YIELD OBTAINED FROM BIRCH WOOD
DURING BIOMASS PRE-TREATMENT PROCESS Maris Puke, Nikolajs Vedernikovs, Irena Kruma and Prans Brazdausks
Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry, Laboratory of Polysaccharides
Biomass pre-treatment process most commonly means hydrolysis of hemicelluloses and lignin
removal from cellulose. Pretreatment process is one of the most important stages of bioethanol
extraction, where mechanical and chemical structure of biomass cell wall is changed, as well as
makes it easier to convert to bioethanol in further processing.
Acid hydrolysis was used for hemicelluloses secession from birch wood, which can be considered
as one of the most promising biomass pretreatment methods. Birch wood was used as the raw
material for obtaining of lignocellulosic material, because it is one of the most widespread tree
species in Latvia and has high content of cellulose (~45%, calculated from oven dried wood
(o.d.w.)) and hemicellulose (~28%, calculated from o.d.w.).
During the study, the variable technological parameter of hydrolysis process was the amount of
catalyst solution, which was in the range of 1.5 to 4.0% calculated from o.d.w. While other
technological parameters of hydrolysis process (sulphuric acid solution concentration, process
temperature and treatment time) were constant.
Three parallel hydrolysis experiments were made for each sample. The results represent the average
values of each hydrolysis experiment, which do not exceed a 0.01% variation between the parallel
experiments. Gas chromatography method was used to study influence of the amount of catalyst on
the formation of furfural - dynamics and yields.
In order to compare the study with theoretical results, all obtained results were calculated to oven
dry wood.
Results of a study demonstrated that the influence of the amount of catalyst on the formation
dynamics and yield of furfural is very significant. By increasing it in the given ranges also furfural
amount was increased from 0.86% to 2.79% (Figure 1) in the first 10 min period, which is 5.88-
19.08% from theoretically possible amount. In further birch wood hydrolysis the amount of furfural
formation gradually reduces. In the last 10 min period of the process amount of furfural was only
from 0.16% to 0.47%.
Figure 1. Formation dynamics of furfural.
The study of the yield of furfural (Figure 2) from birch wood showed that the lowest yield of
furfural was 6.2%, which is 42.3% from the theoretical yield obtained after 90 min of pre-treatment
33
process and if the amount of catalyst was 1.5%. However the highest yield of furfural was 10.8%
(73.9% from the theoretical yield), obtained after 90 min and if the amount of catalyst was 3.0%.
Figure 2. Yield of furfural.
In literature can be found that furfural yield generally does not exceed 50% from the theoretical
yield, therefore obtained results can be considered as very good. Wherewith, it is possible to obtain
product with high added value and to develop an environmentally friendly technology by acid
hydrolysis as a pre-treatment method for processing of biomass for further production of bioethanol.
Keywords: Furfural, pre-treatment, hydrolysis, birch wood, bioethanol.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the European Regional Development Fund project
(No.2010/0288/2DP/2.1.1.1.0/10/APIA/VIAA/038).
34
INFLUENCE OF THE AMOUNT OF CATALYST ON ACETIC ACID FORMATION FROM BIRCH WOOD IN BIOMASS
PRETREATMENT PROCESS Prans Brazdausks, Maris Puke, Nikolais Vedernikovs, Irena Kruma
Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry, Laboratory of Polysaccharides
However rich our planet`s nature and however varied its resources, these reserves are not
inexhaustible. Increasing consumption some of the resources will be depleted faster than can be
reproduced or faster than science and production industry will be able to offer solutions for
replacing them with other resources or raw materials. For example, with the decline of availability
of fossil fuels, the man is forced to search for an alternative to ensure its existence and welfare
development. One of the alternatives is to start use biomass as a raw material for production of
various chemical products.
Biomass is one of the world`s biggest and sustainable renewable resource, which contain carbon. Its
good management and efficient utilization to the organic chemical products with a high added value
is a great challenge for both scientists and the entire green chemistry industry.
Bioethanol production of lignocellulose containing raw materials is one of the areas of biomass
application. As is well known, biomass consists mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, but
available part of biomass for bioethanol extraction are cellulose and hemicelluloses, which must be
disposed of by pretreatment process. This process is one of the most important stages of bioethanol
production, where mechanical and chemical structure of biomass cell wall is changed, as well as
makes it easier to convert to bioethanol in further proceedings.
Birch wood was used as the raw material for acquisition of lignocellulosic material, because it is
one of the most widespread tree species in Latvia and has high content of cellulose (~45%,
calculated on oven dried wood (o.d.w.)) and hemicelluloses (~28%, calculated on o.d.w.).
Dilute acid hydrolysis was used for hemicelluloses secession from birch wood, which can be
considered as one of the most promising biomass pretreatment methods.
During the study, the amount of catalyst was the variable technological parameter of hydrolysis
process, which was changed by 0.5% from 1.5 to 4.0%, calculated on o.d.w. While constant
technological parameters of hydrolysis process were catalyst concentration, process temperature
and time of biomass treatment. Three parallel hydrolysis experiments were made for each sample.
Gas chromatography method was used to study influence of the amount of catalyst on the formation
of acetic acid dynamics and its yield in obtained hydrolisate. In order to compare the results of the
study with theoretical results, all obtained results were calculated on oven dry wood. The results
represent the average values of each hydrolysis experiment, which do not exceed a 0.01% variation
between the parallel experiments.
As demonstrated by the results of the study on the formation dynamics of acetic acid (Figure 1),
increasing the amount of catalyst in given range of above, acetic acid amount was increased from
2.04% to 2.77% in the first 10 min period, which is 34.4 - 46.7% from theoretically possible
amount. Continuing birch wood hydrolysis, the amount of acetic acid formation sharply reduced. In
the last 10 min period of the pretreatment process the amount of acetic acid was only from 0.06% to
0.09%.
From the obtained results it can also be concluded that there wasn`t appropriate to continue the
hydrolysis of more than 60 min, because yield of acetic acid at all amount of catalyst increase only
by 0.3%.
35
Figure 1. Formation dynamics of acetic acid from birch wood.
The results of the study about summary yield of acetic acid (Table 1) from birch wood showed that
the biggest yield of 5.8%, which is 97.8% from the theoretical yield, after 90 min can be obtained at
the amount of catalyst 3.0%.
Table 1. Influence of catalyst amount on yield of acetic acid from birch wood.
Amount of
catalyst,
% from o.d.w.
1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0
Time, min Yield of acetic acid, % from o.d.w.
10 2,04 2,21 2,17 2,28 2,56 2,77
20 3,29 3,52 3,44 3,61 3,90 4,17
30 3,94 4,44 4,37 4,55 4,69 4,80
40 4,38 4,94 4,78 4,94 5,00 5,12
50 4,67 5,19 5,10 5,27 5,23 5,31
60 4,86 5,34 5,30 5,50 5,41 5,48
70 5,01 5,45 5,46 5,64 5,53 5,60
80 5,13 5,53 5,58 5,73 5,64 5,71
90 5,22 5,58 5,65 5,80 5,73 5,79
Wherewith is possible to obtain by-product with high added value and create a cleaner production
technology using dilute acid hydrolysis pretreatment method for preparation of biomass for
bioethanol production.
Keywords: Acetic acid, hydrolysis, bioethanol, birch wood.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) project
No.2010/0288/2DP/2.1.1.1.0/10/APIA/VIAA/038.
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Am
ou
nt
of
ace
tic
aci
d, %
fro
m
.o.d
.w.
Time period, min
1,5%
2,0%
2,5%
3,0%
3,5%
4,0%
36
10.06.2013
Session 3. Short-rotation and multifunctional forestry
37
Keynote
SHORT ROTATION FORESTS IN EUROPE Katrin Heinsoo
Estonian University of Life Science, Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences
During recent decades there have been a lot of initiatives at the European Union Level to promote
bioenergy production. In Nordic countries the most common option for this purpose is wood
combustion (logs, forest residues, sawdust, pellets etc.). However, also different tree species can be
specially planted. Due to technical reasons, they are divided into two groups – Short Rotation
Forests (SRF on forest land) and Short Rotation Coppice (SRC on agricultural land getting
agricultural subsidies).
The most common SRC species in Europe are poplars and willows. Their productivity depends on
local weather and soil conditions. Shoot yield can be increased by fertilisation. Beside mineral
fertilisation alternative sources of nutrients (sewage sludge, wastewater, biogas digestate) may be
used in order to utilize the wastes and to produce bioenergy in more sustainable way.
FP6 project “Biopros – Solutions for safe application of wastewater and sludge for high-efficient
biomass production in Short Rotation Plantations” was initiated to promote SRC plantations in
various countries. The other aim was to improve the treatment of wastewater and sewage sludge to
meet increased environmental standards. During the project the team got interesting data about the
technical and non-technical problems that enhanced the SRC area in participating countries. The
most critical technical obstacles were lack of (light) harvesters in region and SRC woodchip quality
for smaller standardised boilers. However, a longer list of non-technical barriers in different
countries could be observed:
- lack of long-term support strategies for SRC that would counteract the investment risks,
- poor selection system for planting material suitable for climate criteria in several regions,
- limited awareness about the environmental impact of SRC on agricultural lands
- uncertain legal regulation of approvals of wastewater application on agricultural land, and
- no standardised legislation on sludge recycling in agriculture and restrictions focusing
mainly on food/feed crops
During the project we also designed special SRCs (willows in Poland, Germany and Estonia and
poplars in Bulgaria and Spain) to study the feasibility the approach in different European regions, to
compare the suitability of different clones in various climatic conditions and to analyse the impact
of sewage sludge application to plant yield and soil quality.
The general results of the study indicated that willows from the European Willow Breeding
Programme (clones “Resolution” and “Endeavour”) had lower survival rate, but higher
aboveground shoot biomass than willows from the Swedish State Willow Selection Programme
(clone 78183) and the Willow Breeding Programme of Agrobränsle AB (clones “Tora” and
“Inger”). This was quite expected result, as in the study regions the willows suffer more from the
winter frosts than leaf-rust, which tolerance is the main target in European Willow Breeding
Programme. The average aboveground biomass production of willows in Poland was larger than
that in Estonia or Germany, and in the three-year-old plantations it was not correlated to the actual
plant density. However, in this study the sludge application did not have any significant impact on
growth performance. Hence, this result does not confirm our previous knowledge about sewage
sludge application having a positive influence on SRC yield. One reason for such result can be
shortage of water in plantation sites, that might have larger impact on plant growth.
Keywords: Salix, Short rotation, waste utilisation.
38
Main session
RESEARCH OF PREREQUISITES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF MULTIFUNCTIONAL FORESTRY IN RURAL AREAS
OF LATVIA M. Daugaviete, D. Lazdiņa, K.Liepiņš, B. Bambe, A. Bardule, A. Bardulis, U. Daugavietis
Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”
In order to ensure sustainable management of the Latvian land resources, after assessing the land cadaster
and getting acquainted with foreign multifunctional forestry technologies (particularly for small,
fragmented land properties), with an aim of achieving economic (new products), ecological (improvement
of environmental functions) and social (jobs, recreation) benefits, starting from the 1990s, the researchers
of Latvian State Forestry Research Institute (LSFRI) Silava in collaboration with specialists of the State
Forest Service (SFS) and the Forest Sector of the Ministry of Agriculture used EU funding (Phare
projects) to begin work on development of technologies for sustainable management of low-value
agricultural land by establishing various tree plantations in areas unsuitable for agriculture.
Research objective: to develop technologies for management of land unsuitable for agricultural use
through management of short-rotation plantations of various tree and shrub species; assess their growth
progress and productivity with an aim of obtaining economic benefits while ensuring ecological balance
and improving the social condition of the local residents.
Work tasks:
1. The growth progress and productivity of monospecies and mixed plantations of various woody
plants (birch, black alder, hybrid aspen, oak, maple, lime, sweet cherry, ash, grey alder, Salix species, pine,
spruce) in unused agricultural land.
2. The environmental impact of tree plantations: changes in aboveground vegetation and the
agrochemical properties of soil.
3. Development of technologies for management of unused agricultural land based on short-rotation
plantations.
Material and methodology: as part of Phare projects “Support to private forestry in Latvia” (1996–1997)
and “Institutional support to private forestry” (1998–1999), as well as projects financed by the SFS and the
Ministry of Agriculture, more than 30 trial plantations were established in agricultural land with total area
exceeding 200 ha. The trial sites were re-measured in the period from 2010 to 2012 as part of ERDF
project No. 10/0268/2DP/2.1.1.1.0/10/APIA/VIAA/118 “Development of multifunctional models for the
establishment and management of plantations of deciduous trees and energy plants”. Various technologies
were used in establishing the trial plantations: plantations of a single or multiple species were created, the
suitability of soils for various tree species was studied, changes of soil agrochemical properties and
aboveground vegetation as a result of afforestation were observed, various plantation establishment and
tending technologies were researched, and monitoring of diseases and pests was carried out.
Monitoring of the tree growth progress and productivity was carried out in each plantation, recording the
following: tree height changes, m; changes in diameter at breast height, cm; branch-free tree length, m;
crown length, m. Three to five sample trees were taken at each plantation to determine the aboveground
biomass: stem weight, kg; weight of green branches, kg; weight of dry branches, kg; foliage weight, kg.
To assess the environmental impact of the plantations, the aboveground vegetation and the agrochemical
properties of soil were monitored and changes from the initial state were recorded.
The measurements were repeated every 3–5 years. Total monitoring period: 15 years.
The data has been obtained by aggregating the study results from agricultural land afforestation sites in the
municipalities of Liepāja, Talsi, Tukums, Dobele, Bauska, Jelgava, Cēsis, Jēkabpils, Madona, Gulbene
and Rēzekne, with 274 sample plots having been established.
The studies show that the agrochemical properties of soil have changed during the 15 years since the
afforestation of land unsuitable for agricultural use. In conifer (pine, spruce) plantations, the topsoil humus
39
content has declined by 0.3–0.9%, and the amount of phosphorus and potassium available to plants has
slightly decreased; the amount of calcium and magnesium in most cases has slightly increased. The soil
reaction has become 0.1–0.3 units more acidic.
In plantations of deciduous softwood trees (birch, lime, sweet cherry, black alder), the topsoil humus
content has increased by 0.4–1.0%; the amount of phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium
available to plants has increased by 0.2–1.8 mg/100 g soil. The soil reaction has become more neutral, pH
5.5–6.2.
The studies show that the ground cover vegetation has significantly changed in the 15 years since the
afforestation of land unsuitable for agricultural use. Before the afforestation, the trial sites were generally
dominated by meadow or fallow-land vegetation, in which the number of herb and grass species in the
ground cover show 247 spp. and 32 Bryophyta spp.; as a result of the afforestation, 12–36 species have
disappeared, and 20 new species have appeared. It must be noted the original ground cover vegetation has
disappeared in pine and spruce plantations at age 15 where the tree crowns have interlocked.
At some sites, it is possible to talk about the beginning of formation of forest ground cover, particularly in
full-density conifer plantations; some mushroom species have appeared: boletes, suillus luteus, woolly
milkcaps, saffron milk caps, etc.
The growth progress of 9 tree species – pine, spruce, birch, aspen, black alder, grey alder, oak, lime and
cherry – in afforestation of different soils has been determined during the studies. The tree growth and
development indicators evidence that there is no species suitable for all growth conditions. Generally, tree
species show intense growth results in soils that are richer in minerals and have a settled hydrogeological
regime.
The measurement data show that plantations of young conifers – pine (Pinus silvestris L.) and spruce
(Picea abies (L.) Karst) – in naturally dry mineral soils produce 1.2–1.5 times larger dimensions than
young pine stands of quality class I (H20=12 m) in forest soils. The yield of pine plantations at age 15 and
density of 3000 trees/ha-1 reaches 75–93 m³/ha
-1, while the yield of spruce plantations at age 15 and
density of 2000–3300 trees/ha-1
reaches 75–135 m³/ha-1 on average.
The growth progress of plantations of deciduous softwood trees – silver birch, black alder, grey alder,
lime – shows dimensions that are 1.1–1.8 times larger than for plantations of the respective deciduous
softwood trees of quality class I in forest soils.
Silver birch plantations in naturally dry mineral soils –sod-podzolic soil, sod-calcareous soil, alluvial soil,
brown soil – in former agricultural land at age 15 reach, on average, a height of 8.5–15.3 m and DBH of
7.9–12.7 cm. The yield of a birch plantation at age 15 and density of 1100–3300 trees/ha-1
reaches 90–165
m³/ha-1.
Black alder plantations in moist mineral soils with natural water flow at the age of 15 years reach, on
average, a height of 8.7–15.2 m and DBH of 8.7–15 cm. The yield of grey alder plantations at age 15 and
density of 3300 trees·ha-1
can be as high as 200 m³ha-1,
Plantations of deciduous hardwood trees (oak, ash, cherry) in rich mineral soils – sod-podzolic, sod-
calcareous, alluvial soil etc. – in former agricultural land at age 15 reach an average height of 2.6–8.5 m
and DBH of 2.8–5.8 cm for oak, and 5.8–8.9 m and 7.2–9.0 cm for cherry.
