INTEGRATED POLICIES FOR THE PREPARATION OF

E D U C A T I O N A L PERSONNEL

JAMES LYNCH

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Abstract - Drawing on the literature and developments in Lifelong Education in the 1960s and 1970s, this paper seeks to offer a contribution to the updating of the concept to address the pressing new needs of the 1980s for integrated policies for the preparation of educational personnel. Such policies are seen as necessitating the ability to forge new curricula across sectoral boundaries, linking education and economic activity, school and community, and achieving delivery in different modes and locations. The article offers a conceptualization of policy options for such preparation, comprising four major dimensions, each comprehending tendencies to conservation and change. The author proceeds to illustrate the conceptualization by reference to programmes provided, often on an inter-agency basis, in the United Kingdom by the Manpower Services Commission. The paper concludes by highlighting the continuing disjuncture between education and training and between education and national needs in many developing countries, partly as a legacy of co- lonial concepts of schooling, and points to the requirement for comprehensive and coherent policies which can link education and the economy and schooling and training, harnessing them to the response to pressing national needs.

Znsammenfassung - Gesttitzt auf die Literatur und Entwicklungen im Bereich des Lebenslangen Lernen in den 60er und 70er Jahren versucht der Verfasser dieses Ar- tikels eine Aktualisierung des Konzepts, um auf die dringenden neuen Bedtirfnisse der 80er Jahre f~r integrierte Richtlinien zur Vorbereitung des Erziehungspersonals einzugehen. Schwerpunkte dieser Richtlinien sind: neue Curricula tiber Sektoren- grenzen hinweg zu entwickeln, Bildung und wirtschaftliche Aktivit~it sowie Schule und Gemeinschaft miteinander zu verbinden und auf verschiedene Art und Weise und an verschiedenen Standorten zu vermitteln. Im nachfolgenden Artikel wird eine Konzeptualisierung der Optionen bei Richtlinien flit eine derartige Vorbereitung angeboten, die aus vier Hauptdimensionen besteht. Jede diese Hauptdimensionen enth~lt Tendenzen zu Erhaltung und Ver/inderung einschlieBen. Der Verfasser ver- anschaulicht die Konzeptualisierung mit einem Verweis auf die im Vereinigten K6nigreich von Manpower Services Commission angebotenen Programme, die h~iufig auf einer Vermittlungsbasis zwischen den verschiedenen Regierungsstellen beruhen. Abschliel3end betont der Verfasser die fortdauernde Trennung zwischen Bildung und Ausbildung sowie zwischen Bildung und nationalen Bedfirfnissen in vielen Entwicklungsl~indern, die teilweise als ein Erbe kolonialer Entwicklungskon- zepte weiterbestehen. Es besteht ein Bedarf nach umfassenden und koh~irenten Me- thoden, die Bildung und Wirtschaft sowie Erziehung und Ausbildung verknfipfen und sie an eine Antwort auf dringende nationale Bedfirfnisse koppeln.

International Review o f Education - Internationale Zeitschrift f~ir Erziehungswissenschaft - Revue Internationale de Pddagogie X X X I I I (1987), 131-146. Al l rights reserved. Copyright © by Unesco Institute f o r Education, Hamburg and Martinus Ni jhof fPubl ishers , Dordrecht.

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R6sum6 - S'inspirant de la litt6rature et des d6veloppements de l'Education Per- manente enregistr6s au cours des ann6es soixante et soixante-dix, cet article s'efforce d'apporter une contribution ~t la mise & jour de ce concept afin de pr6senter les nouveaux besoins pressants apparus dans les ann6es quatre-vingts aux politiques in- t6gr6es pour la formation du personnel enseignant. On consid~re que de telles politi- ques n6cessitent la capacit6 de forger de nouveaux curricula ~t travers les limites sec- torielles, 6tablissent des liens entre l'6ducation et l'activit6 6conomique, l'6cole et la communaut6, et op~rent de diverses mani~res et en diff6rents endroits. L'article pr6- sent offre une conceptualisation des options politiques pour une telle pr6paration, qui englobe quatre grandes dimensions, chacune d'elles renfermant des propensions

