Integrating liaching Strategies and Thinking Styles with ... · Integrating liaching Strategies and...

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Integrating liaching Strategies and Thinking Styles with the Elements of Effective Instruction RICHARI) W. STRONG, HARVEY F. SILVER, AND ROBERT HANSON _~ ~ ~ E _ s - ~ _ ducators are increasingly con cerned about enhancing student _;,.,,e *' _: , thinking but not vet sure about tnn r ~ I the best way to do it. We can introduce special courses in thinking, but that will not guarantee the transfer of thinking to regular classroom work in content areas We can rewrTite our curriculums to include thinking skills. but written curriculum is rarelyh-, if ever. the curriculum in action Or we can provide teachers with .srtegies that elicit and model various thinking styles The question is: how can strate- gies be used to teach the prescribed curriculum in 3 ways that expands and enhances student thinking? We created three characters to deal with this issue in a question-an.swer format Each character speaks for a set 5IVA*= . t of real concerns facing American edu- '*; ';:;~~~ · Ir/~'~~~~T~~ ?1~ ;cators C* ,arl is a tough-minded schoxol administrator w-ho recently completed an extensive curriculum w-riting proj- ect in her district She is searching for a model for teaching thinking that embraces the best work of the cogni- , L tive theorists. vet leaves her existing curriculum relativels intact ,*.fark is an equall- tough-minded administrator but with different con- cerns Hie recentlh completed a thor- ough staff development program in effective instruction His program draws liberallh from the works of Ba- rak Rosenshine (direct instruction). Using the elements of lesson design as a drJHarl Fm rL Director of01 ro- foundation, teachers can build student graL ad yratio and Roben tan )o7 s ;ChteJ FEvecluttre Officer. all u'i# thinking by choosing from an array of 11amon Sit Strong c Itnc. · I, EFducatonal Contastans. tl Mooxretouin. appropriate teaching strategies. . ,~.- M1A, 1985 .

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Integrating liaching Strategies andThinking Styles with the Elements ofEffective InstructionRICHARI) W. STRONG, HARVEY F. SILVER, AND ROBERT HANSON

_~ ~ ~ E _ s - ~ _ ducators are increasingly concerned about enhancing student

_;,.,,e *' _: , thinking but not vet sure abouttnn r ~ I the best way to do it. We can introduce

special courses in thinking, but thatwill not guarantee the transfer ofthinking to regular classroom work incontent areas We can rewrTite ourcurriculums to include thinking skills.but written curriculum is rarelyh-, ifever. the curriculum in action Or wecan provide teachers with .srtegiesthat elicit and model various thinkingstyles The question is: how can strate-gies be used to teach the prescribedcurriculum in 3 ways that expands andenhances student thinking?

We created three characters to dealwith this issue in a question-an.swerformat Each character speaks for a set

5IVA*= . t of real concerns facing American edu-'*; ';:;~~~ ·Ir/~'~~~~T~~ ?1~ ;cators

C* ,arl is a tough-minded schoxol

administrator w-ho recently completedan extensive curriculum w-riting proj-ect in her district She is searching fora model for teaching thinking thatembraces the best work of the cogni-

, L tive theorists. vet leaves her existingcurriculum relativels intact

,*.fark is an equall- tough-mindedadministrator but with different con-cerns Hie recentlh completed a thor-ough staff development program ineffective instruction His programdraws liberallh from the works of Ba-rak Rosenshine (direct instruction).

Using the elements of lesson design as a drJHarl Fm rL Director of01 ro-

foundation, teachers can build student graL ad yratio and Roben tan)o7 s ;ChteJ FEvecluttre Officer. all u'i#

thinking by choosing from an array of 11amon Sit Strong c Itnc.·I, EFducatonal Contastans. tl Mooxretouin.

appropriate teaching strategies. . ,~.-M1A, 1985

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"... whereas theelements of lessondesign describe ways inwhich all examples ofgood teaching are thesame, strategiesdescribe ways inwhich they differ."

Larry Lezotte (teacher expectationsand equal opportunities for learning),and Madeline Hunter (principles oflearning and elements of lesson de-sign). His goal is to create greaterinstructional variety without changingthe foundations he has carefully laid.