In the course of the research, prospective technologies have been developed for the creation of short-
rotation plantations, establishing both monospecies plantations – spruce, birch, grey alder, aspen, hybrid
aspen, black alder – and mixed plantations – spruce-birch, spruce-lime, spruce-oak, spruce-black alder,
spruce-grey alder, birch-black alder, black alder-cherry, black alder-oak, grey alder-oak, etc.
Keywords: rural area, multifunctional forestry, short-rotation plantations, monospecies plantations, mixed
plantations, tree species: pine, spruce, birch, aspen, black alder, white alder, oak, cherry, lime.
40
THE INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITY IN ENERGETIC WOOD PLANTATION IN ROMANIA
Iordache Eugen, Popa Bogdan, Derczeni Rudolf
“Transilvania” University of Brasov, Faculty of Silviculture and Forest Engineering
The aim of the present study is to comparatively evaluate the quantity and the quality of the wood
production as well as the economical risk involved for several versions of forestry systems based on
black locust short rotation coppice, in the south part of Romania. The paper target is to give
comparative information about the investment opportunities in several cases of black locust coppice
plantations in different site conditions and geographical areas. The information within this study
may be very useful for governmental stakeholders and investors for supporting the decision for
better regulating the sector or, respectively, investing in this kind of plantations. It can also create
useful instruments for calculating the level of public financial subsidies destined for afforestation of
the agricultural land.
1. INTRODUCTION.
The starting working hypothesis for the present study are: i) even if the plantations that were
assessed have low added value on long term, the reduced risks may lead to an increased interest for
certain categories of investments funds (i.e. pension funds), ii) the investment decision for such
plantations is lacking information regarding biomass accumulation in intensive systems as well as
traditional systems, iii) the assessment is based on data collected from ”Trees Biometry in
Romania” edition 1972; certainly, the extracted volumes can be bigger if, by increasing
administration costs, the intensivity of the plantation will also be increased; plantations raised in
natural conditions, with minimal maintenance works applied, are considered as basic pessimistic,
versions.
2. FACTORS AFFECTING THE INVESTMENT DECISION.
The main factors affecting the investment decision, identified during the analysis are: i) reduced
information availability regarding forest alternatives, production and quality of biomass, costs for
establishment of plantations, prices involved; ii) distances from plantations sites (ecologically
suited) and the usage facilities, influencing the economic regime, products prices; this is the source
of the regional specificity; iii) diverse site conditions affecting plantations costs and evolutions; iv)
socio-economic conditions affecting the wood market, different for different geographic regions.
3.THE ANALYSIS.
3.1 COSTS FOR ACQUIRING THE LAND.
The assessment of agricultural land pricing revealed a certain differentiation of prices, both for
renting and buying. The variable factors are the land quality and geographical area.
3.2 ESTABLISHMENT COSTS.
The establishment costs were evaluated based on the wages and other costs for afforestation of
agricultural lands, that are now used by the main Forest Administrator in Romania (National Forest
Administration – Romsilva), both for own operations and outsourced operations (outsourcing is
object to public services acquisition). Two versions of site quality were considered: good site
quality conditions and medium site quality conditions.In the same time, the study chooses the
classical afforestation scheme for black locust, based on the fact that the production tables (i.e. the
Biometry) estimate the annual increments for stands established with classical schemes.
3.3. MAINTENANCE AND ADMINISTRATION COSTS.
Plantation maintenance and administration, in the context of the present study, means:
-plantation guarding;
-GIS registering;
-periodic acquisition of satellite images;
-monitoring health status of the plantations;
-establishing the optimal time for maintenance woks (i.e. thinning);
41
-design and costs estimation;
-acquisition of goods and services required;
-volume evaluation;
-reports for investors;
-market studies for determining the best selling moment for the wood;
-tendering costs.
3.4. COSTS FOR RESTARTING THE PRODUCTION CYCLE.
After covering a whole production cycle, and harvesting the wood, the land has to be prepared for
restarting the production cycle. For black locust, the regeneration is vegetative, thus assured, what is
needed being just a deep disking of the land in order to stimulate vegetative regeneration. Average
cost – 150 EUR/ha.
3.5. REVENUES.
The future volumes to be harvested were estimated based on the data within ”Trees Biometry of
Romania” (1972). Regarding the selling prices, the analysis included the version of selling the
standing volume. By acquiring the harvesting services and proper site sort and distribution of wood,
certain extra revenues can be obtained. The average prices for standing biomass vary within pretty
large limits, showing the differences in demand between different areas. It was considered that the
transportation prices is an important barrier against uniformity of prices.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS.
After reviewing the results of the analysis, the following area of discussions and conclusions have
been identified;
-Black locust plantations can determine a sure profit but need big initial investments and big return
periods;
-The most important risks are the natural conditions and the quality of the establishment and
maintenance/ administration works;
-IRR is between 5 and 10 % with significant differences from one geographical area to another. The
best results can be obtained in Oltenia and Baragan (in the south part of Romania);
-Public subsidies can significantly influence the financial indicators;
-The to be harvested volumes and standing wood prices have a bigger influence over the
profitability;
-The value of land is influencing the financial results in a less significant manner.
Keywords: black locust, investment opportunity, coppice.
42
Shortened presentations
MANAGEMENT PLAN CALCULATIONS FOR SHORT ROTATION WILLOW PLANTATIONS IN LATVIA
Kristaps Makovskis1, Dagnija Lazdiņa
1, Ligita Bite
2
1Latvian State Forest Research Institute ‘Silava’
2Latvia University of Agriculture
According to the Directive 2009/29/EC, by 2020, renewable energy sources in Latvia are planned to
reach 40 % from total energy consumption; in 2009, this share was 27.5 %. In future, demand for
renewable resources in production of electricity and heat will increase. Establishment of short
rotation forestry is one possibility to meet the growing market. In addition, plantation establishment
would help improve the abandoned lands in Latvia. According to Central Statistical Bureau of
Latvia, in 2010 there were 368,900 ha of untreated areas, 316,341 ha of unmanaged areas and
49,710 ha of naturally afforested areas. One of the most suitable species for short rotation forestry
in conditions of Latvia is willow (Salix). Positive ecological gains from willow plantations include
reduction of environmental pollution, removal of heavy metals from soil, diversity of rural
landscape and positive CO2 balance.
Willow plantation management plan calculations are based on EcoWillow v1.4 (Beta) model, but
prices, technologies and growing conditions are based on the circumstances in Latvia. The chosen
modeling field was 10 ha large, with willow density of 13,000 cuttings per ha-1
, 22 year lifespan of
the plantation, rotation length – 4 years and biomass growth rate of 8 ODT ha-1
per year-1
.
Transportation distance – 50 km, wood chips moisture – 50 %, woodchips price at the gate – 35
LVL ODT-1
.
Soil preparation for the plantation costs 109 LVL/ha-1
, planting costs 708 LVL/ha-1
and harvesting
costs 155 LVL/ha-1
. The willow plantation Internal Return Rate is 17.1 %, Net Present Value is
1,099 LVL and the payback point can be reached after the second harvest. Over the lifespan of a
plantation, establishment costs compile 33 %, harvesting – 26 % and transporting – 29 %, whilst
other costs, such as price for land, fertilizer, as well as insurance and administration costs together
compile 12 %. Fuel and woodchip prices, as well as an establishment grant are of crucial
importance regarding the payback time.
Keywords: Short-rotation plantations, willow management plan, coppice, plantation forestry.
Funding from ERAF project ''Elaboration of models for establishment and management of
multifunctional plantations of short rotation energy crops and deciduous tree’’ (Nr.
2010/0268/2DP/2.1.1.2.0/10/APIA/VIAA/118) is acknowledged.
43
LAND AREAS AVAILABLE FOR FUTURE BIOMASS PRODUCTION, CURRENT BIOMASS PRODUCTION AND
ITS USE IN THE NORDIC AND BALTIC COUNTRIES Lars Rytter
1, Kjell Andreassen
2, Johan Bergh3, Per-Magnus Ekö
3, Antti Kilpeläinen4, Dagnija
Lazdina5, Peeter Muiste
6 and Thomas Nord-Larsen
7
1The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, Ekebo 2250, SE.26890 Svalöv, Sweden
[email protected], 2The Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, Postbox 115, 1431 Ås,
Norway [email protected], 3
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,
Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Box 49 SE-230 53 Alnarp, Sweden [email protected]
and [email protected], 4Finnish Environment Institute, Joensuu Office, P.O.Box 111, FI-
80101 Joensuu, Finland [email protected], 5Latvia State Forest Research Institute
(LVMI “Silava”), 111 Rigas str, Salaspils, LV 2169 Latvia [email protected], 6 Estonian
University of Life Sciences, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Dept. Forest Industry,
Kreutzwaldi 5, Tartu 51014, Estonia [email protected], 7Copenhagen University, Forest &
Landscape (KU), Rolighedsvej 23, DK-1958, Frederiksberg C, Denmark [email protected].
This report IS given with the aim to compile information on wood resources in the ENERWOODS
countries, i.e. Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Norway and Sweden, with a focus on availability
for energy purposes. A summary of forest land and other usable land areas for tree growth shows
that the forest areas are large and that substantial agriculture land areas are also available. Although
some forest areas are protected, 75–92 % of them can still be used for wood harvest. In total, the
forest area of the ENERWOODS is 62.4 mill. ha, of which 16.9 mill. ha is owned by the state and
public and 45.5 mill. ha is private land.
In Finland, Norway and Sweden coniferous species dominate the forests, while areas and volumes
are fairly even distributed between conifers and deciduous species in Denmark, Estonia and Latvia.
The total standing volume in the ENERWOODS countries is around 7 300 mill. m3 and the annual
increment can be estimated to about 270 mill. m3 yr
-1. Transferred to energy units these figures
correspond to c. 37 PWh and 1 400 TWh, respectively.
The changing climate and increased standing volumes will affect the future growth. Estimates from
Estonia, Finland and Sweden for different periods show a growth increase of over 30 % on country
levels but substantially higher for specific locations.
Figures on current harvest show a clear discrepancy between annual growth and harvest, leading to
the conclusion that some of the difference can be used for energy purposes already today.
Fertilization on forest land has a tradition in Finland and Sweden but is used to a very low extent in
the other countries. The potential for increased growth through increased fertilizer supply is most
probably high, especially if the concept with balanced nutrient addition in young forests is used.
We can see that wood for energy has a large potential in the ENERWOODS countries and this is
before we apply measures like increased fertilization, extended use of breeding effects, larger
cultivation areas and changes of tree species and management systems.
Short rotation plantations could be as an additionally resource for woody biomass produced on less
favourable agriculture lands. In Latvia since 2010 is growing interest to develop short rotation crops
as alternative agricultural crop, mainly willows and aspens are planted.
Keywords: wood, energy, resources.
44
11.06.2013
Session 1. Environmental services provided by forests:
carbon, soils and biodiversity
45
Keynote
ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES PROVIDED BY FORESTS – AN OVERVIEW
Nicholas Clarke and co-authors
Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute
Email: [email protected]
WHAT ARE ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES?
Humanity benefits from a large number of resources and processes that are supplied by ecosystems;
these are termed ecosystem services. Ecosystem services are classified as supporting services (e.g.
primary production, nutrient and water cycling), provisioning services (e.g. fuel, wood fibre),
regulating services (e.g. climate regulation, water purification and erosion prevention) and cultural
services (e.g. recreation, spiritual and aesthetic experiences). Although ecosystem services may be
associated with economic valuations, there are limitations to this approach, perhaps especially for
regulating and cultural services. However, economic instruments can be applied as incentives to
maintain ecosystem services.
Environmental services can be considered as a subset of ecosystem services, including for example
regulation of water quantity and quality, carbon storage, and services supported by biodiversity
such as pollination and aesthetic experience.
FOREST MANAGEMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES
Use of forest biomass can lead to the risk of conflict between different interests and this risk might
increase if forest biomass harvesting is intensified, for example for bioenergy. On the one side is the
need for rural employment, timber production and a secure and renewable source of energy, and on
the other the need for functioning forest ecosystems, carbon storage, water regulation, biodiversity,
and other uses of the forest such as recreation. All of these are politically important, so good
governance structures are essential. Sustainability principles and criteria have therefore to be
incorporated into policy frameworks and support schemes, as well as management guidelines and
certification systems. Many countries have produced national recommendations and guidelines for
biomass extraction to encourage this taking place in agreement with the principles of sustainable
forest management. Ideally, adaptable management could be used to improve ecosystem resilience.
Some examples where management can affect forest environmental services such as carbon
sequestration will be given.
46
Main session
DOES SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT SAFEGUARD PROVISION OF ALL FOREST GOODS AND
SERVICES? Jerzy Lesiński
Institute of Forest Biodiversity, University of Agriculture, Krakow, Poland
e-mail: [email protected]
Of a few reasons, the title question cannot be answered either “yes, it does” or “no, it does not”.
Firstly, the sustainable forest management (SFM) concept is too vague in terms of the priorities
among the SFM six individual criteria adopted at the Third MCPFE Conference (1998). That is not
clear which criterion is of the highest, of the lesser or the lowest importance. Not even indicators
that should quantify these criteria, make the SFM concept more precise with this respect. Besides,
the SFM concept - while including forest functions into the set of its criteria - does not at all
mention forest stakeholders, who are to win or to lose thanks to fulfilling one or another
management sustainability criterion. Secondly, despite of the FAO Forestry Unit, there is a lack of
common understanding at the national levels what forest functions are about. The identification of
the lead function, meant as forest capacity to provide one or another forest goods and services, is to
allow a subordination of the forest management plans according to the desired benefits from the
forest as demanded mostly by the local or regional stakeholders. Since these demands are often
contradictory, the term of forest multi-functionality largely wins the society acceptance. However,
an implementation of this compromise term leads to the confusion in the forest management
planning process, first of all since that there is not clear what kind of forest structures will satisfy
everybody. Thirdly, the Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) concept - while prioritizing the
first of the four distinguished ecosystems’ goods and services, i.e. supporting one - otherwise does
not give any priority ranks as far as regulating, provisioning, and cultural forest’ goods and services
are concerned. Moreover, the uncertainty with respect to the above priorities makes unclear which
group of the forest stakeholders’ demands should be observed as most important. Besides, the
concept in matter addresses the whole Earth’ forests, thus there is a doubt to which extent it might
be applicable at the individual forest district’ management plans. The three aforementioned
concepts, i.e. SFM, forest functions, and forest ecosystems’ goods and services are at present
undergoing assessments, field monitoring, and a large scale discussion, which the presented paper is
a part of. Possibly, the ecosystem approach (UNEP/GRID) presuming subordination of the
aforementioned goods and services to such principles, as: management within natural limits,
management for the long term, management at multiple scale, accounting for true value, making
trade-offs clear, and involvement of stakeholders in the decisions-making, would be helpful when
trying to answer the title question.
47
RECONCILING BIODIVERSITY WITH OTHER ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN RELATION TO DRIVERS OF CHANGE AND PAST HISTORY OF LAND USE ALONG A
TEMPERATE TO BOREAL ZONE GRADIENT Guntis Brūmelis
Faculty of Biology, University of Latvia
Much has been gained in understanding of biodiversity loss, its causes, and ways of its prevention,
but global efforts to halt the reduction in the rate of biodiversity loss by 2010 have not been met.
European and other countries globally have ratified the Aichi biodiversity targets for 2020 of the
parties of the Convention of Biological Diversity, agreed upon at the UN biodiversity summit in
Nagoya in 2010. This perceives an increase of the percentage of terrestrial protected area to 17%,
and due to an insufficient proportion of ecosystems with sufficiently natural quality to prevent the
decline of biodiversity, restoration activities are envisioned in least 15% of the degraded area. The
new incentives certainly seem promising for biodiversity, but are we prepared for this? At a
workshop “The mosaic forest landscape”, hosted by the SNS networks PIFOR and “Natural
Disturbance Dynamics Analysis for Forest Ecosystem Management”, which had broad participation
from Europe, it became clear that the perceptions of what is needed for conservation of biodiversity
vastly differ, depending on the past history of human impact. Participants of the workshop have
subsequently begun to produce a synthesis of these differences, in relation to the past drivers of
ecosystem change, the main ecosystem services utilized, social attitudes to biodiversity, and the
main methods of conservation of biodiversity. The main ideas formulated thus far by the
participants will be presented here.
In each main vegetation zone (boreal, temperate and montane), regions much differ in the past
human impacts. In regions with low past human impact (respectively, northern Fennoscandia, the
Bialowieza forest in Poland, and the Balkan mountain ranges), the main ecosystem service, due to
the low human density, is biodiversity. Therefore, it is not surprising, that the larger part of the
nature reserve area in Finland and Sweden occurs in this region. At the other extreme, the main
direct driver of biodiversity loss in forested biomes has been habitat change due to ecosystem
provisioning of food to a growing human population. Already in the Roman era, in Central Europe
large scale deforestation had already occurred and today natural, human untouched forest
ecosystems no longer exist. Considering climate change, impact from atmospheric pollutants, and
soil alterations, restoration to a natural state that existed before humans is not feasible. However,
traditional land use created humanized ecosystems, such as wooded meadows and coppice
woodland, also with extremely high biodiversity. These are viewed as “natural ecosystems”, often
protected as natural habitats, and the conservation of biodiversity clearly needs human stewardship.
The ecological aesthetical value of these landscapes is intrinsically also a strong ecosystem service.