l'invariabilit6 et & l'6volution. L'auteur illustre ensuite cette conceptualisation en se r6f6rant aux programmes offerts, sur une base interop6rationnelle souvent, au Royaume-Uni par la Commission des Services de la Main-d'Oeuvre. I1 conclut en soulignant l'incoh6rence constante entre l'6ducation et la formation, l'6ducation et les besoins nationaux que de nombreux pays en d6veloppement ont h6rit6s en partie de concepts coloniaux d'6ducation et il met en relief la n6cessit6 de politiques g6n6rales et coh6rentes capables de nouer des liens entre l'6ducation et l'6conomie, l'instruction et la formation, les exhortant ~ r6pondre aux besoins nationaux ur- gents.

Some International Trends

Seen internationally and historically, there have been many attempts to

break down institutional and knowledge barriers, both within education

and between education and other sectors. From their inception international

organizations such as Unesco picked up this relay, at least as far as popular

knowledge was concerned. But it was not until the concept of lifelong educa-

tion became current in international debate from the early 1960s that recog-

nition of the centrality of that issue to education and national development became more internationally widespread. Increasingly the question was posed of the inadequacy of many of the existing separate categories of

knowledge and their attendant social systems and hierarchies to the com-

plexity and interrelatedness of issues facing developed and developing coun-

tries alike. Gradually this recognition led to such international initiatives as the in-

volvement of the World Bank in integrated development projects in the field

of education, major commitment on the part of organizations such as

Unesco to lifelong education and the launching of new national strategies breaching the frontiers of education and extending across the lifespan of the

individual and outward into the community. The student-worker schemes introduced in a number of countries (e.g. Malta) were a manifestation of such aspirations to link education more closely with economic life. Schools

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and educational institutions gradually came to be recognized as only one source of information and learning and teachers as only one group from

whom wisdom, knowledge and expertise could accrue. At the same time, Western nations such as the United States began to experience what Banks has referred to as 'ethnic revitalization movements ' l : demands by their ex- cluded minority communities for the full inclusion of their cultures in the national macro-culture in an economically consequential way.

Rapid social, economic and technological changes and the recognition of greater cultural diversity in the social context of education thus increasingly challenged the utility of the front-end, subject-based preparation offered by most educational institutions and the presuppositions underlying the con- temporary preparation of educational personnel. Co-operative, community oriented functions linking academic and social worlds, child and adult education, teaching and evaluation, interprofessional and multi-disciplin- ary activities, seemed to demand teachers who were involved in the career- long learning of a demanding, evolving and constantly changing role. Such continuous preparation was seen as focusing strongly on the integration of structures and epistemologies, of teaching and learning and the in- terdependence of specialists and non-specialists in the delivery of a coherent educational service, attentive to emerging community, national and interna- tional needs. 2

Such developments were gradually scanned for their implications for the preparation of educational personnel, as rapid change and greater diversity were seen as demanding more effective and sustained efforts towards in- tegration. 3 In many countries outmoded and isolated institutional arrange- ments for the preparation of educational personnel were discarded as teach- er education was integrated into the broader stream of national educational objectives. Such developments took place in such nations as the United States, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of Germany and were also seen in some developing countries.

Different Kinds of Integration

The general ideology of integration became manifest in many different ways and forms. In some cases, attempts were made to identify perceptual, manual, motoric, intellectual and social skills, common to a number of oc- cupational families and their functions in society and to build up training routines and programmes based on such a process. In some cases, the aim was to draw back academic pursuits to the reality of economic and social concerns to link education and life, training and learning. In others, a more flexible and cost-effective deployment of staff was sought to facilitate the

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integration of initial and in-service education. In other cases still, the goal was to achieve through institutional integration greater equity and fairness of provision and a more even distribution of life chances. Such was the case where common schools were introduced to replace previously segregated school forms. International guidelines began to be produced for the im- plementation of projects based on the marshalling concept of lifelong education and these were, in some cases, internationally evaluated and reported. 4 Cross-national symposia indicated extensive international ex- perience in the field and refreshing willingness to share such experience and expertise. 5 Case studies of institutions were undertaken, called to the bar of accountability represented by the concept characteristics of lifelong educa- tion, and the movement toward greater integration was seen as international as well as institutional, local, national and regional. 6

