Intelligence Paper

7/31/2019 Intelligence Paper

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INTELLIGENCE

Applied Psychology Page 1

1.1 Introduction

Intelligence including the abilities for abstract thought, understanding, communication,

reasoning, learning, retaining, planning, and problem solving. Intelligence is most widely studied

in humans, but has also been observed in animals and plants. Artificial intelligence is theintelligence of machines or the simulation of intelligence in machines.

1.2 History

Intelligence derives from the Latin verb intelligere which derives from inter-legere meaning to

"pick out" or discern. A form of this verb, intellectus, became the medieval technical term for

understanding, and a translation for the Greek philosophical term nous. This term was however

strongly linked to the metaphysical and cosmological theories of teleological scholasticism,

including theories of the immortality of the soul, and the concept of the Active Intellect (also

known as the Active Intelligence). This entire approach to the study of nature was strongly

rejected by the early modern philosophers such as Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke,

and David Hume, all of whom preferred the word "understanding" in their English philosophical

works. Hobbes for example, in his Latin De Corpore, used "intellectus intelligit" (translated in

the English version as "the understanding understandeth") as a typical example of a logical

absurdity. The term "intelligence" has therefore become less common in English language

philosophy, but it has later been taken up (without the scholastic theories which it once implied)

in more contemporary psychology.

1.3 Definition

1. A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason,plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and

learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-

taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our

surroundings"catching on," "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.

2. The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally,and to deal effectively with his environment.

3. The unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of theircognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation.


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2.0 Human intelligence

Human intelligence is the collection of Abstract thought,

Communication, Creativity, Emotional Intelligence,

Knowledge, Learning, Memory, Problem solving, Reactiontime, Reasoning, Understanding, Visual processing.

2.1 Theories and Models

There are many different theories that explained the different

aspects of human intelligence in one or another way. Cattell

HornCarroll theory, Fluid and crystallized intelligence,

General intelligence factor, Intelligence quotient, Theory of

multiple intelligences, Triarchic theory of intelligence, PASS

theory of intelligence.

2.1.1 Catell Horn Carroll Thoery

Recent advances in current theory and research on the structure of human cognitive abilities have

resulted in a new empirically derived model commonly referred to as the CattellHornCarroll

theory of cognitive abilities (CHC theory). CHC theory of cognitive abilities is an amalgamation

of two similar theories about the content and structure of human cognitive abilities. The first of

these two theories is Gf-Gc theory (Raymond Cattell, 1941; Horn 1965), and the second is John

Bissell Carroll's (1993) Three-Stratum theory. Carroll's expansion of Gf-Gc theory to CHC

theory was developed in the course of a major survey of research over the past 60 or 70 years on

the nature, identification, and structure of human cognitive abilities. That research involved theuse of the mathematical technique known as factor analysis. In comparison to other well-known

theories of intelligence and cognitive abilities, CHC theory is the most comprehensive and

empirically supported psychometric theory of the structure of cognitive and academic abilities.

The CHC model was expanded by McGrew (1997), later revised with the help of Flanagan

(1998), and extended again by McGrew (2011). There are a fairly large number of distinct

individual differences in cognitive ability, and CHC theory holds that the relationships among

them can be derived by classifying them into three different strata: stratum I, "narrow" abilities;

stratum II, "broad abilities"; and stratum III, consisting of a single "general" ability.

2.1.2 Fluid And Crystallized Intelligence

Fluid intelligence or fluid reasoning is the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel

situations, independent of acquired knowledge. It is the ability to analyze novel problems,

identify patterns and relationships that underpin these problems and the extrapolation of these

using logic. It is necessary for all logical problem solving, especially scientific, mathematical and


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technical problem solving. Fluid reasoning includes inductive reasoning and deductive

reasoning.

Crystallized intelligence is the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience. It should not be

equated with memory or knowledge, but it does rely on accessing information from long-termmemory.

2.1.3 General Intelligence Factor

The g factor, where g stands for general intelligence, is a statistic used in psychometrics to model

the mental ability underlying results of various tests of cognitive ability. Developed in 1904 by

psychologist Charles Spearman to account for imperfect correlations in IQ tests, this model is

considered the first theory of intelligence.

Spearman observed that schoolchildren's grades across seemingly unrelated subjects were

positively correlated, and reasoned that these correlations reflected the influence of a dominantfactor, which he termed "general intelligence." He developed a model in which variations in

intelligence test scores are explained by two kinds of factors: first, variables specific to each

individual mental task: the individual abilities that would make a person more skilled at a

specific cognitive task; and second a variable g that accounts for the positive correlations across

tests, representing general ability.