*Jean is the moderator. She at-tempts- to build a bridge to join ouremerging concern about teachingthinking with our recent successes inmaking schools more effective.

Teaching Strategies and HowThey Work

Mark: We've been hearing a lotabout teaching strategies and the rolethey can play in helping teachers varntheir instructional techniques.

Carol: We've also heard that theycan play a pivotal role in helpingstudents expand their thinking styles.

Mark: Right. Let's start with the es-sentials. What is a teaching strategy?

Jean: The word "strategy" comesfrom an ancient Greek root meaning aplan to move a group toward a goal.Since classroom teaching generally re-quires a teacher, a group of learners,and a curriculum objective, we canview a teaching strategy as the teach-er's plan for moving learners toward acurriculum objective.

One of the great achievements ofeducation in this century has been thecreation and identification of a richvariety of strategies The idea of ateaching strategy unites thinkers asdiverse as Hilda Taba, Jerome Bruner,Donald Graves, Richard Suchman,Harold Herber, David Ausubel, MuskaMosston, and Bruce Joyce.' If teachers

want to vary the forms of instruction tohelp expand their students' styles ofthinking, we now have the tools to dothe job.

Mark: It's getting clearer. Let's havesome examples.

Jean: David Ausubel's Lecture Strat-egy2 calls for teachers to begin bypresenting an advanced organizer thatthey and the students will use to struc-ture the information students areabout to receive. Teachers can thenpresent the actual information, period-ically asking questions that requirestudents to recall the information pre-sented and to relate it to the centralideas in the organizer. Many questionsask the students to identify differencesand similarities among concepts.Teacher feedback either corrects orvalidates student information orpushes them further into the compare-and-contrast process. Evaluation con-sists of carefully monitoring students'attention for signs of dissonance orconfusion and posing periodic ques-tions that ask students to recall infor-mation and to discriminate among thevarious concepts.

This pattern of presentation, ques-tioning, and feedback elicits and rein-forces thinking patterns vital to thedevelopment of memory and the abili-ty to discriminate among ideas. It alsomodels techniques that students canuse to organize information on theirown.

Information, questions, and feed-back are handled differently in Je-rome Bruner's Concept AttainmentStrategy3 Here teachers present notinformation but positive and negativeexamples of an idea they want thestudents to understand. The teacherasks students to examine the examplesand identify the key characteristics ofthe idea. He or she encourages stu-dents to observe, hypothesize, andverify through further observation.

Here a different strategy of presenta-tion, questioning, and feedback elicitsand models a verv different kind ofthinking. Ausubel's pattern is a lotmore teacher-centered The instructorpresents, checks for comprehension,and confirms or clarifies student re-sponses. Bruner's strategy draws moreon students' mental activitn. They mustactively examine and manipulate in-formation. which is then evaluated forcorrespondence with fact and depth ofobservation

Carol: Does this mean I can beginto work toward developing my stu-dents' thinking without importing awhole new "thinking curriculum"? Dothese strategies cut across differentcontent areas?

Jean: They certainly do. In terms ofeffective teaching, we already knowthat the elements of lesson design orthe principles of learning apply equal-Iv to all types of content. So do thestrategies The difference is that,whereas the elements of lesson designdescribe ways in which all examples ofgood teaching are the same, strategiesdescribe u'avs in which the)y diter

Mark: Since we've already men-tioned Madeline Hunter, I'd like tointerject a few of her ideas into ourconversation I'm thinking in particular of four questions she taught me toask when observing a teacher in theclassroom:

1. Does the teacher monitor andadjust his or her behairior to meet theneeds of the students' The variousstrategies provide teachers with guide-lines to help them monitor and adjustin particular learning situations

2. Is the teacher using the principlesof learning' It strikes me that some ofthese strategies are built on the princi-ples of learning. Years ago I watched ateacher use Taba's Concept FormationStrategx- to introduce a unit on theMiddle Ages In that strategy the students sometimes do the presenting.They generate data, ideas and informa-tion, and associations related to thetopic. Then then organize their datainto groups based on similarities andgive their groups descriptive labels.Finally, the students try to find rela-tionships among the groups they haveformed Thinking back on that lesson,I was struck byv how many of Hunter'sideas on meaning, memory, and trans-fer were embodied in that strategyLet's move on to the third question