Man considers himself as responsible for maintaining the biodiversity, by continuing the traditional
forms of management, or emulating them. Afforestation plans are also ambitious, as in Denmark,
where it is planned to double the forest area within a period of 100 years.
In areas where human impact has been intermediate, i.e. the forest area has not dramatically
decreased, the main ecosystem serve has been, is, and will be, wood production. These forests offer
a wide range of ecosystem services, and are widely used by residents. However, fragmentation of
natural forest is very high, particularly in the southern boreal zone. Intensive management for the
goal of productive forest has led to loss of natural structures and processes necessary in sustaining
biodiversity. Conservation in this region is being addressed by protection of the forest stands that
are most natural (less impacted by humans) and by natural disturbance emulation (e.g., retention
green trees and coarse woody debris). However, ambitious restoration targets that are well defined
and quantitative, and are implemented at wide and diverse spatial scales, are needed to halt the
48
predicted biodiversity loss. Public attitude in this region is diverse, from focus on wood products to
save the more natural forests.
The boreo-nemoral zone, including Latvia, is in-between the high impact and intermediate impact
regions, and thus has aspects of both. Management goals for conservation of biodiversity are two-
faced in Latvia, ranging from a return of livestock to forests, to emulation of natural disturbance.
This is creating chaos, and there is great need to develop quantitative biodiversity targets at various
spatial scales, while recognizing the main ecosystem service of wood production, and social needs.
Key words: ecosystem services; wood production; biological diversity; human impacts; natural
disturbance emulation; protected territories
49
CARBON AND NUTRIENT LOSSES WITH BIOMASS REMOVAL FOR BIOENERGY FROM SCOTS PINE
STANDS
Kęstutis Armolaitis1, Iveta Varnagirytė-Kabašinskienė
1, Inge Stupak
2,
Mikko Kukkola3, Virgilijus Mikšys
1, Józef Wójcik
4
1Institute of Forestry, Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Lithuania;
2Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management (IGN), University of Copenhagen,
Denmark;
3The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Centre, Finland;
4Forest Research Institute, Poland
The use of forest fuel is continuously increasing in the countries of the European Community,
especially in the Nordic-Baltic region. Various practices of harvesting for energy are used in the
Nordic and Baltic countries: from the logging residues (Sweden, Finland), whole-tree harvesting
from thinnings (Denmark) to stumps (Sweden, Finland). In Lithuania forests may contribute
significant amounts of biomass for energy and the logging residues is the most common practice of
harvesting for energy (Ozolinčius et al. 2011). Also, the use of renewable biomass may increase the
security of supplies and diminish the dependence on imported non-renewable fossil fuels.
Harvesting for energy increase the loss of the nutrients from the forest ecosystem since the nutrient
rich branches are exported in addition to the stemwood. Therefore, only the harvesting practices that
avoid a negative influence on soil fertility, wood production and long-term soil carbon stocks,
should maintain a principle of sustainable forestry.
The study was carried out in South- – –
the forests of Dubrava Experimental and Training Forest Enterprise. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)
stands of different 10, 20, 40, 50 and 65 years age growing on Haplic Arenosols were selected for
the calculation of C and the main nutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S) stocks and for the estimation of
the potential nutrients removals in whole-tree harvesting. The studied forest type was Pinetum
vacciniosum, and the forest site type was Nb – oligotrophic mineral soil of normal moisture
according to the Lithuanian classification (Vaičys et al. 2006).
For the determination of total dry mass and chemical contents, the samples were removed from the
following above-ground tree compartments of selected 25 model trees: needles, living and dead
branches, stemwood, bark and cones. The chemical analyses of the above-ground biomass were
performed by former Forest & Landscape Denmark (at present IGN) at the University of
Copenhagen. The concentrations of P, K, Ca and Mg were measured by ICP-OES (Perkin-Elmer
OPTIMA 3000 XL); C, N and S concentrations were determined from a subsample of about 200 mg
using LECO CNS 2000 Analyzer.
The results showed that the lowest concentrations of nutrients were in the stemwood of 10–65-year-
old Scots pines. While the highest concentrations of N, P and K were in the needles, Mg – in
needles and bark, and Ca – in bark. The concentrations of carbon (C) in different above-ground
compartments varied insignificantly and comprised about 50%.
Along the increase of stand age, total crown (tops, living branches with needles and dead branches)
biomass of Scots pine differed between 23–33 t ha-1
DW. Meanwhile, the stocks of C and other
macronutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S) in the above-ground biomass increased due to the increase
of stem mass.
The stocks of N, P and K in the above-ground biomass of Scots pine varied little with the increase
of stand age (differences did not exceed 30–40%) and were: 185–260 kg N ha-1
, 22–33 kg P ha-1
and 75–104 kg K ha-1
. This depends on the highest concentrations of these elements in the crowns,
which biomass vary insignificantly along the increase of stand age. The stocks of C, S, Mg and Ca
50
increased about 2 times with the increase of stand age, because of not significant concentration
differences in stems and crowns.
If forest fuel was prepared in Scots pine stands, during the thinnings at 30, 50 and 70-year age and
sanitary fellings in 80–90-year-old stands, additionally by 2–3 times higher contents of the nutrients
were removed to compare with conventional harvesting. Over 100-year-long rotation total removal
(stem+crown) of C reached about 130 Mg, N – 450 kg, Ca – 260 kg, K – 170 kg, Mg – 70 kg, P –
50 kg, and S – 40 kg from 1 ha. The removal of nutrients with forest fuel comprised 280 kg ha-1
of
N, 25–30 kg ha-1
of each, S, P and Mg, and 100–110 kg ha-1
of K and Ca, respectively.
The removal of nutrients with forest fuel did not exceed 2% of Mg, P and K stocks, 6.5% of Ca, S
and 16% of N stocks in organic and mineral horizons of non-fertile sandy Arenosols. Moreover, the
nutrient losses were fully compensated by atmospheric depositions.
It could be concluded that whole-tree harvesting in these stands would be sustainable in the long-
term scale.
Keywords: Scots pine, above-ground biomass, forest fuel extraction, removal of carbon and
macronutrients
This study was funded by the European Community under the FP5 R&D programme “Quality of
life and management of living resources” WOOD-EN-MAN project (QLK5-CT-2001-00527).
These results will be presented by Armolaitis et al. (accepted to Biomass & Bioenergy).
References:
1. Armolaitis K., Varnagirytė-Kabašinskienė I., Stupak I., Kukkola M., Mikšys V., Wójcik J.
Carbon and nutrients of Scots pine stands on sandy soils in Lithuania in relation to
bioenergy sustainability. Biomass & Bioenergy (accepted).
2. Ozolinčius R., Armolaitis K., Mikšys V., Varnagirytė-Kabašinskienė I. 2011.
Kompensuojamojo tręšimo miško kuro pelenais rekomendacijos. Recommendations for
compensating wood ash fertilization. Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Lithuania /
Institute of Forestry of Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Kaunas-
Girionys, p. 17. [in Lithuanian with English summary].
3. Vaičys M., Karazija S., Kuliešis A., Rutkauskas A. 2006. Miško augaviečių tipai. Forest
sites. Kaunas: Lututė, p. 95. [in Lithuanian].
51
TEMPORARY CARBON STOCK CHANGES IN FOREST SOIL IN LATVIA
Andis Lazdiņš, Arta Bārdule, Jeļena Stola, Oskars Krišāns
Latvian State Forest Research Institute "Silava"
European Commission launched in 2004 the international demonstration project BioSoil, which was
aimed to provide a harmonized soil and biodiversity studies of the EU Member States. The project
was implemented under umbrella of the European Parliament and Council Directive No. 2152/2003
on monitoring of forests and environmental interactions (Forest Focus). The major objective of the
project was to obtain statistically reliable information about the forest soil properties like
acidification, eutrophication, carbon stock changes in soil, as well as to develop standardized
methodology for soil monitoring in European level. The inventory of forest soils included sampling
of soil down to 80 cm depth, including the litter layer (O horizon). In Latvia the BioSoil project
involved 95 ICP Forests monitoring Level 1 plots distributed in regular 16 x 16 km grid. The soil
samples for composite sample analyses were taken from 1 m deep pits from 0...10, 10...20, 20...40
and 40...80 cm depth and from the whole depth of litter layer. The collection of composite samples
was done in 2006; respectively, the first BioSoil cycle represents soil carbon stock in forest in 2006.
The second cycle of the soil sample collection in the BioSoil plots was done in 2012, characterizig
situation in 2012. Similar method like in 2006 was applied – digging of 1 m deep pits with
following collection of undisturbed samples from particular depths. Special device with 100 cm2
area were built to collect undisturbed litter samples. Each soil and litter layer was represented at the
end with 12 samples per plot (60 soil and litter samples in total from a plot). The same samples
were used to determine physical and chemical properties.
Soil samples were prepared for analyses according to LVS ISO 11464 Standard. Fine earth fraction
of soil (Ø < 2 mm) was used for chemical and texture analyses; the share of coarse fragments by
mass was taken in account in calculation of carbon stock in soil assuming that there is no organic
carbon in coarse fragments. The following analytical methods were used: bulk density of soil
according to LVS ISO 11272:1998 standard, soil texture according to LVS ISO 11277:2000
standard (gravimetric determination); pH in water extraction according to LVS ISO 10390:2002
standard (potentiometric determination); content of carbonates according to LVS ISO 10693:1995
standard (using calcimeter), total carbon according to LVS ISO 10694:2006 standard (using
elemental analyser), soil moisture with Precisa Series 320 XM scales according to
LVS ISO 11465:2006 standard. Content of organic carbon was calculated as difference between
content of total and mineral carbon. Calculations of the carbon stock were made separately for the
organic and mineral soils, using average thickness of litter layer and depth of the soil layer
represented by the composite samples, share of fine soil particles in mineral soils, bulk density and
content of organic carbon. Equation 1 was used to calculate organic carbon stock in soil.
, where (1) C - organic soil carbon stock, kg ha
-1;
A - organic soil carbon content, g kg -1
;
B - bulk density, kg m-3
;
D - coarse soil fragments, %;
E- depth of represented soil layer or thickness of litter, cm
Mineral soils were processed separately, because drained organic soils are always considered as
source of emissions (0.68 tons C ha-1
annually) and naturally wet organic soils are considered to be
CO2 neutral according to IPCC GPG LULUCF (2003). Uncertainty level was estimated as the
standard error of mean of the selected population of the particular value, respectively, uncertainty
level of carbon content were not considered in the calculation. If several parameters were counted
52
together, for instance, carbon stock in the whole soil profile, equation 2 was used to calculate
combined uncertainty.
, where (2)
F - combined uncertainty level;
G1...5 - uncertainties of accounted values
Mineral soils were represented with 77 sample plots (81 %) in the study. Average content of organic
carbon and difference is shown in Table 1. Notable, that carbon content in litter is considerably
smaller in 2006, which points to possible differences in sampling methods. This assumption is
approved by considerable differences in thickness and bulk density of litter layer in the both cycles;
therefore, at least for litter direct comparison of carbon stock changes is not recommended.
Table 1. Summary of results of soil analyses, g Corg. kg-1
of fine earth
Value Litter 0...10 cm 10...20 cm 20...40 cm 40...80 cm
2006 280.4 ± 20.7 42.8 ± 7.1 16.3 ± 2.3 8.5 ± 1.1 4.5 ± 0.6
2012 484.6 ± 4.8 70.3 ± 9.5 32.3 ± 8.2 12.4 ± 2.2 7.6 ± 1.5
Difference 87.8 ± 11 27.5 ± 6.4 16.1 ± 6.9 4 ± 2.1 3.2 ± 1.6
The average organic carbon stock at 0...80 cm depth in 2006 was 97 ± 6 tons C ha-1
, at 0...40 cm
depth (used in agriculture soil monitoring) – 73 ±5 tons ha-1
and at 0...30 cm depth (minimum
required by the IPCC GPG LULUCF) – 62 ± 4 tons ha-1
. The average organic carbon stock at
0...80 cm depth in 2012 was 143 ± 10 tons C ha-1
, at 0...40 cm depth – 91 ±6 tons ha-1
and at
0...30 cm depth – 78 ± 5 tons ha-1
. The organic carbon stock in different layers and the net changes
are shown in Table 2. Negative net changes occured only in litter layer; however, they might be due
to methodologic issues. The difference according to ttest is significant in all layers, except litter.
Table 2. Summary of results of soil analyses, tons Corg. ha-1
Value Litter 0...10 cm 10...20 cm 20...40 cm 40...80 cm
2006 19.8 ± 2.7 33 ± 2.6 17.6 ± 1.5 22.1 ± 1.9 24.2 ± 1.9
2012 15.2 ± 1.3 41.2 ± 2.5 23.8 ± 2.3 26.8 ± 2.4 36.2 ± 4.5
Difference -4.6 ± 2.7 8.3 ± 2.5 6.1 ± 2.0 4.7 ± 2.2 12.0 ± 4.4
Combined organic carbon stock changes, including litter layer at 0...30 cm depth is 12 ± 5 tons ha-1
(2 tons ha-1
annually); at 0...40 cm depth 14 ± 5 tons ha-1
(2 tons ha-1
annually) and at 0...80 cm
depth 26 ± 8 tons ha-1
(4 tons ha-1
annually). Soil organic stock increased in all forest stand types,
except poor naturally dry mineral soils. The largest increase of soil organic carbon stock is found on
drained mineral soils, which mean that drainage of mineral soils is not a source of net emissions of
CO2 drom soil in long run; however, representation of different stand types in BioSoil network is
not sufficient to approve carbon stock changes at a stand type level.
Total area of forests on mineral soils in Latvia according to the National forest inventory is
2 485 kha; respectively, annual net CO2 removals in soil would equal to 18 233 ± 7 593 Gg CO2 at
0...30 cm depth according to the study results. Such assumption might lead to overestimation of the
CO2 removals due to limited number of sample plots; therefore, it is recommended to use obtained
results to approve that mineral soils in forests are not a source of CO2 emissions in 2006...2012.
Keywords: forest soil, litter, carbon stock changes, Kyoto protocol
The study is implemented within the scope of the National forest competence centre project
“Methods and technologies to increase forest value” (L-KC-11-0004).
53
Shortened presentations
SOIL NITROGEN IN FOREST AND AGRO ECOSYSTEMS ON LUVISOLS
Aušra Gudauskienė, Kęstutis Armolaitis, Jūratė Aleinikovienė
Institute of Forestry of Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry
At present almost 10 percent of agricultural land on infertile soils (manly sandy Arenosols) are
abandoned in Lithuania. However, the agriculture on Luvisols could be sufficiently productive to
compare with the European Union level. The aim of this PhD dissertation (2012-2016) will be to
assess and to compare soil nitrogen (N) stability (stock/storage in plant biomass and soil – leaching
– emission) in Luvisols of different land uses: in forest stands and in adjacent arable land where
organic agricultural practice was/are applied.
For the storage of N in soil, apart from total N and inorganic N (NH4-N and NO3-N), soil samples
will be analyzed for determination of microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN) and N concentrations in
three mineral soil fractions: (1) coarse >250 µm fraction that contains unprotected soil organic
matter (SOM); (2) microaggregates of 53-250 µm size with physically protected SOM; and (3)
silt+clay <53 µm sized fraction with chemically protected SOM. The selection of these additional
parameters was confirmed by the investigations of Arenosols within different arable land uses:
continuous arable land, abandoned (perennial grassland) or afforested land. It was found, for
example, that MBN and N in silt+clay sized SOM have increased in mineral topsoil after the
afforestation of arable land with silver birch (Betula pendula Roth).
Zero-tension plate lysimeters will be installed below the rooting zone at the depth of 50 cm in order
to estimate the output of N by the leaching of total N and inorganic N (NH4-N and NO3-N).
Previous study had showed that in forest Luvisols the leaching of NO3-N were by several folds more
intensive even if to compare with Luvisols in organic agricultural land.
The measurement of the emissions of greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (N2O) that reflect the losses of
N due to the denitrification could improve the quality of this doctoral work. However, such
ambition still is open because of experimental difficulties.
Keywords: Luvisols, different land uses, soil nitrogen, stock and stability, leaching, emission
54
SOIL CONDITION IN LITHUANIAN ALIEN FOREST STANDS
Dovilė Čiuldienė, Kęstutis Armolaitis
Institute of Forestry of Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry
In future the plantations of alien tree species that are warmth–tolerant could be enlarged in
Lithuanian forests under climate changing. It could be hypothesized that the population of Norway
Spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) could be replaced with the population of European beech (Fagus
sylvatica L.) and European larch (Larix decidua Mill.), while the population of English oak
(Quercus robur L.) - with Northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.). The knowledge of tree species
effects on soil physical and chemical properties is scarce. For the following reasons in Western
Europe soil scientists are focused on soil condition in alien forest stands (Raulund- Rasmussen and
Verje, 1995; Dijkstra, 2001; Augusto et al., 2002; Hagen – Thorn et al., 2004; Hobbie et al., 2007;
Jensen et al., 2008; Vesterdal et al., 2008; Hansen et al., 2009).
The alteration of chemical properties in forest floor is the first indication of soil affected by
different tree species (Norden, 1994; Hagen – Thorn et al., 2004). However, the changes in mineral
soil are less significant and more distinct in the upper (10-30 cm) layer and in forest plantations
older than 30 years.