Integration was thus seen as potentially embracing a whole series of dif- fering dimensions, including the systemic, organizational, structural, epistemological, financial, spatial, interprofessional, medial and temporal. That concept and several of these dimensions were incorporated in various ways into new holistic strategies for education across the lifespan. The ra- tionales were various: to gain purchase on the more efficient and effective use of resources, to update and upgrade so as to keep pace with rapid social, cultural and technological change, to counter the isolation of certain kinds of professional training, to link theory and practice, education and life more closely together, to weld curriculum design, implementation and evaluation more closely together. Moreover the concept of lifelong education was rotated to the illumination of many disciplines: psychology, ecology and ethnography to name but a few, 7 and the need was seen to associate teach- ing, training and learning more closely with research, integrating the results of research more speedily into practice, and evaluating practice not solely against theory but also against deliberated exPerience. 8

The Central Role of Lifelong Education

As the importance of lifelong education as a managing concept for the development of educational systems became more and more apparent, educational planners began to elaborate its concept characteristics and group them into functional domains. Dave was one of the first to do this and his conceptualization covered four areas: -democra t i za t ion of educational availability; - comprehens iveness and unification of provision; - individualization of responses to rapid social and technological change; - a m e l i o r a t i o n of lifestyles and life-chances. 9

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Each of these domains and the inherent concept characteristics raised issues of the integration of resource utilization, delivery systems, clientele,

institution, curriculum, previously separate areas of life and society, and perhaps above all, often jealously guarded professional divisions amongst personnel, their roles and functions, conditions of service and pay and not least their integration with each other and their fellow humans.

Trends in the United Kingdom

Such worldwide currents of thought could not leave the United Kingdom untouched, and the 1960s saw a number of fundamental innovations which drew on the concept of greater integration, sometimes in similar ways to those referred to above. The 1960s, for example, saw a massive expansion of teacher education which facilitated both specialization and aggregative developments: new departments not least of social and sociological studies, side-by-side with interdisciplinary inquiry, interprofessional training, closer association of institutions, and integrative role concepts such as that of teacher-social worker. Similar developments were already occurring in the United States and perhaps more gradually in the Federal Republic of Qer- many and, with the gathering strength of the wind of change bringin~ in- dependence to the nations of 'The Third World ' , increasingly also tO the developing countries of Africa.l°

But in the United Kingdom, in particular, the movement was spurred by a number of crucial institutional development at precisely the right time. The birth of the Schools Council in 1964, for example, led to the identifica- tion and pursuit of new areas of the curriculum and projects were estab- lished in such curricular areas as Integrated Studies, Social Studies, General Studies and Humanities. 11 The introduction of new examinations in the same year also facilitated the development of new, integrated, more socially focused content and there was a renewed commitment to the 'whole cur- riculum', seen as an integrated learning experience for each pupil, rather than as a collection of disparate and separate units of study. 12 The recogni- tion by educators of the presence in the school system of large numbers of less-able pupils who had previously left school early, or whose presence had previously been largely neglected, forced the development of new ap- proaches to both content and teaching methods. A plethora of new books on curriculum studies appeared and the Journal of Curriculum Studies was established in 1968. The Plowden Report of 1967 endorsed all that was best in English primary teaching and expressed a deep-rooted commitment to in- tegration and experience rather than to separate subjects. 13

These developments were accompanied by a broadening of social con-

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cerns as the decade progressed, combined with a mounting focus on the disadvantaged and an incipient appreciation of the educational challenge posed by cultural diversity. 14 The 1960s saw the birth of the 'New Social Studies', concerned with the structured study of values and concepts and the adoption of systematic modes of inquiry and forms of knowledge, drawn from the by now bourgeoning social sciences in higher education. The first projects in multicultural education were launched and interdisciplinary en- quiry became almost a vogue, with a curriculum laboratory dedicated to it at Goldsmiths College in London. Similar commitments to values education in the social studies, to multicultural education and to integrative develop- ments of an institutional and curricular kind can also be detected at the same time in countries as far apart as the United States and Australia.