3. Is the learning at the correct let MelThis one presents some problems forme

Carol: And for me To put it bluntly,what if your students aren't readv forthe kinds of thinking a particular strat-egy requires'

Jean: Then you'd better not use thatstrategy until thev are readv However,we've used all the major teaching strategies in some form or another withstudents from kindergarten to college,so readiness has little to do with grade

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I MASTERY |

Practice StrategiesTeaching Strategies:

* Command-demonstration* Practice

Learners' Thinking:* Recall* Rehearse

Curriculum Objectives:* Skills* Procedures

INVOLVEMENT

Personal StrategiesTeaching Strategies:

· Graduated difficulty· Peer practice· Moral dilemmas

Learners' Thinking:*Introspection* Decision making

Curriculum Objectives:· Personal and social maturity· Academic responsibility

CULTURAL LITERACY

Presentational StrategiesTeaching Strategies:

* Lecture· Program instruction

Learners' Thinking:· Labeling· Storing

Curriculum Objectives:· Recall information· Presentation

Processing Strategies Problem-Solving StrategiesTeaching Strategies: Teaching Strategies:

· Concept attainment -Creative problem solving· Concept formation Synectics* Inquiry ·Creative expression

Learners' Thinking: Learners' Thinking:* Conceptualizing Generating* Verifying Applying

Curriculum Objectives: Curriculum Objectives:· Formulating concepts · Creative products or solutions· Critical thinking Skills

UNDERSTANDING I SYNTHESIS

° Hanson Silver & Associates Inc., Box 402, Moorestown, NJ 0US7.

level. We ve, als( seen the strategiesused with students who have a varietyof mental handicaps. So readiness ma!not be correlated with intelligence-hut it is dehnitelv correlated withteaching Before leachers use a strate-g', it's important for them to modeland practice the kinds of thinking usedin the strategies Spending a few min-utes a dav asking students to classifhcompare and contrast. hvlpothesize.and check for verification can paV im-mense dividends Also. let's not forgetthe importance of preparation and

repetition. If the kindergarten teacheruses a variet- of strategies regularly.then the Ist grade students are goingto be ready to use those same strate-gies a year later

Mark: I can huv that. but that bringsme to the fourth question.

4 Are teache- and student elhat iorsappropriate to the olt/ectitv' Thisquestion really throws me because theconcept formation lesson I describedcould not he used for all curriculumobjectives. For instance. I can't imag-ine any way to use concept formation

to help m!- students practice the longdivision algorithm. It just doesn't fit.How do you decide whether or not astrategy fits a particular curriculumobjective?

Selecting a Strategy to Fit aParticular Teaching Situation

Jean: Knowing how to select a strat-egy appropriate to a particular learn-ing situation is critical. First. let's clari-fx the nature of our obiectives. W'e candefine five principal goals of educa-tion (Figure 1):

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"Goals, strategies,learners, and objectiveshave styles. Each styleimplies a different setof relationshipsbetween the teacher,the learner, and thecurriculum."

1 Mastery--development of a highlevel of competence in basic skills.

2. Understanding--development ofthe ability to use reason and higher-level intellectual and academic skillsin content work.

3. Synthesis-development of theability to create new and original workand apply intellectual and basic skillsto new contexts

4. Intoltement-development ofthe ability to find relevance in learningand to move toward an "academicmaturity " where sound decisionsyield success in school.

5 Cultural Literacy--knowledge ofa body of culturally important infor-mation.6

Each of these goals is a family thatembraces a set of teaching strategies, aset of thinking styles, and a set of

curriculum objectives Goals, strate-gies, learners, and objectives havestyles. Each style implies a different setof relationships between the teacher,the learner, and the curriculum. Weget in trouble when we try to teachdifferent contents to different kids inexactly the same wav.

Mark: Wait a minute. Some thingsdo remain the same. The elements oflesson design

Jean: describe ways in which allexamples of good teaching should bethe same. Style and strategy, on theother hand, describe the ways inwhich examples of good teaching mayand should differ. Let's be more specif-ic.