This PhD study (2012-2016) will be focused on planted European larch, northern red oak and
European beech forests stands with the aim to estimate chemical condition of soils. The sites were
selected in 32-75 (156) years old forest stands (Table 1) and in adjacent perennial grassland.
Table 1. Mean dendrometric characteristics of planted alien forest stands (2011)
1Degsnė;
2Dubrava ETFE;
3Norkaičiai;
4Radžiūnai
In all sites the soils were classified as Stagnic Luvisols (LVj) with loam at the depth less than 50 cm
below sandy loam. Soils were developed from glaciofluvial (Degsnė, 54º34´N 23º52´E; Radžiūnai,
54º22´N 23º59´E), glacial lacustrine (Dubrava Experimental and Training Forest Enterprise,
54º51´N 24º02´E) and moraine (Norkaičiai, 55º44´N 22º40´E) deposits from the last Nemunas
(Weichselian) glaciation.
Soil samples for chemical analysis will be collected in April before the period of vegetation.
Composite soil samples of organic horizons (OL, OH, OF) and mineral layers (0-10, 10-20, 20-40
and 40-80 cm depth) will be collected in three replicates. Additional five mineral layer samples will
be taken with cylinders (volume 100 cm3) for determination of bulk density in the laboratory.
Tree species Age,
years
Number of
trees per ha
DBH,
cm
H, m Basal area,
m2ha
-1
Growing stock
volume, m3ha
-1
European larch1 156 230 60.0 41.0 68.6 1244.6
European larch1 46 510 30.8 32.3 40.7 600.0
European larch1 46 880 28.6 31.2 59.6 850.6
European beech2 32 448 24.3 22.4 29.3 315.0
European beech2 51 380 41.9 22.7 52.4 543.4
European beech3 75 440 25.1 25.8 25.1 296.0
Northern red oak4 55 720 24.6 25.6 35.4 426.7
Northern red oak4 45 1040 20.7 24.8 36.7 433.8
Northern red oak4 45 1080 20.4 24.5 36.5 422.5
55
In organic and mineral soil samples pH will be potentiometrically measured in a 0.01M CaCl2
suspension (ISO 10390); total nitrogen (N) will be analyzed using the Kjeldahl method (ISO
11261); total organic carbon (OC) - with a CNS analyzer (ISO 10694, dry combustion at 900ºC);
concentrations of inorganic N will be determined by the spectrometric method (ISO 14256-2) in 1M
KCl extraction: NH4-N using sodium phenolate and sodium hypochlorite, and NO3-N using
sulfanilamide; mobile potassium (K2O) and mobile phosphorus (P2O5) - by the Egner-Riehm-
Domingo (A-L) method (Egnér et al., 1960); exchangeable cations of Al, Mg, Ca, Na and K and
exchangeable acidity will be determined in a 0,1 M BaCl2 extraction (ISO 11260; 1994); total P, K,
Ca, Mg concentrations – by aqua regia extraction method (ISO 11466); particle size distribution in
mineral soil - by sieving and sedimentation method (ISO11277); mineral soil bulk density - by
sieving and weighing (ISO 11272).
According to the ICP Forest manual (Part X Soil Sampling and Analysis) mentioned parameters
could be relevant: pH and exchangeable cations - to evaluate buffering acid input and acidification
status; total N and total OC - for forest nutrition and decomposition of soil organic matter,
atmospheric nitrogen deposition and climate change; inorganic N, K2O, P2O5 - to evaluate available
macronutrients for plants; total P, K, Ca, Mg - to stocks of macronutrients and weathering rates;
bulk density – to calculation of stocks, nutrient supply to plants, index for compaction; particle size
distribution and soil texture - for the profile description and soil classification, the balance of air and
water and nutrient exchange capacity.
Keywords: Larix decidua, Quercus rubra, Fagus sylvatica, soil chemical properties
References:
1. Augusto L., Ranger J., Binkley D., Rothe A. 2002. Impact of several common tree species
of European temperate forests on soil fertility. Annals of Forest Science 59 (3): 233-253.
2. Dijkstra F.A. 2001. Effects of tree species on soil properties in a forest of the northeastern
United States: Thesis (doctoral)-Wageningen Universiteit, 115 pp.
3. Egnér, H., Riehm, H. & Domingo, W.R. Untersuchungen. 1960. Untersuchungen über die
chemische Bodenanalyse als Grundlage für die Beurteilung des Nährstoffzustandes der
Böden. II. Chemische Extraktionsmethoden zur Phosphor- und Kaliumbestimmung.
Kungliga Lantbrukshögskolans Annaler 26: 199-215 (in German).
4. Hagen – Thorn A., Callesen I., Armolaitis K., Nihlgård B. 2004. The impact of six European
tree species on the chemistry of mineral topsoil in forest plantations on former agricultural
land. Forest Ecology and Management 195(3): 373 – 384.
5. Hansen K., Vesterdal L., Schmidt I. K., Gundersen P., Sevel L., Bastrup-Birk A., Pedersen
L. P., Bille-Hansen J. 2009. Litterfall and nutrient return in five tree species in a common
garden experiment. Forest Ecology and Management 257 (10): 2133–2144.
6. Hobbie S. E., Ogdahl M., Chorover J., Chadwick O. A., Oleksyn J., Zytkowiak R., Reich P.
B. 2007. Tree species effects on soil organic matter dynamics: the role of soil cation
composition. Ecosystems 10: 999–1018.
7. Jensen J. K., Rasmussen L. H., Raulund – Rasmussen K., Borggaard O. K. 2008. Influene of
soil properties on the growth of sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) in Denmark. European
Journal of Forest Research 127 (4):263-274.
8. Norden U.1992. Influence of tree specines on acidification and mineral pools in deciduous
forest soils of South Sweden. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 76: 363- 381.
9. Raulund – Rasmussen K., Vejre H. 1995. Effect of tree species and soil properties on
nutrient immobilization in the forest floor. Plant and Soil 168-169 (1): 345-352.
10. Vesterdal L., Schimtd I. K., Callesen I., Nilsson L. O., Gundersen P. 2008. Carbon and
nitrogen in forest floor and mineral soil under six common European tree species. Forest
Ecology and Management 255 (1): 35- 48.
56
PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF EVALUATION OF CARBON STOCK IN HISTORICAL CROPLAND AND GRASSLAND
Andis Lazdiņš, Arta Bārdule, Jeļena Stola
Latvian State Forest Research Institute "Silava"
The aim of the study is to estimate soil organic carbon stock and to monitor soil carbon stock changes in
cropland and grassland areas, where land use type was not changed since 1990. This aim will be reached
by establishment of the network of permanent plots on the base of the National forest inventory and by
regular sampling of soil down to 40 cm depth and by laboratory analyses of soil organic and mineral
carbon, bulk density of soil and fine earth fraction. Currently 20 % of the proposed work on
establishment of the network is completed, providing valuable information about carbon stock in soil in
farmlands.
METHODOLOGY
The soil monitoring network will be established in historical cropland and grassland areas by selection
of the National forest inventory (NFI) sample plots in cropland and grassland areas, where land use type
did not change since 1990. The land use was evaluated in the Landsat satellite image series from 1990,
1995 and 2000. In total 100 plots were selected in cropland and 100 plots in grassland areas; 20 % of
them are already processed (soil sampling and analyses completed in 2012). Undisturbed soil samples
down to 40 cm depth were taken in September, 2012 in 12 repetitions from each sample plot; each set of
3 samples was taken in 0 o, 90
o, 180
o and 270
o directions about 20 m from centre of the NFI plot. Soil
samples were prepared for analyses according to the LVS ISO 11464 standard. All samples are
processed separately. After receiving in laboratory samples were dried in 105 oC temperature; then
samples were weighed with 0.01 g accuracy to determine bulk density. Bulk density (kg L-1
) is
calculated by dividing sample dry weight (in kg) with volume (in L). After weighing samples were
comminuted in Retch PM100 mill. Fine earth fraction (D < 2 mm) were separated for analyses, coarse
fractions were weighed and disposed. Recalculation to carbon stock later were done considering share
of coarse fragments in soil, assuming that they do not contain organic carbon. Average size of soil
samples prepared for analyses was 0.5 kg.
Total carbon in fine earth was determined with LECO CR-12 and ERTRA CS500 elemental analysers
according to the producers instructions and LVS ISO 10694:2006 standard. The principle of the method
– soil is incinerated at 1370 oC temperature in oxygen flow and carbon is determined as CO2. Mineral
soil carbon is determined in carbonates using simple calcimeter according to the ISO 10693:1995
standard. The method is based on reaction between soil carbonates and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
resulting in following equation (1).
(1) Before analyses of organic and mineral carbon soil moisture were determine by Precisa Series
320 XM scales to recalculate results to absolutely dry mass.
Content of organic soil carbon is calculated as difference between total carbon content and mineral
carbon content. Organic carbon stock in soil at 0...40 cm depth is calculated using equation 2.
, where (2)
C - organic soil carbon stock, kg ha-1
;
A - organic soil carbon content, g kg -1
;
B - bulk density, kg m-3
;
D - coarse soil fragments, %;
250 - coefficient to recalculate result to 1 ha and 40 cm depth
57
RESULTS
According to the preliminary results obtained in 40 sample plots average organic carbon stock in
grasslands in Latvia at 0...30 cm depth is 87 ± 7 tons ha-1
; average organic carbon stock in cropland at
0...30 cm depth is 62 ± 2 tons ha-1
. Summary of analyses is shown in Table 1. Difference between
organic carbon stock in grassland and cropland is statistically significant (p < 0.05), coefficient of
variation is below 10 % for the sample plots located in grassland and cropland areas. Actual organic
carbon in grassland according to the study results is similar to the estimation provided in the
IPCC GPG LULUCF (90 tons ha-1
at 0...30 cm depth); similarly, no difference from default estimations
according to the IPCC GPG LULUCF (60 tons ha-1
at 0...30 cm depth).
Table 1. Summary of results of soil analyses
Value Cropland Grassland Average
Bulk density (0...40 cm depth), kg m-3
1310 1165 1237
Coarse fragments (D > 2 mm, 0...40 cm depth),
%
2.2% 1.8% 2.0%
Cmineral (0...40 cm depth), g kg-1
2.8 0.3 1.6
Corganic (0...40 cm depth), g kg-1
16.6 32.0 24.2
Corganic (0...40 cm depth), tons ha-1
82 116 99
Corg. (0-30 cm depth), tons ha-1
62 87 74
The study identified slight correlation between the soil density and organic carbon stock (Figure 1)
and more dense soil in cropland; however, soil density might characterice mechanical impact and
not so much soil characteristics.
Figure 1. Correlation between soil bulk density and carbon stock.
The study approves that selected soil monitoring method is sufficient and produces comparable results
and indirectly approves, that default assumptions provided in the IPCC GPG LULUCF can be utilized
in Latvia to account carbon stock changes in mineral soils in cropland and grassland areas.
Keywords: soil carbon stock, grassland, cropland
The study is implemented within the scope of the Forest development fund project No. 020512/S68
“Support to climate research program”.
58
CARBON ACUMULATION IN ROOT BIOMASS AND ROOT MORPHOLOGY ASPECTS OF YOUNG SCOTS PINE
STANDS IN FLAT LAND OF ZEMGALE IN LATVIA Andis Bārdulis
1, Āris Jansons
1, Imants Liepa
2, Arta Bārdule
1
1Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava";
2 Latvia University of Agriculture, Department of Silviculture
European forests are important as carbon sinks and play a key role in global scale. As we know the
forests of the world contain 80% of all above-ground carbon. Root biomass is an important part of
the biosphere, and can take up to 30% of the total above-ground biomass. The root systems provide
trees with physical support and the ability to capture resources essential for growth and
reproduction. Accurate quantification of below-ground carbon stocks in forests is critical for
effective predictions of how future climate change will impact global carbon dynamics. Root
biomass production is important for modeling carbon cycling, but its calculation has been
dependant on the available data. Morphological plasticity of roots has been proposed as a
mechanism by which plants respond to variation in soil nutrient supply.
Nowadays relatively few studies in Latvia are dealing with root biomass, morphology indicates and
carbon storage in root system relation to stand age. In this study, the main objective was to estimate
root systems parameters in global climate changes. The main study tasks are to estimate root
biomass amount, morphological characteristics and carbon storage in different age classes of young
stands of Scots pines.
The study area is located in the Zemgale flat land forests in Latvia. The stands were situated on a
similar site and soil type. In Scots pine stands there was sandy loam soil, with a relatively thin
humus layer, but saturated with nutrients. The site type according to Latvian classification is
Hylocomiosa. The experimental designed included young Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands,
planted in different time period. Different age stands with different stand density were selected. One
experimental sample plot (500 m2) in each stand was established in the summer 2011 and 2012. The
stem diameter at breast height 1.3 m and the height of all trees were measured in each sample plot.
For root excavation we selected only healthy and undamaged trees. The total root system was
excavated, washed, divided into diameter classes and weighed.
For the analysis roots with diameter bigger than 2 mm were dived into two diameter classes – small
roots (Ø 2 – 20 mm) and coarse roots (Ø > 20 mm), weighted using a hand scale and measured
morphology parameters.
The soil core sampling method was used to collect the fine roots (Ø ≤ 2.0 mm). Twenty samples
(volumetric sample 100 cm3) per plot were taken from the 0 to 10, 11 to 20, 21 to 30, 31 to 40, 41 to
50 and 51 to 60 cm depth in the mineral soil, using a soil core with 5 cm diameter. Samples were
stored at 4 °C until preparation. In laboratory fine roots were removed from the soil by wet-sieving,
washed to remove soil fractions and carefully cleaned and separated into tree and vegetation roots.
We separated Scots pine roots with diameter bigger than 2 mm and excluded from the analysis. The
morphology indices of Scots pine fine roots were analyzed by using the digital image analysis
system WinRHIZO Pro 2002 software to determine root length, surface area and diameter.
Total amount of carbon in biomass samples was determined by using the carbon element analyzer
LECO CR – 12. The amount of accumulated carbon was estimated for each root fraction.
To determine the dry root weight of each tree root system, we randomly selected fresh root samples
for each diameter classes. In the laboratory, samples were dried to constant mass at 105 ºC, and
weighed. The fresh to dry weight ratios were then used to calculate dry weight for each below-
ground fraction of the tree.
Fine root biomass amount in soil affects many factors such as soil type, ground water level and
availability of nutrients. In our study the amount of fine-root biomass varied between with different
stands age, but there were not significant differences (p > 0.05.). We found trend that amount of
59
fine-root biomass was higher in the middle-aged stands, 5.3 ±2.4 t DM (dray mass) ha-1
in 13-year-
old stand and 5.5 ±2.6 t DM ha-1
in 24-year-old stand was in soil layer 0 – 60 cm. Fine root biomass
in 8-year-old stand was found 4.6 ±2.1 t DM ha-1
, but in 45-year-old stand 5.1 ±2.3 t DM ha-1
. A
major portion of the Scots pine fine roots was in the upper mineral soil immediately below the
humus layer. The investigations reflect that there was a clear relation between the average fine-root
biomass and the depth of the mineral soil layer. The mean fine root biomass in 8-year -old Scots
pine stand at depth of 0 – 10 cm was 2.8 ±1.3 t DM ha ֿ ¹, in 13-year-old stand 3.4 ±1.6 t DM ha ֿ ¹,
in 24-year-old stand 3.7 ±1.7 t DM ha ֿ ¹ and in 45-yera-old stand 2.1 ±0.9 t DM ha ֿ ¹.
Total fine roots length was also grater in middle-age stands and significantly (p < 0.05) decreased in
older stand. Total length of fine roots in13-year-old stand was 249 ±69 mm 100 cm ֿ3 and in 45-
yera-old stand 136 ±23 mm 100 cm ֿ3. Average diameter of fine roots was diverse and significantly
(p < 0.05) varied between soil layers. Fine roots diameter was varied from 0.9 mm at a depth 0 – 10
cm to 0.1 mm at depth 51 – 60 cm. The fine roots surface area was bigger in younger stands and
decreased in older stands. An average fine root surface area was 938 ±308 m² ha-1
in soil depth 0 –
60 cm.
A common misconception regarding tree root structure is that the volume and distribution of roots
is thought to reflect that of the trunk and branches. In our study we found that tree small and coarse
roots (large roots) have relatively shallow but widespread root systems. We detected that large roots
more times were going out of tree foliage area. Small roots were more develop in younger stands,
but in older stands – coarse roots. An average sample tree small root length was 1.8 m and coarse
root length 0.6 m. The biggest part of the large root biomass (80 - 90%) was located in soil depth 0
– 70 cm. Average small root biomass in young Scots pine stands was 3.8 ±2.9 kg per sample tree
and coarse root biomass 19.40 ±9.4 kg per sample tree.
Average C content in root biomass was 51.7% divided as follows: coarse roots 51.5%, small roots
50.8% and fine roots 53.1%. Carbon content varied between different age stands, but there were not
significant differences (p > 0.05).
This research was supported by the European Social Fund’s project Support for the implementation
of the Latvian Agricultural University doctoral study (contract number: No 04.4-08/EF2.D1.).
Implementation of the study thanks to the staff at Latvia State Research Institute “Silava” for
helping in data collection, root excavation, root sorting, root measuring and laboratory assistance.
Keywords: coarse roots, small roots, fine roots, Hylocomiosa.