The 1970s, too, saw the process of widening of social and educational concerns gathering pace to include aspects of the broader social and com- munity life, previously only rarely integrated into schools. The establish- ment of 'educational priority areas' betokened a new, more integrated ap- proach to the social pathology of schools and education, endorsing the im- portance of parental and community involvement, if children were to learn effectively.15 Schools reached out into their communities and professionals were urged to 'team' more with other professionals and to acquire new socio-professional skills in common with those of other professions. Over- laps in the training of such professionals as teachers, social workers and education welfare officers were increasingly recognized. Action research strategies were employed to link parents and teachers and to cement inter- professional contacts and liaison. 16 More recently, and following counter- part developments in the United States, children with special educational needs were integrated into ordinary schools, 17 and a national programme was launched to train teachers for such mainstreaming tasks. TM

Structurally, too, new developments were taking place in higher educa- tion. New universities were established, many of them with a strong com- mitment to integrative developments and a structural epistemology based on schools of study rather than departments. Not without historical prece- dents, new institutions were launched, the Polytechnics, to integrate higher education more closely with the local community and to weave more closely the relationship between vocational preparation and study after school. They were rapidly replicated in many developing countries.

Integrative Developments in Teacher Education

Similar, but accelerated developments were taking place in teacher educa- tion at the same time, encouraged by the gradually mounting recognition of

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the imperative of demographic decline in the school-age population. The James Report proposed policies to integrate teacher education across three phases of the teacher's professional life: initial, induction and in-service.19 The subsequent White Paper proposed the introduction of new interdisci- plinary qualifications in higher education with its proposals for the intro- duction of a new Diploma in Higher Education. 2° The subsequent rundown of teacher education provided new opportunities for integrative, pragmatic approaches to the training of educational personnel. Institutionally, the bulk of teacher education was incorporated into mainstream higher educa- tion, much of it into universities and polytechnics. This alone meant that the spectrum of staff contributing to teacher education broadened, and students often took the same courses as others studying in non-vocational higher education or for other professional outlets, such as social work, wel- fare, business studies, technology and the normal spectrum of scientific ca- reers. Additionally, teacher education institutions took on new functions in providing in-service training, thus facilitating the integration of initial and

in-service teacher education. New arrangements for the validation of teacher education programmes

through a new body, The Council for National Academic Awards (C.N.A.A.) gave an apparent spur to new approaches to curriculum design and development and introduced, for the first time, effective peer-group assessment and validation of courses in higher education: a pattern which was gradually introduced into other countries, e.g. Australia. Although the extent of epistemological change should not be exaggerated, new constella- tions of knowledge were created and previously separate educational disciplines were integrated under new hybrid groupings such as professional

or teaching studies.

The Open University as an Example of Integration

The establishment of the Open University from 1970 provided new scope for the integration of different technological and informatic approaches in the provision of 'second chance' higher education on a 'first come, first served' basis. Mass media presentations were integrated with more traditional and innovatory book-based approaches and social phases in Summer schools and tutorials. Most courses were interdisciplinary to one extent or another and social integration also took place by dint of the fact that students came from many different walks of life, unified by their thirst for knowledge or their lack of normal entry qualifications. Staff also came from many dif- ferent institutions and professional backgrounds, including the mass media, technological careers, materials design, as well as the normal range of aca-

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demic careers. Consultants in course design, implementation and evaluation were drawn from many different sectors and institutions and provision was regional, but integrated nationally.

By 1973, the Open University, pressing forward its already significant achievements in the field, established a Committee on Continuing Educa- tion, which in its report published in 1976 recommended, inter alia: - the integrated development of library services, including those in institu-

tions of higher education; -increased utilization of educational broadcasting; - increased provision of refresher and upgrading courses; - t h e investigation of the establishment of tele-conferencing links. 22

Efforts at the Integration of Knowledge

Taking an epistemological tack on integration, the Nuffield Foundation, Group for Research and Innovation in Higher Education, established a study of interdisciplinarity, prepared between 1973 and 1975, and produced case studies of numerous courses adopting such an approach. A range of interdisciplinary approaches was identified, from joint disciplinary ones, through pluridisciplinary and interdisciplinary ones to attempts at new hybrid disciplines. The reasons cited for the need to develop new constella- tions of knowledge in this way were the solution of new and complex social and technological problems, fundamental structural similarities between a number of disciplines, the need to see things as a whole and the need to bridge formal and everyday knowledge by using 'commonsense knowl- edge', a3 The Leverhulme Inquiry into Higher Education, organized by the Society for Research into Higher Education, also endorsed the principle of diversity of provision within an integrated system as a response to needs which it identified for the latter decades of this century. 24