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The mastern goal tends to employstrategies involvingpractice. This styleemphasizes thinking operations suchas following directions, sequencing,matching, and rehearsing These prac-tice strategies work best with curricu-lum objectives that emphasize previ-ously presented concrete skills

The understanding goal calls forstrategies eliciting the style of thinkingnecessary to process information intonew forms Processing involves think-ing operations like comparing, con-trasting, hypothesizing. and verifying.Process strategies work best withthose objectives that emphasize un-derstanding concepts and generaliza-tions and the use of intellectual oracademic skills such as interpretationof literature and the establishment ofproof.

The synthesis goal calls for a prob-lem-solting style of thinking. Here, asin understanding, one must go "be-vond the information given"; the goalis to take action and validate existingcognitive structures. To achieve this,problem-solving strategies emphasizethinking operations like associating,generating, focusing, and forming andusing metaphors.

The involvement goal requires astyle of thinking that brings the learnerto a personal association with knowl-edge so that he or she can make sounddecisions This style emphasizes think-ing operations such as introspection,empathizing, evaluating, and decisionmaking. These personal strategieswork best with objectives that empha-size the development of self-conceptand healthy social relationships

The cultural literacy goal is associat-ed with styles of thinking that helplearners cope with the presentation ofmaterial. These presentational strate-gies emphasize receptive styles ofthinking based primarily on the needto remember Thev work best withcontent objectives requiring the learn-er to store and recall quantities ofinformation.-

When we neglect these differences,we fail to focus as clearly as we mighton the nature of our objectives. thenature of our students, and the natureof the strategies most likely to get ourideas across For instance, would anv-one argue that using the elements oflesson design requires teaching pho-nics and the interpretation of Faulk-ner's "The Bear" in exactlI the samewav?

Carol: \You're suggesting that weselect strategies that match the stylesof the content objectives we're teach-ing?

Jean: That's one important possibil-it-, hut thinking back on our discus-sion of learner readiness. I think wecan identify another. When we intro-duce a new, skill. a new boed- of infor-mation. a news problem-solving situa-tion. or a new was of processinginformation, we should chox)se a strat-egy that matches either (1 ) the stvle ofthe content objective we are teaching,or (2) the style of thinking with w hichthe learner is most comfortable

Then, as we progress through ourunit of studs. it is appropriate and

important to use strategies in othergoal areas in order to (1) exposedifferent stvles of learners to newstyles of thinking, and (2) display thecontent from a variety of perspectives.

Carol: Then is there a hierarchy ofstrategies. thinking styles, and objec-tives?

Jean: No. Although some knowl-edge is necessary to do any sort ofthinking, we almost always underesti-mate the value of students' experienceas a platform from which we can com-mence an!- stvle of thinking and learn-ing. And we almost alwayss overesti-mate the distance between thatexperience and the knowledge wewish them to acquire. Practicing, proc-essing. problem solv-ing, and personal-izing all can be means of acquiringand deepening knowledge

Mark: This is very exciting. It opensup new worlds to me. and I think itwill be helpful to my teachers as well.But I'm not willing to move in thisdirection unless we can build on thefoundations we've already laid, and forme the cornerstone of that foundationis the elements of lesson design.Frankl-. I don't see how to selectstrategies to fit within the lesson de-sign.

Teaching Strategies, ThinkingStyles, and the Elements ofLesson Design

Jean: I support your position andconcern. It's one thing to shift prior-ities to address newly emerged orrecognized needs (like the need todevelop higher-order thinking). It'squite another to abandon hard-woninsights and undeniably effective prac-tices (like the principles of learningand the elements of effective lessondesign) It makes no sense at all to goto the trouble to lav a foundationsomewhere and then turn around andbuild 'our house somewhere else

However. I see no conflict at allbetween the elements of lesson designand the correct use of a wide variety ofthinking styles and teaching strategies.