60
11.06.2013
Session 2. Environmental services provided by forests:
increasing production
61
Main session
QUALITY AND PRODUCTIVITY OF SCOTS PINE PLUS-TREES IN LATVIA
Liga Purina, Aris Jansons, Imants Baumanis
Latvian State Forest Research Institute "Silava"
Scots pine is the most widespread pioneer species, occupying wide range of site conditions in
Latvia. Significant part (on average 80% according to State Forest Service) of its regeneration,
especially in most fertile soils, where the highest productivity can be expected, is done by planting.
In year 2011 altogether 22.7 mil plants were produced (SFS data), using only seed orchard seed
material. First Scots pine seed orchards have been established already in the end of 1960 using
grafted material of selected plus trees. Plus tree selection was based mainly on the superiority of
tree height as well as stem quality (including set of variables describing branches as well as stem
straightness) and vitality. Currently most of the plus-trees are progeny-tested and second-round seed
orchards are established. Progeny tests are used for evaluation of economically important traits,
however, bulk of them have reached age 30-40 years. Therefore aim of our study was to assess pool
of selected plus trees and obtain information on their quality and productivity at mature age that in
combination with data from progeny trials could serve as a basis for better predictions on potential
gain using seed orchard material for plant production, especially in such relatively late-starting, but
important trait as natural pruning.
Database of plus-tree measurements was created, including such traits as height, diameter, height up
to the first green and dry branch. Plus tree age ranged from 71 to 135 years, most of them were
located on Vacciniosa and Hylocomiosa forest types (186 and 153 trees respectively), therefore they
were chosen for analysis. For comparison data from National forest inventory (NFI) plots (are
≥400 m2), located in the same forest types in pure Scots pine stands were used. ANOVA and
correlation analysis were used for calculations.
Results reveal, that plus trees were on average statistically significantly taller than stand trees of a
similar age, but the differences in stem diameter were minor (~3%). Length of the branch-free part
for the plus-trees in Hylocomiosa forest type was on average 15.3±0.15 m (52% from the total
length of the tree on average) and was significantly taller than for the stand trees at any age group,
but especially for youngest trees (71-85 years): 13.7±0.34 and 7.4±0.23 respectively. It indicates
that process of natural pruning starts earlier and is more intensive for plus trees. This finding is
confirmed also by relatively strong correlation between the tree height and the length of branch-free
part for plus-trees (r=0.59) in comparison to stand trees (r=0.17).
Length of stem section with dry branches (with the lowest monetary value) for stand trees reached
8.9 m (33% of the tree height) at the age of 71-86 years, 5.6 m (19%) at the age of 101-110 years
and 4.6 m (12%) at the age of 116-125 years. It is significantly and at the younger age group also
notably larger than for the plus-trees (4.3 m, 3.9 m and 3.7 m respectively).
Calculated volume of branch-free log (total and for the section with top-diameter of 29cm) is also
larger for plus trees, indicating notably higher monetary value.
It can be concluded, that use of plus-tree genotypes as seed source has a potential to notably
improve quality of pine stands.
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris, selection, branch-free log
62
PRUNING EFFECT ON NORWAY SPRUCE GROWTH AND QUALITY
Aris Jansons, Endijs Baders, Una Neimane, Janis Donis, Andis Adamovics, Juris Kalnins
Latvian State Forest Research Institute "Silava"
Norway spruce is the fastest growing coniferous tree in Latvia, occupying mostly (87% of the
stands – NFI data) fertile mineral or drained mineral or peat soils. However, due to climatic
conditions in the region, growth rates cannot reach those achievable elsewhere and main target of
the forest management is production of high quality logs. Log quality is influenced, among all, by
number and status of branches. Natural pruning of Norway spruce does not occur intensively and
the overall trends to reduce costs of forest regeneration (planting less trees per ha) and boost
stability and increment of trees (sharply reducing stand density in pre-commercial thinning) will
most likely increase the branchiness of bottom (most valuable) logs. Pruning could ensure branch-
free bottom part of tree, but it is relatively large and uncertain investment, since at the moment very
limited market exists for pruned Norway spruce logs. Therefore thorough analysis of potential risks
needs to be carried out before implementing it. Aim of our study is to assess the impact of pruning
of Norway spruce trees on their radial increment and quality (rate of damages) in order to develop
recommendations for implementation of this management measure.
Study has been carried out in state forests and funded by JSC „Latvijas valsts meži”. Altogether 45
stands were randomly selected in highest site indexes from groups defined by stand age and pruning
time (year), proportional to number of pruned stands in each group, in a way to ensure as even
geographic distribution as possible. 30 sample plots were distributed in a regular grid in each stand,
and measurements carried out for the pruned tree at the centre of sample plot point and 4 its closest
neighbouring trees. Height, diameter and height of branch-free part of each tree was measured and
Kraft class, damages (area affected and cause – browsing, insects, frost, fungi, and protection
measures taken) and status of majority of branch scars (completely healed over, healed with resin,
open) were assessed. Additionally, increment cores were taken from the central tree of each plot
and two its closest neighbours. Data on game population densities were provided by State forest
service. Changes in radial increment were assessed according to Liepa, 1996.
Results reveal that pruning height in sampled stands ranged from 3.3 to 3.6 meters and mostly
dominant and co-dominant trees were selected. Statistically significant reduction of radial increment
was detected only in the first 3 years after the pruning and for the stands up to 17 years of age (at
the time of pruning) and with mean height up to 10.5 m. In these stands mean annual additional
volume increment is -0.28±0.05 m3ha
-1 or -7% of mean periodic volume increment.
Healing over of branch scars was dependent on the state of the branch (green or dead) as well as
radial increment of the tree.
Visible damages by fungi or insects were detected only on a few trees, but frost cracks and
browsing damages were significantly more common for pruned trees than for un-pruned (5.3% vs.
3.1% and 6.1% vs. 2.7% respectively). Browsing damages differed widely from stand to stand and
were linked to deer and moose population densities in respective region. Protection measures (light
scratching of bark to provoke resin discharge on its surface), carried out in sub-set of 11 stands
proved to be efficient and reduced average frequency of animal caused damages by half.
Study demonstrated that pruning is associated with limited (both in extent and time) reduction of
radial increment of trees and slight, partly avoidable increase of probability of damages for the
pruned tree.
Keywords: Picea abies, branch-free wood, browsing damages, increment
63
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS DETERMINING FORMATION OF LAMMAS SHOOTS IN YOUNG STANDS
OF NORWAY SPRUCE IN LATVIA Una Neimane, Aris Jansons
Latvian State Forest Research Institute "Silava"
Norway spruce is an economically important tree species in Latvia, dominating forest stands in 17%
of the total area (NFI data). Notable investments in establishment of young spruce stands are carried
out: more than 5000 ha of young stands are planted annually, mainly on fertile mineral soil with
normal moisture regime (Hylocomiosa, Oxalidosa forest types) and drained soil (Myrtillosa mel.).
Since the investments in forest regeneration and early tending have a long time of return, it is
important to analyse possible risks that might affect development or survival of forest stand. They
include also predicted changes in climatic conditions. Long term phenological observations across
Europe have indicated trend towards earlier start of the spring and longer vegetation period, that is
predicted to continue in future, e.g. already by the middle of the century in Latvia increase by two
to three weeks in comparison to the reference period is predicted. Response of trees to the
availability of a longer period of favorable growing conditions might include increased frequency of
formation of lammas shoots – additional height increment due to free growth in the second half of
vegetation period, after the end of formation of predetermined height increment. Lammas growth
can lead to such negative consequences as a higher number of branches per whorl and/or per meter
of tree stem, occurrence of spike knots and frost damages. Therefore aim of the study was to assess
proportion of trees with lammas growth in young stands of Norway spruce and factors affecting it.
This knowledge could be further used in development of recommendations for forest regeneration.
Data have been collected in central part of Latvia in 102 randomly selected Norway spruce stands at
the age of 3-7 years at the end of year 2011 and repeatedly in 21 stand at the end of year 2012. Only
forest types with highest proportion of Norway spruce stands (on fertile mineral soil and drained
fertile mineral or peat soil) were included in selection. In each stand 20 sample plots (25 m2) were
placed systematically and number of trees with and without lammas shoots was assessed. Even
though the forest types selected were all with favorable conditions for spruce growth, due to
heterogeneity of forest conditions or recent changes in site conditions (e.g. beaver dam across the
melioration ditch), browsing pressure, management decisions the conditions at plot-level were not
always favorable. Therefore there conditions were assessed in 3 grade scale in each plot in a sub-set
of 70 stands, including: a) moisture regime (1-normal, 2-minimal effect on increment, periodically
wet, 3-notable influence on increment, affecting survival); b) competition by surrounding
vegetation, trees (1-no competition (tending done); 2-minimal competition, not more than one
tending delayed; 3-strong competition, notably affecting increment); browsing damages (based on
proportion of affected trees: 1-up to 1%; 2-from 1.1 to 10%; 3-more than 10%).
Results reveal, that on average 6.5% of trees had lammas shoots; frequency was not statistically
significantly different between the years, but the correlation at stand mean level was non-significant
and weak (r=0.29), indicating notable influence of micro-environmental conditions. No age-related
trend was detected – differences in frequency of lammas shoots between stands at the age from 3 to
7 years were not statistically significant. Also forest type had no significant influence, mainly due to
large variation of values from stand to stand, e.g. in Myrtillosa mel. proportion of affected trees
ranged from 4% to 10.8%. Combination of scores of all three micro-site level assessments
characterising growing conditions (moisture, competition, browsing pressure) revealed clear trend:
the highest proportion of trees with lammas shoots was in the most favourable conditions (Fig. 1). If
at least one of the factors was scored 3 (notable negative influence), proportion of trees with
lammas shoots in the stand did not exceed 10%.
64
Growing conditions – sum of environmental factors (moisture regime, competition by surrounding vegetation, browsing
damages) each evaluated in 3 grade scale; see text for details.
Figure 1 Influence micro-site conditions on proportion of trees with lammas shoots
For development of recommendations for forest regeneration further studies shall address the issue
of actual risks and gains associated with the formation of lammas shoots.
Keywords: Picea abies, regeneration, tending, growing conditions, free growth
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
3 4 5 6 7 8
Pro
po
rtio
n o
f tr
ees
wit
h l
amm
as
sho
ots
Growing conditions, grade
65
EFFECT OF CLIMATIC FACTORS ON ANNUAL HEIGHT INCREMENT OF SCOTS PINE IN EXPERIMENTAL
PLANTATIONS IN KALSNAVA, LATVIA Āris Jansons, Roberts Matisons, Raitis Rieksts-Riekstins, Andis Adamovics
Latvian State Forest Research Institute "Silava"
Growth of trees is commonly studied by analysis of radial increment (tree-rings); however annual
height increment (HI) is an important parameter, which determines yield and quality of timber.
Scots pine, which is boreal species, is the most common in forests in Latvia and it has high
economical importance. Therefore many experiments have been established for increasing of wood
production of Scots pine in various growing conditions. However considering changes in climate,
knowledge about the effect of environmental factors (i.e. climate) on growth of native and novel
provenances and stains of trees is necessary for their sustainable use in silviculture under various
conditions.
In this study 151 Scots pine trees from two experimental plantations established in 1975 (diallel
hybridization and local provenance experiment) in Kalsnava, Latvia were felled. HI was measured
as distance on stem between whorls for period from 1976 to 2009. Quality of measurements and
crossdating of HI time-series was done using program COFECHA and graphically. PCA was used
to assess differences of high-frequency variation of HI between trees within experimental
plantation. EPS, interseries correlation and autocorrelation indices were calculated for description
of agreement between measurement time-series. The effect of climatic factors on HI was
determined by Pearson correlation analysis between residual chronologies of HI and climatic
factors: mean (MT), minimum (minT) and maximum (maxT) temperature, precipitation sums (P)
and number of days with precipitation (PD) for months and seasons.
Figure 1. Residual chronologies of Scots pine HI for diallel hybridization experiment (A) and
local provenance experiment (B) for period from 1978 to 2009.
Crossdating of HI time-series was sufficient and 85 % of measured time-series were used for further
analysis. High EPS values (> 0.90) and mean sensitivity (~0.19) suggested that common
environmental signals could be extracted from measurement time-series; however autocorrelation in
HI time-series was rather higher (~ 0.50). According to PCA of crossdated and detrended
measurement series, two groups of trees from each diallel hybridizing and local provenance
66
experiments, were arbitrarily distinguished. Mean HI between groups of diallel experiment was
similar, but yearly variation of HI increment time-series (not shown) had minor differences
suggesting differences in effect of environmental factors. Regarding local provenance experiment,
yearly variations of HI was similar, but mean HI differed significantly between groups. As the
distinguished groups of trees did not show relationship with provenances or hybridization patterns,
apparently the grouping (PC I) refers to different functional traits of pine.
Table 1. Significant Pearson correlation coefficients (in bold) between
residual chronologies of HI for groups of trees distinguished by PCA (p-
values of * < 0.05, ** < 0.01).
Diallel
hybridization
experiment
Local provenance
experiment
Group I Group II
Fast
growth
Slow
Growth
Temperature
March, minT -0.38 * -0.20 -0.19 -0.03
April, maxT -0.15 -0.35 * -0.22 -0.21
May, MT -0.30 -0.13 -0.41 * -0.36 *
May, maxT -0.34 -0.19 -0.46 ** -0.37 *
Previous August, minT 0.23 0.37 * 0.21 0.11
Precipitation
October, PD 0.19 0.19 0.11 0.39 *
November, P 0.18 0.36 * 0.16 0.23
November, PD 0.36 * 0.35 0.39 * 0.23
February, PD 0.31 0.34 0.3 0.41 *
May, P 0.17 0.38 * 0.32 0.3
Previous April, P 0.41 * 0.24 0.03 0.11
Previous May–September, P 0.27 0.18 0.40 * 0.27
Previous July–September, P 0.20 0.18 0.38 * 0.31
Previous July, P 0.16 0.22 0.49 ** 0.44 *
Previous July, PD 0.11 0.15 0.41 * 0.31
Previous September, PD -0.30 -0.30 -0.44 * -0.39 *
Previous growing season, P 0.27 0.20 0.38 * 0.30
HI chronologies established for groups (Figure 1) generally showed common tendencies; however
there were also minor differences between groups. The sets of climatic factors significant for HI
(Table 1) obviously differed between groups, suggesting different sensitivity to environmental
conditions. Precipitation overall showed more frequent and stronger correlations than temperature.
In the diallel hybridization experiment, first group was sensitive to March minT, November PD and
previous April P. The second group was sensitive to April and previous August minT and
November and May P. The significant correlations suggest negative effect of temperature
variability on spring if onset of growth occurs faster. Both groups of trees from local provenance
experiment were sensitive to May maxT, previous July P and previous September PD, suggesting
effect of drought conditions on HI. However, faster growing trees additionally showed sensitivity to
precipitation during previous vegetation period and November PD that can be explained by higher
rates of assimilation if water is abundant. Slow growing trees were sensitive to May MT, October
and February PD, suggesting effect of weather conditions in beginning of growth and dormant
period (likely on nutrient reserves).
Keywords: shoot elongation, weather, Scots pine, retrospective analysis, functional traits,
functional trait
67
Shortened presentations
WITHIN- AND AMONG-STAND GENETIC DIVERSITY OF COMMON ASPEN (POPULUS TREMULA L.) IN LATVIA
Martins Zeps, Janis Smilga, Angelika Voronova, Krista Kanberga-Silina, Dainis Rungis,
Aris Jansons
Latvian State Forest Research Institute "Silava"
Aspen-dominated stands occupy 244.7 thousand ha and it is the fifth most wide-spread tree species
in Latvia. Common aspen is a fast growing pioneer species with a notable and potentially increasing
role in wood production. Numerous studies have addressed also its substantial role in creation of
biodiversity in boreal and hemiboreal forests: namely ensuring the habitats essential for several rare
and threatened species. In contrast, very limited information, mainly from boreal forests, is
available on genetic diversity of the species itself. Areas have been designated for protection of
genetic diversity of this species based solely on phenotypic information and set of assumptions.
Therefore the aim of the study is to assess the genetic diversity and number and distribution of
clones in young stands of common aspen in order to provide basis for it more efficient (targeted)
protection of tis genetic diversity.
Sample trees for the study (altogether 505) were systematically (with distance 10-15m) collected in
18 randomly selected stands of common aspen at the age of 5 to 10 years, located in 6
geographically distant regions (further in study defined as provenances) with the highest proportion
of common aspen. Stands were located on fertile mineral soil (17 stands) and fertile drained peat
soil (1 stand). Clones were identified using 6 SSR markers.
On average 9.4±2.65 clones ha-1
occurred in the studied stands. Considerable differences between
stands were detected, ranging from 5.3 to 22 clones ha-1
. The majority of clones (79% on average
with high variation among stands) were represented only by a single copy (ramet), indicating
substantial within-stand diversity. Average distance between ramets of the same clone was
48±9.5m, largest distance – 169.4m. This suggests that in favorable conditions, a few of the fittest
clones have a potential to occupy large areas and to form stands with a very limited genetic
diversity. Therefore clone structure must be assessed and monitored in the areas dedicated for
protection of genetic diversity of common aspen.