2.1.4 Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

An intelligence quotient, or IQ, is a score derived from one of

several different standardized tests designed to assess

intelligence. When modern IQ tests are constructed, the mean

score within an age group is set to 100 and the standard deviation

to 15. Today almost all IQ tests adhere to the assignment of 15

IQ points to each standard deviation, but this has not been the

case historically. Approximately 95% of the population has

scores within two SDs of the mean, i.e., an IQ between 70 and

130.

2.1.5 Theory of Multiple Intelligence

The theory of multiple intelligences was proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983 as a model ofintelligence that differentiates intelligence into various specific modalities, rather than seeing it

as dominated by a single general ability.

Gardner argues that there is a wide range of cognitive abilities, and that there are only very weak

correlations between these. For example, the theory predicts that a child who learns to multiply

easily is not necessarily generally more intelligent than a child who has more difficulty on this


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task. The child who takes more time to master simple multiplication may best learn to multiply

through a different approach, may excel in a field outside of mathematics, or may even be

looking at and understanding the multiplication process at a fundamentally deeper level, or

perhaps as an entirely different process. Such a fundamentally deeper understanding can result in

what looks like slowness and can hide a mathematical intelligence potentially higher than that ofa child who quickly memorizes the multiplication table despite a less detailed understanding of

the process of multiplication.

2.1.6 Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

The triarchic theory of intelligence was formulated by Robert J. Sternberg, a prominent figure in

the research of human intelligence. The theory by itself was groundbreaking in that it was among

the first to go against the psychometric approach to intelligence and take a more cognitive

approach.

Sternbergs definition of human intelligence is mental activity directed toward purposive

adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to ones life which

means that intelligence is how well an individual deals with environmental changes throughout

their lifespan. Sternbergs theory comprises three parts: componential, experiential, and practical.


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2.1.7 Pass Theory

The Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous and Successive (PASS) theory of intelligence,

first proposed in 1975 ( Das, Kirby, and Jarman,1975) and later elaborated by Das, Naglieri &

Kirby(1994) and Das, Kar & Parrila, (1996) challenges g-theory on the grounds that the brain ismade up of interdependent, but separate, functional systems. Neuroimaging studies and clinical

studies of individuals with brain lesions make it clear that the brain is modularized; for example,

damage to a very specific area of the left temporal lobe will impair the production (but not the

comprehension) of spoken and written language. Damage to an adjacent area will have the

opposite impact, preserving the individuals ability to produce, but not understand speech and

text.

3.0 Fields of Study

There are different fields of study in intelligence in which research and developments are being

in progress. It includes Cognitive epidemiology, Evolution of human intelligence,

Psychometrics, Heritability of IQ, Impact of health on intelligence.

3.1 Cognitive Epidemiology

Cognitive epidemiology is a field of research that examines the associations between intelligence

test scores (IQ scores) and health, more specifically morbidity (mental and physical) and

mortality. Typically, test scores are obtained at an early age, and compared to later morbidity and

mortality. In addition to exploring and establishing these associations, cognitive epidemiology

seeks to understand causal relationships between intelligence and health outcomes. Researchers

in the field argue that intelligence measured at an early age is an important predictor of laterhealth and mortality differences.

3.2 Evolution of Human Intelligence

The evolution of human intelligence refers to a set of theories that attempt to explain how human

intelligence has evolved. These theories are closely tied to the evolution of the human brain and

to the emergence of human language.

The timeline of human evolution spans approximately 7 million years, from the separation of the

Pan genus until the emergence of behavioral modernity by 50,000 years ago. The first 3 million

years of this timeline concern Sahelanthropus, the following 2 million concern Australopithecus

and the final 2 million span the history of actual human species (the Paleolithic).

Many traits of human intelligence, such as empathy, theory of mind, mourning, ritual, and the

use of symbols and tools, are already apparent in great apes although in lesser sophistication than

in humans.


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4.0 Factors Related to Intelligence

There are many factors related to intelligence some are listed below.

Environment and intelligence

Neuroscience and intelligence

Race and intelligence

4.1 Environment and Intelligence

Environment and intelligence research investigates the

impact of environment on intelligence. This is one of the

most important factors in understanding human group

differences in IQ test scores and other measures of cognitive

ability. Historically, there has been great interest in the field

of intelligence research to determine environmentalinfluences on the development of cognitive functioning, in

particular, fluid intelligence, as defined by its stabilization at

16 years of age.4.2 Neuroscience and Intelligence

Neuroscience and intelligence concerns the various

neurological factors that may be responsible for the

variation of intelligence within a species or between

different species. Much of the work in this field isconcerned with the variation in human intelligence, but

other intelligent species such as the non-human

primates and cetaceans are also of interest. The basic

mechanisms by which the brain produces complex

phenomena such as consciousness and intelligence are

still poorly understood.4.3 Race and Intelligence

Race is a classification system used to categorize humans into large and distinct populations or

groups by heritable phenotypic characteristics, geographic ancestry, physical appearance, and

ethnicity. In the early twentieth century the term was often used, in its taxonomic sense, to

denote genetically diverse human populations whose members possessed similar phenotypes.