Mark: Good Show me how they fittogether

Jean: Let's review the elements ofan effective lesson First. its objeauterests in a class by itself because somuch else depends on it Selection of

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"By selecting onestrategy overanother, teachersemphasize onestyle of thinkingover another."

the objective determines not only thecontent and the level of difficuhlt atwhich the lesson will be taught, but itmay also determine the st'le and thestrategy or strategies the teacher willemploy. In considering an objective,therefore, the teacher is focusingsimult4neously on all three critical var-iables of education: teaching strategy,learner readiness, and content.

When actually planning a lesson, ateacher employs six other elementsH(Figure 2):

1. Anticpaton' set is an introductoryactivity that helps learners recall priorknowledge on the topic at hand andfocus it on the current topic

2 Input provides learners withideas, directions, and information.

3. Modeling shows learners con-cretelv how to work with the input.

4. Checkingfor understanding is aquestioning element that ensures thatstudents comprehend what has beenpresented and modeled.

5. Guided practice is an action ele-ment in which students practice exam-ples of the modeled behavior withcareful guidance and active supportfrom the teacher.

6. Independent practice requiresstudents to practice the modeled be-havior on their own.

Figure 2. The Elements of Lesson Design andTeaching Styles and Strategies: A Synthesis.

1. Select the Objective. Objectives 4. Checking for Understanding. Proc-come in all five styles, but they all essing and synthesis strategies per-point toward one goal: student in- mit us to go beyond mere checkingdependence. for accuracy and into a realm where

inferences, assumptions, and impli-cations become clear.

2. Anticipatory Set helps learners focus 5. Guided Practice. Practice strategieson the new objective. Since the idea are the idea are the obvious choice here. But aof focusing is central, brief practice, surprising number of personal strat-process, or personal strategies work egies wwork well toobest here.

providing or extending information. once the student has been shownPresentational and processing strate- how independence can appear in allgies work best here. five goal areas.

Hanson Silver Strong & Associates Inc., Box 402, Moorestown, N 08057.

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Carol: Are the elements of lessondesign a strategy?

Jean: That is what I call the "founda-tion question," and a great deal rideson its answer. If we answer ves, thenHunter's strategy is one among many,and we will be forced to choose. Wewill have to say that it belongs to onestyle or another and is appropriate tothis set of objectives but not that set.

Most people who see the elementsthis way would call lesson design amastery strategy. In making such aclaim, they would point to its highapplicability to basic skills work. Thevwould also point to its apparent se-quential structure and to the high levelof teacher control over student behav-ior implied by the teacher's decisionsinvolving choice of objective. input.modeling, and so on

Viewed as a strategy, these elementsmay appear not to encourage studentthinking as much as thev could Thereseems to be no place here for studenLsto generate objectives or questions toverify or create their )vown understand-ings or to become a source of informa-tiomn or modeling for others Ih is hardto imagine how a strategy that doesnot elicit and encourage student initi;-tive at ev'er stage could pla! a signiti-cant role in the development of under-sta:nding, synthesis, or inv()lvement

But lesson design is not a strategvI unter's frequent declarations on theIlexihilin' of the element.as a ell isthe sheer diversir. of the contents forx-'hich thev can ;ln h;lave been nm-pl!ived--lei us see the elements forwxhat the\ rcalll -;rce .1 model f)r seect-ing strategies Thce model's purpose isa sixth goal that shUisunles all fixcca;tegories trhe establishment of stu-dent independence Viewed in thlislight. the elements of lesson designdescribe howx teachers x ork with theirstudents t) move' theml from thinkingdependence t to thinking indepcn-dence, from ina;hbilin- to Iabilin-, ronrclihance 0on :luthorit, tI)o alutIon)nix Inthis Case thie elemenit s ti sCtitilte ;Ithioroughl admir;lible mnodcel tiotcaclhing all sI)rts ()f thinking bcLcauscttilex leave open to) tclcthers tilhe cloliceof xlhlat strategy til'\ 1m;l LSC ;it an!piiint in tile mIllcdel' dc'\eve')pnlenlThis means tc'achers caln cmplo- ;INidc variet () strategies. cstahlishingX'hall the! c onsider to hie tile prop'r fitof strategies to leAlrncr realdiness antdcontent c bjecti-es 1\- selc'cting (c'

strategy over another, teachers empha-size one style of thinking over another.