Analysis of the molecular variance (AMOVA) revealed a slight genetic differentiation between the
provenances: 7% of total genetic diversity was found among them and 93% - within. Obtained
results are similar to those found in other wind pollinated tree species (e.g. Scots pine, Norway
spruce) in Latvia and indicate, that the generative propagation of common aspen might play more
important role as previously thought.
Grouping of provenances based on their genetic characteristics using principal component analysis
(PCA) reveal, that the only included provenance from western part of Latvia is significantly
different from all others (Fig. 1). It is in line with results of provenance trials of Scots pine,
indicating differences between trees from eastern and western part of the country and well as in
genetic studies of oak, where different haplotypes were detected in these regions. Results suggest
that far-distance pollen and seed transfer have not levelled-off the genetic differences between the
regions and it needs to be considered while distributing the areas of protection of genetic resources
of this species. Further studies including larger number of provenances are needed to confirm the
initial findings.
68
W- western part of Latvia, E- eastern part of Latvia
Figure 1. Genetic distance between common aspen provenances
Keywords: genetic resources protection, regeneration, clone identification
Auce (E)
Lisene (E)
Limbazi (E)
Ziguri (E)
Koknese (E)
Kolka (W)
Pri
nci
pal
com
pon
ent
2
Principal component 1
69
INTEGRATION OF GENETIC AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INFORMATION FOR BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF
WOOD FORMATION IN SCOTS PINE (PINUS SYLVESTRIS L.)
Krista Kanberga-Silina1, Dainis Rungis
1, Aris Jansons
2
1Genetic Resource Centre, Latvian State Forest Research Institute "Silava
2Forest Tree Breeding, Latvian State Forest Research Institute "Silava"
Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is one of the most economically important tree species in Europe
and is one of most widely distributed conifer species in the world. In Latvia, Scots pine covers 35 %
of the forested area. Wood formation is influenced by exogenous and endogenous factors and their
interaction and driven by coordinated expression of structural and regulatory genes. Wood
properties are highly variable even within single tree and between individuals. Wood density is one
of main wood characteristics. High heritability for wood density was detected in P. sylvestris
progeny trials in Sweden as well as for other gymnosperm species. The first aim of this study was to
select genes involved in important processes of wood formation, and to study the expression of
these genes during early wood and late wood formation in open-pollinated families growing in
natural conditions, and to determine whether a correlation exists between expression of these genes
and relative wood density with a future goal of including this knowledge in tree breeding strategies.
We selected candidate genes which are thought to be related to wood formation. From those three
genes are involved in lignin biosynthesis (PAL1, CCR, CAD), one in water transport (Aqual) and
one in sucrose biosynthesis (SuSy). We studied expression during early and late wood formation of
these five wood formation related genes in 50 individuals from open pollinated Scots pine families
with relatively higher and lower wood density. For obtaining gene expression data we used relative
standard curve real time PCR method. As three candidate genes are involved in lignin biosynthesis,
Klason lignin content was determined according to the TAPPI 222om-98 standard and relative
wood density was measured using a Pilodyn instrument. Correlations between relative wood density
and candidate gene expression were found, but mostly were low. Relative wood densities as
measured by Pilodyn are approximate, and as single gene has low impact on complex wood traits,
more difficult to associate with gene expression data. To characterise physiological properties of
selected 50 trees more properly we chose SilviScan. SilviScan technology is recognised leader in
high throughput characterizing of wood and fibre properties. Data obtained using SilviScan provide
data both for analysing together with gene expression data and separately. As research integrating
different experimental approaches is becoming more important, the second aim is to associate more
specific wood physiological parameters with genetic information and to compare with previously
obtained Pilodyn relative density and Klason lignin content data. Relative wood density values
obtained with Pilodyn were found to be highly correlated with average mean densities (kg/m3)
obtained with SilviScan (r=0,715). More wood trait data obtained with SilviScan in relation with
gene expression data will be presented and discussed.
Keywords: Scots pine, wood formation, gene expression, SilviScan.
70
11.06.2013
Session 3. Recreational values as the main goal of
forest management
71
Keynote
PERSPECTIVES OF RECREATION AND NATURE-BASED TOURISM IN FINLAND
Liisa Tyrväinen
Finnish Forest Research Institute (METLA)
Forest-based recreation is an essential part of life of Finns: majority of outfoor recreation visits are
made into forests. Recreational visits concentrate on urban and peri-urban forests in southern
Finland, where majority on current population lives. Finnish outdoor recreation is also featured by
large number of visits to second homes (summer cottages). There are approximately 490 000 second
homes mainly located in the lake district, coastal areas and Lapland. Moreover, nature-based
tourism is an example of non-timber forest services that has an increasing role as a means of
livelihood in forest-rich rural and peripheral areas. In Finnish Lapland, for example, tourism has
become the most important economic sector, providing more jobs than the forest sector (Council of
Lapland, 2009).
Forestry as a large industry has during the past decades had significant impact on the quality of
landscapes in northern Europe. The growth of nature-based tourism has expanded tourism and
outdoor recreation activities from protected areas into commercial forests mainly aimed at timber
production. This has created demands to modify the standard forest management regimes that may
have negative effects on the landscape, one of the main pull factors of nature-based tourism (e.g.
Tyrväinen et al. 2008). Although forest management practices have been adapted to improve
maintenance of biodiversity and recreation values, concerns around landscape deterioration are still
repeatedly raised into public debate.
The link between forest management and the recreation environment is demonstrated in large body
of forest landscape preferences studies. Nordic studies show that recreationists appreciate lightly
managed forests, with no direct signs of forest management. A recent study focusing of foreign
tourists landscape preferences in northern Finland showed rather strong impact of seasons (summer-
winter) on the suitability of commercial forests for recreation. Seasonal differences are particularly
large in forest regeneration areas..
This presentation discusses role of nature-based tourism and recreation in forest rich countries with
increasingly urbanizing societies. Recent results from a national research program ’Wellbeing from
forests’ (2008-2013) coordinated by METLA will be presented. The examples illustrate the impact
of commercial forestry on tourism landscapes and discuss economic trade-offs between forestry and
tourism. Moreover, the current phase in Finland in introducing applicable models for landscape and
recreation values trading in private lands will be briefly discussed. Recent results of economic
valuation studies dealing with nature-based tourism and recreation in Finland will also be presented.
Keywords: economic benefits, landscape preferences, nature-based tourism, outdoor recreation
72
Main session
THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF RECREATION IN MOUNTAIN FORESTS: A META-ANALYSIS
Grilli Gianluca1, De Meo Isabella
2, Paletto Alessandro
1
1Consiglio per la Ricerca e la sperimentazione in Agricoltura – Forest Monitoring and Planning
Research Unit (CRA-MPF), Villazzano di Trento (Italy). 2Consiglio per la Ricerca e la sperimentazione in Agricoltura – Agrobiology and Pedology Centre
(CRA-ABP), Florence (Italy).
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Tourism and recreation in forest areas is a growing phenomenon especially in the industrialized
countries, which are experiencing an increase of demand for nature-based vacations (Gossling,
1999). The opportunity to enjoy the natural amenities and beautiful landscapes attracts many
tourists every year. This practice led environmental and forest policies to focus on conservation
issues, particularly in the areas important for tourism purposes, in order to preserve the habitat and
the species richness. The idea is that the economic benefit that come from the forests is not only
related to timber production (Merlo, 1987). There are also many non-timber benefits connected with
habitats and species conservations, such as all the services provided by the ecosystems for human
well-being. Recreation in forest is a very important service provided by the environment, that
allows generating considerable incomes for the local population. Clean environments, beautiful
landscapes and biodiversity abundance are very powerful attractions for tourists who want to enjoy
natural amenities and being in contact with nature. Within this context, natural resources
conservation can reach the goals of maintaining ecosystem functionalities and generating incomes.
“Nature conservation contributes to the tourism industry and tourism contributes to the national
economy” (Hearne and Salinas, 2002, p. 154). To fully reach the conservation objectives, it is
important to develop nature-based forms of tourism, in particular eco-tourism, respectful of the
natural environment and local traditions. Eco-tourism is an ideal strategy to combine conservation
and local development (Bookbinder et al., 1998). Forest management plays a key role in preserving
the environment and creating conditions for eco-tourism.
The economic value of the recreation service provided by the forest can be very high. For this
reason, considering or not considering recreation service makes a significant difference in
management and conservation planning of the environment and the landscape (Zendersen and Tol,
2009). Recreation in forests is one of the ecosystem services that can be included in the public
goods sphere (Kaul and Mendoza, 2003). Without a market mechanism, these goods and services do
not have a market price and an economic value.
To fill this gap, different environmental evaluation techniques have been developed in order to
assess the economic value of the ecosystem goods and services. More precisely, considering the
assessment of the recreation values, the most useful techniques are the Travel Cost Method (TCM),
in the field of the revealed preferences, and the Contingent Valuation (CV), among the stated
preferences methods. TCM is an evaluation technique that uses the cost supported by the tourist for
the travel to the forest as a proxy for the environmental good (Garrod and Willis, 1991). CV is a
method through which respondents are asked to express their Willingness To Pay (WTP) for the
environmental good evaluated (Hanemann, 1994).
The transfer of the result represents another environmental goods evaluation technique called
Benefit Transfer (BT), or more generally Value Transfer. This technique consists on examining
surveys undertaken in specific contexts and transferring the results to unstudied similar sites of
interest for policy making (Wilson and Hoehn, 2006). The specific site from which information and
data are derived is called study site, while the one to which these information are transferred is
called policy site (Bartczak et al., 2008). Field surveys, to obtain primary data, are not always
feasible because of the lack of the necessary resources. In these cases, BT offers numerous
advantages both in terms of money and time saving. In reason of this utility BT technique is well
73
developed in United States and Canada (Bergstrom and De Civita, 1999). The typical fields of BT
application are health benefits, water quality and recreational values.
The present contribution offers a meta-analysis of the recreational value of different forest types in
Europe, estimated through TCM and CV analysis. The recreation activities considered in the meta-
analysis are walking, jogging, picnicking and landscape viewing, while recreational activities such
as hunting and picking (mushrooms and berries) are excluded. The studies considered have been
carried out in forest located in mountain sites in Europe, especially in the Alps. In particular, 33
studies distributed in seven different countries (twenty-three in Italy, three in Switzerland, two in
Austria and Spain, one in Poland, Germany and France) were analysed. The choice to consider
European alpine forest has been motivated by the necessity to compare values related to sites
similar in tree species composition, average forest altitude, touristic target and WTP. In this way, the
mean recreational value can be applied to comparable forest areas (Bartczak et al., 2008).
The meta-analysis has been realized considering both the tourists’ WTP per visit and the hectares of
forests. The results of the meta-analysis show an average WTP equal to 14.29 € per visit per person
(current value obtained using a discount rate of 1%). These average values are included in a wide
range from 0.89 €/per visit in an Austrian protect area (Ahornboden) (Gluck and Kuen, 1977) to
98.6 €/per visit in the Cuenca de Manzanares (Spain) (Garrido et al., 1994). When the analysis
considers the hectares of forest, the mean recreational value is around 208 €/ha. This value is
included in a range between 22.7 €/ha in the Dolomiti Bellunesi (Italy) (Tempesta and Thiene,
2000) and 645.7 €/ha in the Tatra mountains in Poland (Getzner, 2010). Besides, the data collected
with different methods (CV and TCM) were compared from the statistical point of view. The
seventeen studies that used the TCM show an average value equal to 14.9 €/per visit and to 204.0
€/ha of forest. The nineteen studies that applied the CV method evidenced an average value of 11.2
€/per visit and of 193.53 €/ha of forest. Despite these differences, the non-parametric test of Mann-
Whitney - using a statistical significance of 95% - show no statistically significant differences both
per visit (U=179, Attended value=161.5, p-value=0.594) and per hectare (U=114, Attended
value=112, p-value=0.951).
In the last part of the paper, using the BT technique, the results of the meta-analysis are applied to a
case study located in the North-Eastern Italian Alps (Valle di Non, Trentino province). The Valle di
Non is a mountainous valley (596,7 km2) with a well-developed agricultural industry (apple and
grape production). The labour force employed in the primary sector is around 20%, while the third
sector is not important for the local development. According to the local statistics (2011) tourism in
Val di Non reaches ca. 1.328.000 tourists per year. At present summer tourists represent 80% of the
total. The forest area is around 350 km2 (59% of total area) and the main forest types are the
Norway spruce, Scots pine and European larch dominant forests. The forests of Valle di Non are
mainly public and common forests (80%), while the remaining 20% belongs to small private
owners. The economic value of recreation in the Valle di Non forests is determined from the meta-
analysis data and the local statistics. The economic value of recreation in Valle di Non was
calculated considering the total forest area and the mean recreational value. The obtained value is
around 7,3 million €. Considering that the economic value of timber production in Valle di Non is
around 1,4 million € per year, we can assert that this non-marketable function has considerable
weight in the estimation of Total Economic Value (TEV) of the forests.
In this study we collected 33 papers to conduct a first meta-analysis of the recreational activities
values provided by the European alpine forest systems. Our results show a great variation in WTP
that could be explained by variables in evaluation methods, study quality and intrinsic features of
the sites.
Based on such results, we can suggest that such meta-analyses can provide a useful guidance
regarding at least the general magnitude of recreational value provided by forests.
The application of the BT technique provides some indications and guidance as to the recreation
services of the Valle di Non. However, attention must me paid to the application of such a result into
a more ample context of BT, as it is collected from a limited amount of data. It is important to
emphasize the uncertainties that are present in BT exercises applied to forests.
74
Key-words: mountain forests, tourism and recreation, economic evaluation, benefit transfer method.
References:
1. Bartczak A., Lindhjem H., Stenger A. 2008. Review of benefit transfer studies in the forest
context. Scandinavian Forest Economics 42: 276-304 .
2. Bergstrom J.C., De Civita. P. 1999. Status of benefits transfer in the United States and
Canada: a review. Canadian Journal of Agricultural 47(1): 79-87.
3. Bookbinder M.P, Dinerstein E., Rijal A., Cauley H. 1998. Ecotourism’s Support of
Biodiversity Conservation. Conservation Biology 12(6): 1399-1404.
4. Garrido, A., Gomez, J., De Lucio, J. V., & Múgica, M. (1994). Aplicación del método del
coste del viaje a la valoración de “La Pedriza” en el Parque Regional de la Cuenca Alta del
Manzanares en la provincia de Madrid.
5. Getzner, M. (2010). Ecosystem services, financing, and the regional economy: A case study
from Tatra National Park, Poland. Biodiversity 11(1-2): 55-61.
6. Glück, P., & Kuen, H. (1977). Der Erholungsert des Großen Ahornbodens. Allgemeine
Forstzeitung 8(1): 7-11
7. Gossling S. 1999. Ecotourism: a means to safeguard biodiversity and ecosystem functions ?
Ecological Economics 29: 303-320.
8. Hanemann WM. 1994. Valuing the environment through contingent valuation. The Journal
of Economic Perspectives 8(4): 19-43.
9. Hearne R.R, Salinas Z.M. 2002. The use of choice experiments in the analysis of tourist
preferences for ecotourism development in Costa Rica. Journal of Environmental
Management 65: 153-163.
10. Kaul I., Mendoza R., 2003. Advancing the conceps of public goods. Providing global public
goods: managing globalisation, 78-111.
11. Merlo M., Stellin G., Harou P., Whitby M. 1987. Multipurpose agriculture and forestry. In:
11th
seminar of the EAAE.
12. Tempesta, T., & Thiene, M. (2000). Aree protette ed attività ricreative: un’indagine nel parco
nazionale delle dolomiti bellunesi. Genio Rurale 5: 13-25.
13. Willis K., Garrod G. 1991. An individual travel-cost method of evaluating forest recreation.
Journal of Agricultural Economics 1(42): 33-42.
14. Wilson M. Hoehn J.P. 2006. Valuing environmental goods and services using benefit
transfer: The state-of-the art and science. Ecological Economics 60(2): 335-342.
15. Zandersen M., Tol R.S.J. 2009. A meta-analysis of forest recreation values in Europe.
Journal of Forest Economics 15(1-2): 109-130.
75
THE IMPACT OF RIGA URBAN FOREST MANAGEMENT REGIME ON VISITORS ECONOMIC WELFARE
Ilze Jankovska1, Inga Straupe
1, Dmitry Pavlyuk
2
1 Latvia University of Agriculture, Akademijas 11, Jelgava, LV-3001
2Transport and Telecommunication Institute, Lomonosova 1, Riga, LV-1019
Municipal recreation forests face a variety of demands, which require a range of features from the
forest environment. The selected forest management regime as well as the natural forest ecosystem
affects the range and abundance of the different features desired by the forest users (Horne et al.,
2005).
The stated choice experiment was designed as a set of several alternatives, characterised by forest
management activities: a) deadwood, understorey and bough removal; b) recreational amenities
construction; c) management costs (LVL/ha -1
); d) forest scenery; e) indicators of biodiversity
level. Respondents were asked to choose one of their preferred forest landscape for the each site at
four urban forests in Riga city (Buļļi, Anniņmuiža, Mangaļsala and Mežparks locality). The
parameters from each site-specific model were used to examine the economic welfare impacts of
forest management options on visitors and the alternatives were compared using compensating
variation values (Kjaer, 2005). In addition, the study design accounted for changes in scenery and
biodiversity indices in the forest environment resulting from forest management practices, and the
respondents scenic preferences in relation to forest management intensity were collected.