In the field of adult education, too, efforts were being made to bridge out- dated boundaries and to recognize interdependence. The Russell Report of 1973 led to the establishment in 1977 of an Advisory Council for Adult and Continuing Education to:

promote co-operation between the various bodies in adult education.., and . . , the development of future policies and priorities with full regard to the concept of education continuing throughout life.

In its review of 1982, the Council recognized the fact that continuing educa- tion must take place in many different contexts, necessitating co-ordinated local and national provision, including a network of accessible local adult education centres and exploiting new modes of learning. 25

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New Pressures in the 1980s

The 1980s have everywhere thrown up quite different constraints, demands and choices, which have led, albeit within the continuities of educational ideologies and provision, to new approaches to integrative policies. Such phenomena as growing and stubbornly unchanging structural unemploy- ment, combined with fundamental and long-term demographic change, ur- ban decay and the increased tensions associated with the recognition of cultural pluralism, heightened calls for greater accountability and economic efficiency in the use of educational resources and the decline of many tradi- tional industries have led to a re-examination of the integrative functions of education and in some cases to their apparent rejection.

But, in turn, each of these new constraints has triggered new demands and a more severe scrutiny of educational policy options for survival. Strategies began to address more closely the overcoming of such problems as the geographical location of educational opportunities, the fitting of provision with the demands of work or of increased leisure; in sum the need for people to be able to learn in a mode, at a time, place and pace of their own choos- ing. Nowhere was this scrutiny more thoroughgoing than in the response to massive youth unemployment, posing the question of how to provide a radically different curriculum for young people from the traditional 'ter- minal' curriculum provided for the majority of them by state schools, and to deliver that curriculum in a variety of contexts: school, college, training centre, work and community.

Such a radically different and innovatory approach, however, faced one major and fundamental problem: a critical shortage of staff with ap- propriate expertise and training to respond to demands for the development of prevocational curricula in schools and colleges, the establishment of technical and vocational education projects in schools, the launching of the Youth Training Scheme and changes in examinations, including the in- troduction of such techniques as profiling, and the growth of closer links among schools, colleges, employers and training agencies. Staff develop- ment was, thus, required to address such strategies as multi-agency provi- sion and deliver, resources, experiential and reflective learning, planned real or simulated work experience, continuous assessment and formative ap- praisal, a negotiated and interdisciplinary curriculum and profiling ap- proaches to human achievement. What was required was nothing less than the integration of curriculum-led staff development to deliver a new in- tegrated provision of learning, such as that offered by the new Certificate in Pre-Vocational Education. 26

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A Proposal for a Model of Integrated Staff Development

Looked at from the perspective of the 1960s and 1970s, the sharpness of the intellectual tools was a major determinant of the speed and effectiveness of the implementation of integration. Only after the pioneer work conducted by such scholars as Dave was there substantial movement into practice. The same is likely to apply in the 1980s. There has been substantial progress in conceptualizing and formulating more comprehensive frameworks for the training of educational personnel, which may be useful in overcoming the intellectual and practical constraints on new insights into innovatory rela- tionships, provision and processes.

Bolam, for example, focusing on in-service education for teachers, pro- posed three major interacting dimensions: providing agents and agencies; formulation of tasks, policies, structures and content; and, the clients for whom the strategies are intended. 27 Alexander identifies the critical issues as concerning: - t h e focus of the activity, for example its purpose or goal; - t h e control, for example who makes the decisions; - the mode, that is what kind of activity is planned; and, - t h e location, that is where the activity is planned to take place. 28

This juxtaposition is an integrative means to identify the interrelationship of aspects in the provision of educational personnel training, but is also generative of a wide range of policy options.