For instance, in the input phase ateacher could use either Ausubel's Ad-vanced Organizer or Bruner's ConceptAttainment. The Organizer models theprocess of establishing relationshipsin a content area, while Concept At-tainment actually engages the studentsin formulating and testing personalhypotheses and connections. Moss-ton's Graduated Difficulty Strategy' °

could be used as part of the anticipa-tory set to help students recall whatthey remember about a topic or aspart of a guided practice to help themassess their knowledge and learn thevalue of evaluative thinking. Parnesand Treffinger's work in Creative Prob-lem Solving can help extend and trans-fer prior learning into new realms,while our own Circle of KnowledgeStrategy'" can provide a unique way toinvolve the total group in checking forunderstanding. Finally, a social studiesor science teacher could use the entireLesson Design Model to teach studentsTaba's Concept Formation Strategyand then set them free to discoverwhat thev mav about their subject.Their discoveries could be the inputfor the next day's lessons.

Seeing the elements of lesson de-sign not as a strategy but as a modelfor chotsing strategies saves us fromdenigrating either the strategies or theelements Instead. it provides us withan invaluable too)l for selecting andorganizing our strategies. and forhelping us see the rich variety of op-tions open to a teacher at evenry phaseof the learning process

Mark: Suppose wse xwant to shift inthe direction you are pointing? Howcan we begini'

Jean: First. get training in both theelements of lesson design and a richdiversitx of strategies.

Second, assess your school Go intothe classroom and talk to the teachersAsk sourself. "Do they know the ele-ments of lesson design?" "Do they usethem?" How rich and varied is theirpalette of strategies?" "What styles arewell represented? .What styles areneglected?

Third. make sure your staff knowsthe elements before you introducethem to the strategies.

Fourth, introduce a fewt strategies ata time hut make the strategies repre-sentative of all ftie st-les

Fifth, use both the elements and thestrategies in your teacher conferencesand facultv meetings.

Mark: Well, that's a beginning.Jean: No. I think it's a little after the

beginning. It's more like a first floor-the part of a house you construct aftervou've laid the foundation.

'For further information on these andother strategies. see H F Silver. R Hanson.and R W. Strong, Teacbing Soiles and Strat-egies (Moorestow n. N!: Hanson Silver &Associates. 1982)

2David Ausubel, The Psdyolog. of.Meanrinrul Verbal Learning (New YorkGrune and Stranon. 1963)

Jerome Bruner. Jacqueline Goodnow.and George A Austin. A Study of Thinking(New York: Science Editions, Inc.. 196-);and Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil, Modelsof Teaching (Englewood Cliffs. NJ.: Pren-lice Hall. 19-2)

'Hilda Taba. Teachers hlandbook forElementanr Social S'tudes (Reading, Mass.:Addison-Wesle- Publishers, 196")

'Ted Walsh, 'Problem Solving and Aca-demic Maturin unpublished paper. Wa-tenown. NNY., 1981)

"E D lirsh. "Cultural Literac, and theCurriculum. keynote address to the Annu-al State'wide Staff Development Confer-ence. California State Department of Edu-cation. Asilomar. Calif. lanuan- 1985

'Walsh, ibid'Madeline Hunter. "Knowing. Teaching,

and Supernising." in .ing WVtaW We KnowAbout Teaching. ed Philip L loseford (Al-exandria. \Va aAssxociation for Supenrisionand Curriculum Developmenr. 1984). pp169-192

"We deliberately avoided using the wordsequence, since proper understanding

of Hunter's model includes the recogni-tion that particular elements may be re-peated or deleted in accordance with theteacher's judgment based on the objectivehe or she has chosen and his or hermonitoring of student progress toward thatobjectiie This sort of flexibilitv makes theuse of the word "sequence" highlh mis-leading

'Muska Mossion. Teacding from Com-mand to Drcorern (Belmont. Calif Wads-worth Puhlishing Compan!. 19-2)

'R W Strong. I. F Silher. and R. tHan-son. Teadchngfor L nderstanding (Moores-town. N : Hanson Silver Strong and Asso-ciates. 1985)

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Copyright © 1985 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. All rights reserved.