The choice experiment method provided detailed information on visitor preferences for forest
attributes resulting from management changes. The results show strong public preferences for
intensive forest management and demonstrate the existence of trade-offs between forest benefits,
when they cannot be supplied simultaneously. The approach also allows for the development of
hypothetical management scenarios and estimation of respective economic welfare changes for
visitors from these scenarios.
Keywords: urban forests, forest management, visitors' welfare
References:
1. Horne P., Boxall P.C., Adamowicz W.L. (2005). Multiple-use management of forest
recreation sites: a spatially explicit choice experiment, Forest Ecology and Management,
Vol. 207, No 1, pp. 189–199.
2. Kjaer T. (2005). A Review of the Discrete Choice Experiment - with Emphasis on Its
Application in Health Care. University Of Southern Denmark, 143 p.
76
ASSESSMENT OF FOREST STAND VISUAL ATTRACTIVENESS BY STUDENTS OF DIFFERENT
SPECIALITIES
Jānis Donis1, Inga Straupe,
2
1Latvian state forest research institute “Silava”;
2Latvia University of Agriculture
Forest in Latvia has significant economic, ecological and social value. In earlier times with term
`forest value` mainly value of timber was usually understood. Recently there is an increasing
emphasis on non-wood products and services provided by forests. Visual quality is one of forest
services provided to society. Visual quality can be affected by decisions made during planning.
Goal of research was twofold: a) to evaluate visual preferences by students of different specialities
which in the future due to professional duties could affect forests visual appearance and b) to
compare results of two approaches used in evaluation of visual preferences.
We used picture catalogue with 45 pictures which reflected forests stands after different forest
management activities or disturbances.
Picture were shown to 23 students of Landscape architecture (LA), 23 students of Forest
engineering (FE), 14 students of forest science (FS) and 19 students of environmental and water
management (EWM). At the first round students were asked to compare pairs of pictures naming
scenery seen in the scale “like more A or B”, “rather like more A or B”, “A and B are equal”. In
total each student assessed 90 pairs of pictures. In second round they gave assessment of each
picture in verbal scale from 1 to 10 (very ugly to very nice). Pictures were shown at random; each
picture 2-3 times.
For each student evaluation consistency was also assessed. It was assumed that evaluation is
consistent, if evaluation of each picture did not differ more than 2 grades (out of 10), and
assessment of pairs “like more” was consistent with evaluation in verbal scale.
Average value of consistency (0 to 1) was 0.62 (ranging from 0.33 - 0.79).
More consistent in their assessment were students of forest science (0.67), less consistent - students
of forest engineering (0.60). Despite discrepancies average values of assessments of consistent and
non-consistent assessments did no differ.
Correlation in average assessments of different specialities was high ranging from +0.82 to +0.94.
Most different assessment was done by students of Landscape architecture.
Table 1. Correlation in average assessment of different pictures
LA FE FS EWM
Grand
Total
LA 1
FE 0.84 1
FS 0.82 0.93 1
EWM 0.87 0.94 0.92 1
Grand
Total 0.93 0.97 0.95 0.98 1
It can be concluded that assessment of forest stand visual quality by students of different specialities
related to nature resource management is relatively similar.
77
RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN NATURAL LANDSCAPE AREAS
Loreta Pizika, Reinis Piziks
Daba Laba Ltd, Ventspils distr., Ance parish, “Krastiņi”, LV-3612; 2 Daba Laba Ltd, Ventspils
distr., Ance parish, “Krastiņi”, LV-3612
Recreational activities in natural landscape areas usually cause invasive adjustments to provide
comfort conditions.
“Daba Laba” is a family-held organization that provides nature tourism services to local and
international tourists. The main goal of “Daba Laba” is to give interesting and attractive products
created in nature as it is. “Daba Laba” uses minimal invasive adaptation for human comfort.
In year 2010 “Daba Laba” started to provide canoe boat rent on Stende and Irbe rivers. Stende and
Irbe rivers are running through protected area “Ance bogs and forests”. Although recreational
activities are allowed in this area, they are limited. People are coming from all over Latvia and
abroad to be in nature, to feel peace and hope to meet a wild deer, roebucks, wild boar, beavers,
racoons, badgers, huge diversity of birds, such as cranes, goose, storks and many others.
In year 2011 bow tracks were opened. Bow tracks are 3.5km and 1km long, located in wild nature.
There are 20 targets designed in shapes of natural sized animals living in Latvia nature, suitable for
longbow shooting. People are instructed for longbow shooting and guided in bow track, with story
about animals and wild nature.
In year 2012 other services joined as an answer to demand. They are photo-hunting, guided hiking,
team building activities.
In year 2013 natural bath service joined - a bath house is built on 4 wheel agriculture trailer. Only
natural materials are used to build the bath-house and since the house is movable it is possible to
have relaxing bath activities next to the river, in the middle of meadow or next to the sea.
“Daba Laba” finds it possible to successfully provide attractive and educating products for human
recreation in wild natural landscape with minimal level of invasion and change.
Keywords: nature tourism, recreational activities, ecological living
78
10-11.06.2013
Posters
79
PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF EVALUATION OF AREA OF ORGANIC SOILS IN ARABLE LANDS IN LATVIA
Andis Lazdiņš, Arta Bārdule, Jeļena Stola
Latvian State Forest Research Institute "Silava"
Organic soils in cropland and grassland are considerable source of emissions of CO2 and N2O.
According to the national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory 1 ha of cropland on organic soil
produces 3.7 tons CO2 annually and 1 ha of grassland on organic soil – 0.92 tons CO2. Evaluation
of historical data about organic soils (histosol) in farmlands in Latvia resulted in 5.18 % of share of
organic soil. This figure is overestimated according to the expert judgement, because due to rapid
decomposition of organic material many of previous organic soils nowadays are mineral soils and
many of the areas on organic soils are already afforested due to low economic value. The aim of the
study is to estimate actual area of organic soils in cropland and grassland in Latvia on the base of
the National forest inventory (NFI) sample plots. The work is started in 2012 by evaluation of 20 %
of the NFI plots on farmlands. Preliminary results are presented in this article.
METHODOLOGY
Three-step evaluation was used to estimate area of organic soils in farmlands in Latvia. At first, the
NFI plots marked as cropland or grassland in the 2004...2008 site visits were projected on the
1:75000 topographic maps of beginning of 20th
century to see if they overlaps with wet areas (wet
forests and pastures, swamps). Sample plots located on or nearby (R = 375 m or 0.5 cm on map)
wet areas were manually selected for field visits. Then, during the field visits soil samples were
taken down to 40 cm depth in each of the selected sample 4 places at 15...20 m distance from the
centre of the plot to 0o, 90
o, 180
o and 270
o direction. If the soil in at least 2 probes in a sample plot
was organic according to visual signs (colour, smell, texture, characteristic peat particles in soil or
underlying peat layer) another set of soil samples were taken from 0...20 cm depth in 4 places and
mixed together to check if they fulfils criteria for organic soils.
Soil was considered organic, if it fulfils criteria 1 and 2 or 1 and 3:
soil depth is at least 10 cm and content of organic carbon in upper 20 cm deep soil layer is at
least 12 %;
if soil has never been saturated with water for more than few days per year, organic carbon
stock is at least 20 % in the upper 20 cm deep soil layer;
if soil is often saturated with water, the upper 20 cm deep soil layer contains:
◦ at least 12 % of organic carbon, if there is no clay particles in soil,
◦ at least 18 % organic carbon, if clay content is at least 60 %,
◦ organic carbon content is at least 12...18 % proportionally to the clay content in soil
according to a linear regression equation.
In the laboratory soil samples were prepared for analyses according to the LVS ISO 11464 standard.
After receiving in laboratory soil samples were drayed in room temperature. After draying soil
samples were comminuted in Retch PM100 mill. Fine earth fraction (D < 2 mm) were separated for
analyses. Average size of soil sample prepared for analyses was 0.5 kg.
Total carbon in fine earth was determined with LECO CR-12 elemental analyser according to the
producers instructions and LVS ISO 10694:2006 standard. The principle of the method – soil is
incinerated at 1370 oC temperature in oxygen flow and carbon is determined as CO2.
Mineral soil carbon is determined as carbonates using simple calcimeter according to the ISO
10693:1995 standard. The method is based on reaction between soil carbonates and hydrochloric
acid (HCl) resulting in following equation (1). Before analyses of organic and mineral carbon soil
moisture were determined by Precisa Series 320 XM scales to recalculate results to absolutely dry
mass. Content of organic soil carbon is calculated as difference between total carbon content and
mineral carbon content. Soil texture were determined using gravimetric method according to the
80
LVS ISO 11277 standard. Size of clay particles were considered according to international soil
classification (D < 0.002 mm).
2232
32
+2+
3
CO+OHCOH
COH+Me2H+MeCO
(1)
RESULTS
In total 1193 NFI plots were evaluated in the topographic maps and 600 plots were selected for site
visits and soils sampling, soil samples were collected in 50 plots and 12 of them fulfilled above-
mentioned criteria for organic soils.
Total area of organic soils in farmlands in Latvia according to the preliminary results is
25.7 ± 3.2 kha (Table 1). Share of organic soils in farmlands is 5 times smaller (1 % in total) than it
follows from historical soil data records. Notably that share of organic soils in afforested farmlands
corresponds to share of the forest stand types characteristic for organic soils.
Table 1. Area of organic soils in Latvia according to preliminary study results
Land use Organic soils,
kha
Total area, ha Organic soils
from total area
Representation
error
Afforested farmlands 5.2 174.9 3.0% 4%
Cropland 2.2 736.8 0.3% 1%
Grassland 18.4 1328.7 1.4% 1%
About 71 % of organic soils are located in grassland, 20 % in afforested farmland and 8 % in
cropland. The obtained results approves expert judgement proposed in the national GHG inventory
that there is difference in distribution of organic soils in cropland and grassland, and that the share
of organic soils in farmlands is considerably smaller than in the past; therefore, the emissions from
organic soils are considerably overestimated, especially during recent decade.
The preliminary data and experience gained in field studies demonstrated that the selected method
is sufficient to obtain statistical information about distribution of organic soils in Latvia and can be
used in further, more detailed investigations about carbon stock changes in organic soils. However,
the data should be considered as preliminary, because only 20 % of the NFI plots on farmlands are
evaluated up to now. The study do not provide information about historical dynamics of distribution
of organic soils; therefore, it is proposed to consider in the NFI that share of organic soils in 1990
corresponds to historical soil data records (5.18 % from farmlands, equal for cropland and
grassland) and decreases linearly to the levels estimated in 2012. The study should be completed
and complete set of data (100 % of the NFI plots) should be used to estimate share of organic soils.
Keywords: organic soils, grassland, cropland
The study is implemented within the scope of the Forest development fund project No. 020512/S68
“Support to climate research program”.
81
HYBRID ASPEN WOOD – PRECIOUS RAW MATERIAL FOR PRODUCTS WITH HIGH ADDED VALUE
Inese Sable1, Uldis Grinfelds
1, Martins Zeps
2, Arnis Treimanis
1
1Latvian State Institute of Wood Chemistry, 27 Dzerbenes Str., LV-1006 Riga, Latvia
2Latvian State Forest Research Institute “Silava”, 111 Rigas Str., LV-2169 Salaspils, Latvia
In the present time the breeding of new tree species and their clones is one of the options to increase
amount of natural materials. Hybrid aspen plantations can be an additional and valuable source of
renewable resources for energy as well as for wood and fibre products with high added value.
Hybrid aspen has been first choice for plantations in Nordic and Baltic countries. (Tullus et al.
2007; 2012). In the 1960–1980s (Zeps et al. 2008) hybrid aspen have been continuously studied
also in Latvia. American aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) and common aspen (Populus tremula
L.) hybrid trees demonstrated the heterosis effect, i.e. better development, especially increased stem
volume and biomass production as a result of cross-breeding, in the first generation.
The aim of this study was to evaluate hybrid aspen wood as raw material for products with a higher
added value – fibres, pulp and paper. Common aspen (Populus tremula L) wood was set as a
„standard” for comparison. Trees age and growth conditions (former agricultural lands and forest
lands) were taken into the account. Chemical composition (cellulose, lignin, extractives) and
anatomical structure (dimensions of vessels) of the wood samples was studied. Also kraft pulping
was accomplished and fibres’ dimensions, shape factor and coarseness were measured, Paper
handsheets’ strength properties were tested and compared between the species and samples.
Figure 1. Stem volume’s variations of some hybrid aspen clones in comparison with common
aspen.
Besides the fact that hybrid aspen has a higher productivity (Zeps et al. 2008; 2012) as it is shown
in Figure 1 (12 years old trees from former agricultural lands), its fibre’s length (at tree age ~20
years) is 0.99 mm and it significantly (p<0.05) overcomes common aspen (0.79 mm) at the same
age.
There are no significant variations in chemical composition and anatomical structure between
hybrid and common aspen, except wood density, which is higher in case of common aspen, but
varies depending on tree age and growth conditions.
82
Table 1. Comparison of handsheet paper strength properties
Hybrid aspen L Common aspen L Common aspen M
Burst index, kPa m2 g
–1 0.99 ±0.13 0.65 ±0.00 0.83 ±0.10
Breaking lenght, km 3.27 ±0.30 2.52 ±0.38 3.00 ±0.37
Hybrid aspen paper sheets tests demonstrate slightly higher burst index and breaking length. It
evidences about suitability of this specie for production of high quality papers.
The main conclusion is that the hybrid aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx. x Populus tremula L.)
could be a serious competitor in wood products industry with good opportunities in the field of
fibrous products.
Keywords: productivity, paper strength, fibres
References:
1. Tullus, A., Tullus, H., Vares, A., Kanal, A. (2007). Early growth of hybrid aspen (Populus x
wettsteinii Hamet-Ahti) plantations on former agricultural lands in Estonia. Forest Ecol.
Manag. 245:118 – 129.
2. Tullus, A., Rytter, L., Tullus, T., Weih, M., Tullus, H. (2012). Short-rotation forestry with
hybrid aspen (Populus tremula L. x P. tremuloides Michx.) in Northern Europe. Scand. J.
Forest Res. 27:10 – 29.
3. Zeps, M., Auzenbaha, D., Gailis, A., Treimanis, A., Grīnfelds, U. (2008). Evaluation and
selection of hybrid aspen (Populus tremuloides X Populus tremula) clones. Mežzinātne
18:19– 34
4. Zeps, M., Šāble, I., Grīnfelds, U., Jansons, Ā., Irbe, I., Treimanis, A. (2012). Variation of
hybrid aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx. × Populus tremula L.) and common aspen
(Populus tremula L.) wood and Kraft pulp fibres properties at age 20 years. Mežzinātne
26(59): 145-154.
83
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS DETERMINING FORMATION OF LAMMAS SHOOTS IN YOUNG STANDS
OF SCOTS PINE IN LATVIA Aris Jansons, Oskars Krisans, Martins Zeps, Baiba Dzerina
Latvian State Forest Research Institute "Silava"
Scots pine is the most wide-spread tree species in Latvia, covering altogether 29% of the total forest
area (NFI data) and represented in wide range of forest types. It is a light demanding tree species,
therefore accurate tending is required to ensure successful regeneration of Scots pine stand,
especially on fertile soils (where highest returns from investment in forest management can be
expected). In these conditions Scots pine is mostly planted (according to State forest service in year
2011 altogether 22.7 mil. plants produced) requiring additional investments. Growth rate of Scots
pine on fertile soils is not as high as for alternative tree species and its rotation period is longer,
therefore special attention has to be paid to ensure high quality (and value) of assortments. It is
important to minimize the risks affecting both quality and survival of trees, to ensure highest value
of wood and forest services provided by pine stand. Risk assessment shall consider also possible
influence of changes in climatic conditions, predicted to take place relatively rapidly within the
rotation period of Scots pine (100-120 years). They include rise of temperature during vegetation
period and increase of its length by more than a month by the end of this century in comparison to
the reference period. Response of trees to the availability of a longer period of favorable growing
conditions might include increased frequency of formation of lammas shoots – additional height
increment due to free growth in the second half of vegetation period, after the end of formation of
predetermined height increment. Lammas growth can notably influence quality of tree, increasing
probability of spike knot formation, as well as higher number of branches per whorl and/or per
meter of tree stem. Therefore aim of the study was to assess proportion of trees with lammas growth
in young Scots pine stands and factors affecting it. This knowledge could be further used in
development of recommendations for forest regeneration.
Data have been collected in central part of Latvia in 122 randomly selected Scots pine stands at the
age of 3-7 years at the end of year 2011 and repeatedly in 22 stands at the end of year 2012. Forest
types on mineral soil with normal or increased moisture and on drained peat and mineral soil,
typical for Scots pine were represented in sampling. In each stand 20 sample plots (25 m2) were
placed systematically and number of trees with and without lammas shoots was assessed.
Additionally lammas shoots were also assessed and height increments of trees measured in four
consecutive years (from year 2009 to year 2012) in two Scots pine open pollinated progeny trials,
established in year 2005 in Vacciniosa forest type, also located in central part of Latvia.