A similarly generative approach is adopted by Plunkett. Reviewing staff training and development for the new Youth Programme in the countries of the European Community, and seeking principles and patterns for their future development, he proposes a framework for planning which includes four stages: -identification of staff development needs - s e t t ing programme goals; - p l a n n i n g programmes; and, - implement ing , reviewing and further developing. 29

The concept of integration could clearly be applied to a combination of the above conceptual frameworks to raise issues and clarify policy options concerning staff development in a variety of contexts, both in developing countries and in the industrialized countries. Figure 1 attempts to set out a developmental cycle for the identification of such options in the field of per- sonnel training. To simplify the situation it might be speculated that, unless strategies of integration address ab initio all major dimensions, focus, epistemology, organization and control, they are unlikely to succeed. Or, put another way, any strategy for the integration of the preparation of educational personnel will need to scan and scrutinize the above dimensions

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Focus - needs assessment - a n a l y s i s of needs in the context of

current provision; what is needed by whom, when, where, etc.

- g o a l s -purposes, aims, objectives, e.g. competence development, information-giving.

- c l i ente le -e .g . teachers, social workers, in- dustrial instructors/workers

Epistemology -including content/pedagogies and teaching/learning approach

Organization - mode - full-/part-time activities - l o c a t i o n -e .g . workplace, training centre, col-

lege, home, school

Control - policy-making, administration - e v a l u a t i o n and feedback focus

Figure 1. A Model for the Identification of Policy Options for the Integration of the Training of Educational Personnel

interactively in order to achieve its goal of integration effectively and effi- ciently.

Of course, it would be unrealistic to see this process as a simple matter of linear progression through the dimensions. For, each dimension repre- sents a series of tensions to conservation or to change of that which exists, to centralization or negotiation of curriculum content, and to the institu-

tionalization or individualization and de-institutionalization of provision. These centrifugal and centripetal tendencies have to be combined with the dimensions introduced above to build a model for policy-making such as that illustrated in Figure 2. Each decision, whether of focus, epistemology, organization or control, is interrelated with the others and must address the dichotomies of centralization or negotiation and individuaiization or in- stitutionalization across the master options of what to conserve and what to change.

A n I l lu s t ra t ion o f the M o d e l

There are many detailed cases which could be used to illustrate the way in which integration has been successfully launched at instructional, institu- tional, systemic or inter-sectoral levels. I have chosen one such example f rom the recent work of a new agency to the field of training, the Manpower

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~ ll Focus ] ~

/ [Individualized]

Control [ ~Yd ~--~ .... ~r ...... ~ with Epistemology[

Organ'za"oo I

Figure 2. Model Illustrating the Rotation of Four Dimensions of Integration with Policy Issues of Change Centralization and Institutionalization

Services Commission in the United Kingdom, in the training of personnel for the new Youth Training Programmes.

At the beginning of the 1960s, the state of training in the United Kingdom might have been characterized as inchoate, outmoded and inadequate. This situation was holding back economic development and rendering the coun- try increasingly uncompetitive, due to acute shortages of skilled labour. A series of measures, some now discontinued, included the passage of the 1964 Industrial Training Act and the establishment of Industrial Training Boards. By 1972, there were 27 such boards for industries employing 15 million people. But, the most significant achievement of theAct was prob- ably an acknowledged system of co-operation and collaboration between

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training and educational interests. From 1970, however, the new govern- ment began to reassess the training services and identified a number of severe limitations, which led to the publication of a Consultative Document in February 1972 and to the establishment, from January 1974, of the Man- power Services Commission, comprising two agencies: the Employment Service Agency, and, the Training Service Agency. The new Commission was an independent body outside the Civil Service.