This sense of "race" is still used within forensic anthropology (when analyzing skeletal remains),

biomedical research, and race-based medicine. In addition, law enforcement utilizes race in

profiling suspects and to reconstruct the faces of unidentified remains. Because in many

societies, racial groupings correspond closely with patterns of social stratification, for social


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scientists studying social inequality, race can be a significant variable. As sociological factors,

racial categories may in part reflect subjective attributions, self-identities, and social institutions.

Accordingly, the racial paradigms employed in different disciplines vary in their emphasis on

biological reduction as contrasted with societal construction.

5.0 Types of Intelligence

There are nine types of intelligence as explained by Howard Gardner.

5.1 Naturalist Intelligence (Nature Smart)

Designates the human ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals) as well as

sensitivity to other features of the natural world (clouds, rock configurations). This ability was

clearly of value in our evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it continues to be

central in such roles as botanist or chef. It is also speculated that much of our consumer society

exploits the naturalist intelligences, which can be mobilized in the discrimination among cars,

sneakers, kinds of makeup, and the like.

5.2 Musical Intelligence (Musical Smart)

Musical intelligence is the capacity to discern pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone. This intelligence

enables us to recognize, create, reproduce, and reflect on music, as demonstrated by composers,

conductors, musicians, vocalist, and sensitive listeners. Interestingly, there is often an affective

connection between music and the emotions; and mathematical and musical intelligences may


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share common thinking processes. Young adults with this kind of intelligence are usually

singing or drumming to themselves. They are usually quite aware of sounds others may miss.

5.3 Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Number/Reasoning Smart)

Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to

calculate, quantify, consider propositions and

hypotheses, and carry out complete mathematical

operations. It enables us to perceive relationships and

connections and to use abstract, symbolic thought;

sequential reasoning skills; and inductive and deductive

thinking patterns. Logical intelligence is usually well

developed in mathematicians, scientists, and detectives.

Young adults with lots of logical intelligence are

interested in patterns, categories, and relationships. They

are drawn to arithmetic problems, strategy games and

experiments.

5.4 Existential Intelligence

Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such as the meaning of

life, why do we die, and how did we get here.

5.5 Interpersonal Intelligence (People Smart)

Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand and interact effectively with others. It

involves effective verbal and nonverbal communication, the ability to note distinctions among

others, sensitivity to the moods and temperaments of others, and the ability to entertain multiple

perspectives. Teachers, social workers, actors, and politicians all exhibit interpersonal

intelligence. Young adults with this kind of intelligence are leaders among their peers, are good

at communicating, and seem to understand others feelings and motives.

5.6 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (Body Smart)

Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the capacity to manipulate objects and use a variety of physicalskills. This intelligence also involves a sense of timing and the perfection of skills through

mindbody union. Athletes, dancers, surgeons, and craftspeople exhibit well-developed bodily

kinesthetic intelligence.


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5.7 Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart)Linguistic intelligence is the ability to think in words and to use language to express and

appreciate complex meanings. Linguistic intelligence allows us to understand the order and

meaning of words and to apply meta-linguistic skills to reflect on our use of language.Linguistic intelligence is the most widely shared human competence and is evident in poets,

novelists, journalists, and effective public speakers. Young adults with this kind of intelligence

enjoy writing, reading, telling stories or doing crossword puzzles.

5.8 Intra-personal Intelligence (Self Smart)

Intra-personal intelligence is the capacity to

understand oneself and ones thoughts and

feelings, and to use such knowledge in planning

and directioning ones life. Intra-personal

intelligence involves not only an appreciation of

the self, but also of the human condition. It is

evident in psychologist, spiritual leaders, and

philosophers. These young adults may be shy.

They are very aware of their own feelings and are

self-motivated.

5.9 Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)

Spatial intelligence is the ability to think in three dimensions. Core capacities include mental

imagery, spatial reasoning, image manipulation, graphic and artistic skills, and an activeimagination. Sailors, pilots, sculptors, painters, and architects all exhibit spatial intelligence.

Young adults with this kind of intelligence may be fascinated with mazes or jigsaw puzzles, or

spend free time drawing or daydreaming.


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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

6.1 Introduction

Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to identify, assess, and

control the emotions of oneself, of others, and of groups.