Results reveal, that on average 8.3% of trees had lammas shoots; frequency was not statistically
significantly different between the years, and the correlation at stand mean level was significant and
weak (r=0.47, p<0.05), indicating relative stability and limited influence of micro-environmental
conditions. Results from progeny trials reveal, that trees with lammas shoot in one year are more
likely to form it also in following years, but no clear link between the length of height increment
and formation of lamas shoot was detected.
No age-related trend was detected – differences in frequency of lammas shoots between stands at
the age from 3 to 8 years were not statistically significant. In contrast forest type had a statistically
significant (χ2 test, p<0.05) influence on frequency of lammas shoots (Fig. 1). Highest value was
found in stands on fertile drained peat soils (Myrtillosa turf. mel.).
Meteorological data collected directly in progeny trials suggest that increased air temperature in
first two weeks of August (when formation of lammas shoots is typically starting) alone or in
combination with sharp increase in comparison to temperature in the end of July could be involved
in triggering of free growth. This implies, that higher frequency of Scots pine trees with lammas
84
shoots could be expected in future climatic conditions.
Sl-Cladinoso-callunosa; Mr-Vacciniosa; Ln-Myrtillosa; Dm-Hylocomiosa; Mrs-Vacciniosa-sphagnosa;
As-Myrtillosa mel.; Ks-Myrtillosa turf. mel.
Figure 1. Influence forest type on proportion of trees with lammas shoots
First results suggest that the risk of lammas shoot formation could be increasing in future and it can
be notably reduced while avoiding Scots pine plantations on fertile drained peat soil. Further studies
shall address the issue of actual risks and gains associated with the formation of lammas shoots as
well as possibilities for improvement via tree breeding before providing practical recommendations.
Keywords: Pinus sylvestris, regeneration, tending, growing conditions, free growth
0
0,05
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,25
0,3
0,35
0,4
0,45
0,5
Sl Mr Ln Dm Mrs As Ks
Pro
port
ion o
f tr
ees
wit
h l
amm
as
shoots
Forest type
lammas shoots min. max.
85
CHANGES OF GROUND VEGETATION NEAR NITROGEN FERTILIZER FACTORY
Vitas Marozas, Erika Plausinyte, Daiva Petruseviciute
Institute of Environment and Ecology, Faculty of Forestry and Ecology, Aleksandras Stulginskis
Universitity, Lithuania
Within last three decades various effects of nitrogen pollution were defined for tree species,
especially conifers, and in a less extent for deciduous forests. In many terrestrial ecosystems
nitrogen (N) availability limits the primary production of plants. Excess nitrogen may cause various
changes in understory vegetation. Present nitrogen pollution is still high enough to cause substantial
changes in vegetation. Being important components of forests, herbaceous plants have not received
adequate attention concerning ammonia effects. Present study aimed at evaluation of species
composition and abundance of understory vegetation of pine dominated forests affected by nitrogen
fertilizer factory pollution (Lithuania, JSC Achema).
Clearly attributable to air pollution acute negative effects on forests in Lithuania were observed
around the nitrogen fertilizer factory, JSC Achema operating since 1965. Due to reduced production
of the fertilizers since 1990 air pollution has significantly decreased. Investigations were conducted
in the area affected by the nitrogen fertilizer factory (JSC Achema), situated in the central part of
Lithuania (55o 05' N, 24
o 20' E). Pure Scots pine forests predominate in the territory of
investigations. Ten sampling plots were established at different distances (from 0.5 to 22 km) from
the factory in prevailing (North-East and South-East) wind direction. Mature stands of Scots pine
(over 100 years-old) on fresh, poor fertility soils were selected for sampling of vegetation. Sites
were chosen to minimise slopes, differences of canopies, human disturbance and local variation in
other factors, which might affect a species composition. Assessment of herbaceous plants was done
in the beginning of July, 2011. For vegetation description in each site twelve subplots (100 m2)
were placed, in which species composition and projection cover (expressed in Braun-Blanquet
scale) of herbs and mosses was evaluated. In subplot overall projection cover of herbs and mosses
layers was defined. Ellenberg indicator values were used to evaluate vegetation ecological
differences. Data analysis was based on descriptive statistical analysis and ANOVA methods (using
STATISTICA and Excel packages).
Results of the study on vegetation have shown that total number of species of herbaceous plants
decreased from 37 to 28 species increasing the distance from the nitrogen factory. in the study plots
located closest to the nitrogen fertilizer factory (3 and 5 km) species of Oxalis acetosella L., Rubus
idaeus L., Impatiens parviflora DC., Chelidonium majus L. prevailed. Further from the factory
abundance of nitrophilic species declined; and at 9, 20 km from the factory species (Vaccinium
myrtillus L. and Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.) characteristic to pine forests dominated. The moss
species such as Hylocomium splendens (Hedw.) Schimp. and Pleurozium schreberi (Brid.) Mitt.
dominated in all study plots. Ellenberg indicator values for nitrogen and pH decreased with
increasing distance from the factory.
Keywords: herbs, mosses, nitrogen, pine, vegetation
86
TREE TRUNK FORM DEPENDANCE OF THE POSITION OF TREE IN THE GROUP OF TREES
Ieva Paleja
Latvia University of Agriculture
There have been studies in Latvia on tree trunk shape (Ozolins et al. 2002) or tapering curve
equation clarification to accurately calculate roundwood volume and the outcome of sortiments.
There are certain tapering curves (or diameter decrease functions which is easily to calculate one
from another) for the main tree species in Latvian forests (pine, spruce, birch, alder, etc.) developed.
These coefficients, however, are calculated for "average tree", but the real nature of every tree is
different. Real tree trunk shape depends on various factors affecting tree growth over time. Most of
them cannot be measured, but it is possible to analyse the position of the tree in the group of trees.
The hypothesis of this research is following: the tree trunk shape depends on the position of the tree
in the group, which is characterized by the parameters obtained from the analysis of nearest
neighbours' summary statistics. If this hypothesis will be verified, it will be possible to acquire
information about tree trunk form from the spatial information about position of the tree. This
information will be useful for building a tool to help to make decisions in forestry management,
because the question about which tree provides the best outcome of sortiments now and in the
future will be solved.
8 groups of trees (4 for pines, 4 for spruce) were scanned by terrestrial laser scanner and analysed.
Since the scanner data are not correct for the top of the trunk, the taper curve was fixed for the first
50% of the trunk. Taper curves were determined by nonlinear least-squares method, expressed as
polynomial function of degree 5. To make a comparison between data sets the means of derivatives
of the taper curve at 4 points were calculated. Spatial analysis of tree groups were performed with
Crancod which is the software for analysis of spatial forest structure. Spatial structure of forest
group can be quantified by nearest neighbour summary statistics (NNSS) parameters (described in
A.Pommerening, 2006.). I have chosen the following NNSS parameters for characterizing the
spatial position of the tree in the group: uniform angle index (UAI), mean directional index (MDI),
mean distance to 4 nearest neighbours, DBH dominance.. The correlations between the mean of
derivative of taper curve and all the spatial parameters were calculated. Results are shown in table1.
It was found that the strongest correlation is with the mean distance to 4 nearest neighbours: -0.34
for pine, -0.56 for spruce (see plot diagramme Figure 1). That means – the closer the tree is to its
neighbour trees the less is its diameter decrease. The research will be continued with more sample
plots to get more precise results for pine and spruce, the results for another species and also to
calculate the correlation between taper curves of tree and the summary spatial characteristics of the
group it belongs to.
Table 1. Correlations between the taper curve mean derivation and spatial parameters of the tree in
the group
Species UAI MDI Mean distance
to 4 neatest
neighbours
DBH
dominance
Scots pine -0.03 -0.08 -0.34 -0.14
Norway spruce -0.13 -0.17 -0.56 0.06
87
Figure 1. Spot diagramme representing correlation (E – Norway spruce, P – Scots pine)
between trunk diameter dicrease function and the mean distance to 4 nearest neighbours of
tree.
Keywords: spatial analysis, taper curve, tree group
References:
1. Ozolins, R. 2002. Forest stand assortment structure analysis using mathematical modelling.
Metsanduslikud uurimused XXXVII: 33-42.
2. Pommerening, A. 2006. Evaluating structural indices by reversing forest structural analysis.
Forest Ecology and Management 224: 266-277.
88
BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL FEATURES OF CALAMAGROSTIS EPIGEIOS (L.) ROTH. AND
CALAMAGROSTIS ARUNDINACEA (L.) ROTH. IN THE NON - CLEAR CUTTINGS OF PINE FORESTS
Jurgita Sasnauskienė, Vitas Marozas
Aleksandras Stulginskis University of Agriculture
Non-clear cuttings are applied on purpose to retain steady forest environment, increasing the role of
forest in ecology and retention of biodiversity, exploiting self-afforestation and obtaining
economical use (Mizaras, 2006). With natural recovery nature processes are less modified and
primitive genetic composition of population is saved more efficiently (Gabrilavičius et al., 2008).
Since simplified shelter-wood cuttings were widely applied in Lithuanian pine forests,
Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth. and Calamagrostis arundinacea (L.) Roth. often spread in
cutting sites after the first case shelter-wood cuttings. The aim of this work was to study the change
of abundance and morphometric features, as well as chemical elemental composition of
underground and overground parts of both Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth. and Calamagrostis
arundinacea (L.) Roth. after simplified shelter-wood cuttings in pine forests.
The study was accomplished in Jonava forest state enterprise in 2011-2012. Cutting sites were
chosen in pine forests where the first case of simplified logging was done in 2004, 2006, 2008 and
2010. Projection cover (in percent), number of shoots, mass of underground and overground parts
were determined; heights of shoots and inflorescences, lengths and widths of leaves were estimated
for Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth. and Calamagrostis arundinacea (L.) Roth. in the cutting sites.
Analysis of N, P, K, Ca and Mg was performed in overground and underground parts of both
Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth. and Calamagrostis arundinacea (L.) Roth.
It was determined that sparser overgrowth of Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth. was formed in
shelter-wood cutting sites but mass of its underground and overground parts were larger in
comparison to Calamagrostis arundinacea (L.) Roth. The densest overgrowth of both
Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth. and Calamagrostis arundinacea (L.) Roth. has formed within 3-
4 years. Density and size of shoots of Calamagrostis in 6-7 years old cutting sites has decreased.
Underground part of Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth. has formed later comparing to
Calamagrostis arrundinacea. Mass of underground parts of both Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth.
and Calamagrostis arundinacea (L.) Roth. was twice larger than mass of their overground parts in
older cutting sites. Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth. has accumulated more macronutrients in the
overground part in comparison to Calamagrostis arundinacea (L.) Roth. Ash amount was higher in
the underground parts of both Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth. and Calamagrostis arundinacea
(L.) Roth.
Keywords: shelter-wood cuttings, Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Roth., Calamagrostis arundinacea
(L.) Roth., macronutrients, pine forests.
References:
1. Mizaras S. 2006. Economic analysis of the development of protected areas and non-clear
cuttings. Žemės ūkio mokslai, 2006, nr. 3, p. 44-48. ISSN 1392-2041. ISSN 1392-0200.
2. Gabrilavičius, R., Danusevičius, J. and Danusevičius, D. 2008. Efficiency of methods to
support natural regeneration in Scots pine genetic reserves. Biologija 54 (2): 134-138.
89
METHODS SUITABLE FOR MASS-PROPAGATION OF HYBRID ASPEN: IMPLEMENTATION TO LATVIAN
FOREST MANAGEMENT
Kondratovičs T., Grīnberga D., Auzenbaha D., Zeps M.
Laboratory of plant physiology, Latvian State Forest Research Institute „Silava”
Vegetative propagation of woody plants is provided in Latvian State Forest Research Institute
„Silava” in framework of 30 year forest breeding programme. Main requirements for obtainable tree
clones are high productivity, good endurance against diseases, and fast-growing. Specifically for
hybrid aspen clones these traits are good mechanical properties of wood, potential for mass
propagation, straight trunks with few branches. Obtaining of these clones runs in two stages,
including evaluation of wood properties (in vivo stage) and suitability for mass-propagation (in
vitro stage). Clones acquired using controlled breeding are propagated in plant physiology
laboratory. On this moment we have 77 clones of hybrid, common, triploid and quacking aspen.
Culture initiation occurs approximately 6 months using solid Mourashige-Skoog (MS) medium
(agar 5,5 – 7 g·L-1
medium) with auxin indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) concentration 0,5 mg·L-1
and
cytokinin 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) concentration 0,5 mg·L-1
. After culture is initiated it is
multiplied on the same content medium but without BAP and with low IBA concentration (0,1
mg·L-1
). Recently individual multiplication abilities for each clone are being started to evaluate as
representative using multiplication index. Current results show that 38 percent of clones in
laboratory could be suitable for mass-propagation. Further evaluation needs to be carried out for
more precise results. Multiplication index together with wood quality properties is used as argument
for suitability of each clone for mass production. Usage of this method allows us to produce
approximately 10 000 plants per annum for experimental plantations and it must be also mentioned
that commercial laboratory of JSC “Latvian State Forests” in Kalsnava produces approximately 1
000 000 plants using this method.
Key words: Hybrid aspen, non-cytokinin medium, clone evaluation, mass-production
90
Registered conference participants
No. Country Last name First
name Institution E-mail address
1 Estonia Heinsoo Katrin Estonian University of Life
Sciences [email protected]
2 Finland Tyrväinen Liisa METLA [email protected]
3 Italy Grilli Gianluca CRA-Agricultural Research
council [email protected]
4 Latvia Tuherm Henn Latvia University of Agriculture,
Forest Faculty [email protected]
5 Latvia Baders Endijs LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
6 Latvia Bardule Arta LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
7 Latvia Baumanis Janis LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
8 Latvia Bārdulis Andis LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
9 Latvia Brazdausks Prans Latvian State Institute of Wood
Chemistry [email protected]
10 Latvia Brūmelis Guntis University of Latvia, Faculty of
Biology [email protected]
11 Latvia Daugaviete Mudrite LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
12 Latvia Donis Jānis LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
13 Latvia Jankovska Ilze Latvia University of Agriculture [email protected]
14 Latvia Jansons Aris LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
15 Latvia Kanberga-
Silina Krista LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
16 Latvia Kondratovičs Toms LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
17 Latvia Kruma Irena Latvian State Institute of Wood
Chemistry [email protected]
18 Latvia Laiveniece Laura Latvia University of Agriculture [email protected]
19 Latvia Lazdina Dagnija LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
20 Latvia Lazdins Andis LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
21 Latvia Makovskis Kristaps LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
22 Latvia Matisons Roberts LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
23 Latvia Neimane Una LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
24 Latvia Paleja Ieva Latvia University of Agriculture [email protected]
25 Latvia Pazhe Aigars Latvian State Institute of Wood
Chemistry [email protected]
26 Latvia Pižika Loreta Daba Laba Ltd. [email protected]
27 Latvia Puke Maris Latvian State Institute of Wood
Chemistry [email protected]
28 Latvia Rendenieks Zigmārs University of Latvia [email protected]
29 Latvia Rieksts-
Riekstins Raitis LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
30 Latvia Rizhikovs Janis Latvian State Institute of Wood
Chemistry [email protected]
31 Latvia Sable Inese Latvian State Insitute of Wood
Chemistry [email protected]
32 Latvia Šica Laila JSC "Latvijas valsts meži" [email protected]
33 Latvia Širovs Andris Nature Conservation Agency of
Latvia [email protected]
34 Latvia Treimanis Arnis Latvian State Institute of Wood
Chemistry [email protected]
35 Latvia Valdēna Alise Latvia University of Agriculture [email protected]
36 Latvia Vedernikovs Nikolajs Latvian State Institute of Wood [email protected]
91
No. Country Last name First
name Institution E-mail address
Chemistry
37 Latvia Zalitis Toms LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
38 Latvia Zane Libiete-
Zalite LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
39 Latvia Zeps Martins LSFRI "Silava" [email protected]
40 Latvija Domkins Andrejs MeKA [email protected]
41 Lithuania Armolaitis Kęstutis
Institute of Forestry, Lithuanian
Research Centre for Agriculture
and Forestry
42 Lithuania Čiuldienė Dovilė
Institute of Forestry, Lithuanian
Research Centre for Agriculture
and Forestry
43 Lithuania Gudauskienė Aušra
Institute of Forestry, Lithuanian
Research Centre for Agriculture
and Forestry
44 Lithuania Marozas Vitas Aleksandras Stulginskis
University [email protected]
45 Lithuania Sadauskienė Liana
Institute of Forestry, Lithuanian
Research Centre for Agriculture
and Forestry
46 Lithuania Sasnauskiene Jurgita Aleksandras Stulginskis
University [email protected]
47 Lithuania Varnagiryte-
Kabasinskiene Iveta
Institute of Forestry, Lithuanian
Research Centre for Agriculture
and Forestry
48 Norway Clarke Nicholas Norwegian Forest and
Landscape Institute [email protected]
49 Poland Kuc Maria University of Agriculture in
Krakow (Poland), Forest Faculty [email protected]
50 Poland Lesinski Jerzy Institute of Forest Biodiversity,
University of Agriculture [email protected]
51 Poland Piszczek Marcin University of Agriculture in
Cracow, Faculty of Forestry [email protected]
52 Romania Iordache Eugen
Transilvania University of
Brasov, Faculty of Silviculture
and Forest Engineering
53 Sweden Brukas Vilis Swedish University of
Agricultural Sciences [email protected]