At the level of focus, the Commission has the task of assisting in the development of manpower resources and of helping people choose, train for and obtain employment. Its Special Programmes Division, added in 1976, has the explicit task of improving the ability of the individual to respond to employment opportunities. At the epistemological level, and arising from a government White Paper published in 1981,3° two recent programmes il- lustrate the integration of educational and training agencies, their curricula and the training of the staff to deliver those curricula. The White Paper an- nounced a new £1 billion-a-year Youth Training Scheme, an ambitious new programme of work-based training which would, from 1983, offer a full- year foundation training for all school leavers who leave school at the end of compulsory education. During its first year, there were over 350,000 en- trants. Parallel with this initiative, the Commission also launched its first 14 pilot projects under the Technical and Vocational Education Initiative (T.V.E.I.), aimed at stimulating the introduction of new integrated cur- ricula into schools. 31 Organizationally, the Commission has overlapping responsibilities with government departments and agencies which have local and national responsibility for education, training, industry and commerce. This includes a national network of job centres, skill centres, new technolo- gy access centres, accredited training centres, and its programmes are deliv- ered in schools, colleges, training centres and industrial and commercial locations. At the level of control, the new T.V.E.I . programmes are run through local education authorities in close liaison with government depart- ments responsible for education and employment, with the national inspec- torate for schools (H.M.I.) and on the advice of a national steering commit- tee, comprising educationists, representatives of the Confederation of Brit- ish Industries, the Trades Union Congress, and local associations. There are nationally agreed criteria and guidelines, which nonetheless allow wide local diversity in content and organization.

The Requirement of Staff Development

Such new initiatives could not have been launched successfully without co- ordinated staff development for the educational and training personnel

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who, although located across many sectoral boundaries, were united by their clientele and the delivery of their programmes. In April 1982, the Com- mission's Youth Task Force proposed the establishment of a network of Ac- credited Training Centres to provide in-service training for supervisors, line managers, instructors, further education lecturers and other education and youth service tutors and teachers, 32 to be delivered individually or col- laboratively with educational institutions as tailor-made staff development for the new programmes. As a result, institutions preparing educational per- sonnel find themselves with an increasingly common focus, with their aims and purposes being the preparation of the same curriculum in different in- stitutional settings. 33 More recent initiatives by the Department of Educa- tion and Science have released centrally earmarked funds from April 1987 for the continued training of staff in schools and colleges in that area of work.34

Such provision is built on an epistemology of integrated, curriculum-led staff development, including integrated organizational strategies, such as the creation, development and management of planning and teaching teams, the provision of in-house workshops on methods, materials and resources, attendance at local, national and regional workshops, courses and conferences, visits to other practioners and institutions, and the use of external consultants as trainers and change agents. 35 Increasing co- ordination of such initiatives has been provided by joint policy statements and Circulars, 36 addressing the needs of education, industry, commerce and employment in the widest sense.

Continuing Challenges

Many developing nations are currently faced with a disjuncture between their national needs and their educational provision. They face inadequate co-ordination of the agencies involved in the provision of staff develop- ment; sometimes obsolete concepts of knowledge to promote their educa- tional provision and economic development; insularity on the part of their institutions of teacher education; lack of adequate training for the trainers; unresponsiveness on the part of educational structures in responding to new social and economic needs; lack of a home-grown epistemology to bridge sectoral boundaries and identify families of occupations for training pur- poses; a rapidly escalating recurrent cost on the part of ever more resource- and status-greedy educational institutions; at the same time they face un- precedented demands for the expansion of non-vocational educational pro- vision.

Many of the problems indicated above have been inherited from colonial

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days; some are of more recent origin. It must be stated that fragmentary and

unco-ordinated policies and practices are only likely to exacerbate the situa-

tion. In such a context, co-ordinated and integrative measures, combining educational, vocational and economic development are needed which can

maximize investment and recurrent expenditure and which are based on

coherent conceptualizations of the policy options available across all sectors

of the nation state.

Author's Note

I am indebted to a Unesco Seminar for a number of the ideas contained in this paper. See Unesco, Interregional Symposium on Integrated Policies and Plans for the Training of Educational Personnel. Paris: Unesco, 1985.