Various models and definitions have been proposed of which

the ability and trait EI models are the most widely accepted in

the scientific literature. Criticisms have centered on whether the

construct is a real intelligence and whether it has incremental

validity over IQ and the Big Five personality dimensions.6.2 History

The earliest roots of emotional intelligence can be traced to Darwin's work on the importance of

emotional expression for survival and, second, adaptation. In the 1900s, even though traditional

definitions of intelligence emphasized cognitive aspects such as memory and problem-solving,

several influential researchers in the intelligence field of study had begun to recognize the

importance of the non-cognitive aspects. For instance, as early as 1920, E.L. Thorndike used the

term social intelligence to describe the skill of understanding and managing other people.

6.3 Definitions

1. Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to theability to perceive, control and evaluateemotions.

2. Emotional intelligence refers to the capacityto recognizing our own feelings and those of

others, for motivating ourselves and for

managing emotions well in ourselves and our

relationship.

3. Emotional intelligence is the innate potentialto feel, use, communicate, recognize,

remember, describe, identify, learn from,

manage, understand and explain emotions.


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7.0 Four Branches of Emotional Intelligence

Salovey and Mayer proposed a model that identified four different factors of emotional

intelligence:

The perception of emotions.

The ability reason using emotions.

The ability to understand emotions.

The ability to manage emotions.

7.1 The Perception of Emotions

The first step in understanding emotions is to accurately perceive them. In many cases, this

might involve understanding nonverbal signals such as body language and facial expressions.

7.2 Reasoning With Emotions

The next step involves using emotions to promote thinking and cognitive activity. Emotions help

prioritize what we pay attention and react to; we respond emotionally to things that garner our

attention.

7.3 Understanding Emotions

The emotions that we perceive can carry a wide variety of

meanings. If someone is expressing angry emotions, theobserver must interpret the cause of their anger and what it

might mean. For example, if your boss is acting angry, it

might mean that he is dissatisfied with your work; or it

could be because he got a speeding ticket on his way to

work that morning or that he's been fighting with his wife. 7.4 Managing Emotions

The ability to manage emotions effectively is a key part of

emotional intelligence. Regulating emotions, responding

appropriately and responding to the emotions of others are

all important aspect of emotional management.

According to Salovey and Mayer, the four branches of

their model are, "arranged from more basic psychological


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processes to higher, more psychologically integrated processes. For example, the lowest level

branch concerns the relatively simple abilities of perceiving and expressing emotion. In contrast,

the highest level branch concerns the conscious, reflective regulation of emotion"

8 .0 Measuring Emotional Intelligence

"In regard to measuring emotional intelligenceI am a great believer that criterion-report that is,

ability testing is the only adequate method to employ. Intelligence is an ability, and is directly

measured only by having people answer questions and evaluating the correctness of those

answers." --John D. Mayer

8.1 Reuven BAR- ONs EQ-i

A self-report test designed to measure competencies including awareness, stress tolerance,

problem solving, and happiness. According to Bar-On, Emotional intelligence is an array of

noncognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence ones ability to succeed incoping with environmental demands and pressures.

8.2 Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS)

An ability-based test in which test-takers perform tasks

designed to assess their ability to perceive, identify,

understand, and utilize emotions.

8.3 Seligman Attribution Style Questionnaire (SASQ)

Originally designed as a screening test for the lifeinsurance company Metropolitan Life, the SASQ

measures optimism and pessimism.

8.4 Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI)

Based on an older instrument known as the Self-Assessment Questionnaire, the ECI involves

having people who know the individual offer ratings of that persons abilities on a number o f

different emotional competencies.

9 .0 Future of Emotional Intelligence

Peter Salovey: I think in the coming decade we will see well-conducted research demonstrating

that emotional skills and competencies predict positive outcomes at home with ones family, in

school, and at work. The real challenge is to show that emotional intelligence matters over-and-

above psychological constructs that have been measured for decades like personality and IQ. I

believe that emotional intelligence holds this promise."


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10.0 Importance of Emotional Intelligence

John Gottman: "In the last decade or so, science has discovered a tremendous amount

about the role emotions play in our lives. Researchers have found that even more than IQ,

your emotional awareness and abilities to handle feelings will determine your success andhappiness in all walks of life, including family relationships."

McCown et al: "Experiencing one's self in a conscious manner--that is, gaining self-

knowledge--is an integral part of learning."

Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, and Palfai: "People in good moods are better at

inductive reasoning and creative problem solving."

John D. Mayer: "An emotion occurs when there are certain biological, certain

experiential, and certain cognitive states which all occur simultaneously."

Mayer & Salovey: "People high in emotional intelligence are expected to progress more

quickly through the abilities designated and to master more of them."

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