Notes

1. Banks, J.A. 'Multicultural Education: Developments, Paradigms and Goals'. In Banks, J.A. and Lynch, J. (eds.) Multicultural Education in Western Societies. Eastbourne: Holt Saunders, 1986. One text which adopted a cross-cultural analysis of the policy options for educator preparation at that time was Lynch, J. and Plunkett, H.D. Teacher Education and Cultural Change. London: Allen and Unwinn, 1973. In its con- ceptual approach, this paper is indebted to that publication. See Lynch, J. Lifelong Education and the Preparation of Educational Person- nel. Hamburg: Unesco Institute for Education, 1975. Cropley, A.J. and Dave, R.H. Lifelong Education and the Training of Teachers. Hamburg: Unesco Institute for Education, 1977. Himmelstrup, P. et al. (eds.), Strategies for Lifelong Education. Esbjerg, Den- mark: Sydjysk Universitetforlag, 1981. See, for example, Lynch, J. Policy and Practice in Lifelong Education. Drif- field: Nafferton Books, 1981. See, for example, the contributions to Dave, R.H., Foundations of Lifelong Education. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1976. Gelpi, E. A Future for Lifelong Education. Manchester: University of Man- chester, Department of Adult and Higher Education, 1979. Dave, R.H. Lifelong Education and the School Curriculum. Hamburg: Unesco Institute for Education, 1973.

10. These movements to integration have been documented in detail. See Lynch, J. The Reform of Teacher Education in the United Kingdom. Guildford, Surrey: The Society for Research into Higher Education, 1979.

11. Rudduck, J. Dissemination of Innovation: The Humanities Curriculum Proj- ect. London: Evans/Methuen Educational, 1976.

12. Schools Council. The Whole Curriculum 13-16. London: Evans/Methuen Educational, 1975.

13. Central Advisory Council for Education (England). Children and their Primary Schools (The Plowden Report). London: H.M.S.O., 1967.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

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14. See, for example, Schools Council. Cross'd with Adversity. London: Evans/Methuen Educational, 1970.

15. Halsey, A.H. (ed.) Educational Priority, London: H.M.S.O., 1972. 16. Lynch, J. and Pimlott, J. Parents and Teachers. London: Schools Coun-

cil/Macmillan, 1976. 17. Committee of Inquiry into the Education of Children and Young People.

Report (The Warnock Report). London: H.M.S.O., 1972. 18. Department of Education and Science. Circulars 3/83 and 4/84. London: DES

1983 & 1984. 19. Department of Education and Science. Teacher Education and Training. Lon-

don: H.M.S.O., 1972. 20. Secretary of State for Education and Science. Education: A Framework for Ex-

pansion. London: H.M.S.O., 1972. 21. This process has been documented in Alexander, R., Craft, M. and Lynch, J.

(eds.) Change in Teacher Education: Context and Provision since Robbins. Eastbourne: Holt Saunders, 1984.

22. The Open University, Report of the Committee on Continuing Education. Milton Keynes: The Open University, 1976.

23. The Nuffield Foundation, Interdisciplinarity: A Report by the Group for Research and Innovation in Higher Education. London: 1975.

24. For a r~sum6, see Times Higher Education Supplement. (27 May 1983), No. 551.

25. Advisory Council for Adult and Continuing Education. Continuing Education: from Policies to Practice. Leicester: A.C.A.C.E., 1982.

26. City and Guilds of London Institute and Business and Technician Education Council, Joint Board for Pre-Vocational Education. The Certificate of Pre- Vocational Education: Consultative Document. London: 1984.

27. Bolam, R. Innovation in In-Service Education and Training of Teachers. Paris: O.E.C.D., 1978.

28. Alexander, R. 'Towards a Conceptual Framework for School-Focussed IN- SET'. British Journal of In-Service Education. 6 (1980), No. 2.

29. Plunkett, D. Staff Training and Development for the New Youth Programmes. Amsterdam: European Cultural Foundation, 1982.

30. A New Training Initiative: A Programme for Action. London: H.M.S.O., 1981. (Cmnd 8455).

31. Manpower Services Commission. Annual Report 1983/4. London: M.S.C., 1984.

32. Manpower Services Commission. Youth Task Group, Report. London: M.S.C., 1982.

33. City and Guilds of London Institute and Business and Technician Education Council, Joint Board for Pre-Vocational Education, Op cit., 1984.

34. Department of Education and Sciences (1983 & 1984), Op cit. 35. Further Education Unit, C.P.V.E. 3. ~London: DES, 1984. 36. F.E.U./M.S.C., A New Training Initiative: General Principles. London: 1983,

and F.E.U./M.S.C., Joint F.E.U./M.S.C. Guidelines 2. London: 1984. See also department of Education and Science, The Youth Training Scheme: Im- plications for the Education Service. London: DES, 1982.