Institute of Agricultural Research & Training - POST HARVEST … · 2020. 1. 19. · Institute of...
Transcript of Institute of Agricultural Research & Training - POST HARVEST … · 2020. 1. 19. · Institute of...
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POST HARVEST HANDLING OF FOOD CROPS IN A
CHANGING CLIMATE: AN OUTLOOK ON FOOD
RESEARCH IN IAR&T
Ashaye, Olukayode Adebayo (Ph.D)
Institute of Agricultural Research &Training
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ibadan
Being a Lead paper delivered at the 2018 Annual In-House Review
Exercise of the Institute of Agricultural Research &Training , Moor-
Plantation Ibadan
April, 2018
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The Executive Governor of Oyo state, The Vice Chancellor (Obafemi
Awolowo University), The Executive Secretary ARCN, Director of the
Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Dean Faculty of
Agriculture, Provosts-Federal colleges of Agriculture and colleges of
Animal Health and Production Technology, Managers of the ADP,
Professors, Heads of Programmes and Units of the Institute,
distinguished scientists, Gentlemen of the Press, Ladies and Gentlemen.
It is a great privilege to be called upon to deliver this year In-house
review lead-paper of the Institute, I feel humbled. I sincerely thank the
management under the leadership of Prof J.A. Adediran, the Executive
Director of the Institute and I also wish to thank all those that are present
here.
The bed rock of a progressive economy is not unconnected to sufficiency
in food production and availability. The clarion call is Food sufficiency,
but what do we have in the nation today? an array of backlashes in food
sufficiency due to climate change and lopsided handling of foods at
postharvest stages. The overdependence on oil based commodities had
rewritten the economy of this nation from developing to about to spring
up from the cradle. There is therefore a need to revisit the gloominess in
our Agricultural sector in order to proffer solution that would make
Nigeria great again.
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As a food scientist with an attendant thrust in food processing and quality
control and having a fundamental passion to reduce post harvest losses,
my wealth of experience coupled with stints in post harvest programmes
at University of Ibadan, Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel,
Wageningen University and Research in Netherlands and Universidal
Nacional Agraria-La Molina Peru will in no small way create awareness
and proffer possible solution to post harvest losses of foods in Nigeria.
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INTRODUCTION
The accessibility to quality, nutritious, and safe food to meet the demands of
a growing global population is one of the grand challenges of our time. With
a projected global population increase from more than 7 billion in 2012 to 9
billion in 2050, it is estimated that food production must increase by more
than 70% to meet future demand. However the problem of climate change
may pose a set back to this projected food production.
Climate change is one of the most serious environmental threats facing mankind
worldwide. Much of the research on global climate change and the impact on
food systems focuses on the effects of climate change on agricultural
production—such as the impact on land use, pollution and biodiversity—at the
expense of post-harvest value chain issues such as storage, processing and
packaging. The effect of climate change on postharvest value chains cannot be
ignored in Nigeria. This is not unrelated to different reports of annual huge
amount of food losses along the post harvest value chain. For example, higher
temperatures as a result of climate change will reduce shelf-life of stored
products while lower temperatures will extend the shelf-life. This will have
serious post-harvest implication on all crops, especially perishable foods which
easily spoil with increases in temperature. Furthermore, the proliferation of
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pests and crop disease can increase due to temperature increases and pose a
great threat to effective storage which may cause constraint in food quality and
security. The resultant effect may lead to cases of Protein-Energy Malnutrition
(PEM) and the various micronutrient deficiency disorders including vitamin A
deficiency (VAD), nutritional anemias due to deficiencies of iron, folic acid and
vitamin B12, and iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) which remain important
public health problems. PEM, VAD and IDD have profound consequences on
growth and mental development of children; apart from its damaging
consequences on the eye (xerophthalmia and night blindness), it is a major
contributory factor to the high rates of child and maternal morbidity and
mortality. It is estimated that about 50% of perishable food commodities
including fruits, vegetables, roots and tubers and about 30% of food grains
including maize, sorghum, millet, rice and cowpeas are lost after harvest.
Based on the above evidence, it is clear that there is a need to address the effects
of climate change on storage, processing and packaging of agricultural products.
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CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change, also called global warming, refers to the rise in average surface
temperatures on Earth due primarily to the human use of fossil fuels, which
releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the air. The gases trap
heat within the atmosphere, which can have a range of effects on ecosystems,
including rising sea levels, severe weather events, and droughts that render
landscapes more susceptible to wildfires with concomitant adverse effect on
agricultural production. This is evidenced in the tropics, particularly Nigeria, by
the overall trend in the maximum and minimum temperatures increasing. It
creates shifts in rainfall patterns leading to floods as well as droughts with poor
and unpredictable yields. Pests and crop diseases migrate in response to climate
variation and pose a potential threat to the agricultural system and could trigger
pre and post-harvest losses. (FAO, 2011, FAO 2013)
POST HARVEST
Postharvest begins when the process of collecting or separating food of edible
quality from its site of immediate production has been completed. The food
must be separated from the medium that produced it by a deliberate human act
with the intention of getting it to the table. The post harvest ends when the food
enters the mouth (Aworh, 2005, Ashaye , 2009)
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Effect of climate change on crop quality
What we have released into the atmosphere in the form of carbon pollution is
affecting what‘s happening on the ground and what we eventually consume.
The critical negated scenarios that occur on our crops as a result of increased
carbon pollution are
As atmospheric CO2 levels rise, plant quality declines.
The surge in this greenhouse gas triggers changes in the composition of
plants‘ leaves, stems, roots, fruits and tubers.
The natural sugar-to-nutrient ratio is disrupted.
Increased CO2 increases plants‘ carbohydrate content but diminishes
other vital nutrient levels.
CO2 emissions could lead to an 8 percent drop in mineral content, on
average; protein content in rice could drop 8 percent and 6 percent in
wheat
Between 1950 and 1999, riboflavin content in crops dropped by a margin
of 38 percent.
Protein content of major food crops is very likely to decline significantly
as atmospheric CO2 concentrations increase to between 540 and 960 parts
per million
Rising CO2 levels are very likely to lower the concentrations of essential
micro- and macroelements such as iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium,
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copper, sulfur, phosphorus, and nitrogen in most plants (including major
cereals and staple crops).,,,,,
An increase in dietary carbohydrates-to-protein ratio can have unhealthy
effects on human metabolism and body mass ( Olayemi, 2016)
Climate change and stored foods
In stored food ecosystems there are complex interactions between abiotic and
biotic factors including pest immigration and emigration and changes in
inter‐granular atmosphere. Poor postharvest storage management can lead to
significant dry matter loss and accumulation of mycotoxins. (Magan et al.,
2011). Thus, there is a need to consider the potential impacts that climate
change may have on this ecosystem. Grain silos for example can harbour pests
which could multiply more rapidly under elevated temperature producing more
metabolic water. The resultant increase in condensation and wet pockets can
initiate spoilage mould activity with the possibility for increased contamination
with mycotoxins such as ochratoxin A, aflatoxins and perhaps trichothecenes in
damp grain. The potential for increased spontaneous heating of such stored
products may well be exacerbated under such conditions.. The potential for new
emerging mycotoxins may also increase.
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Bacterial populations and sudden decline in the nutritional properties of foods
can also increase during food storage as a result of prevailing changes in
humidity and temperature.
Climate and weather extremes, such as flooding or drought, can reduce water
quality and increase the risk of pathogen transfer during the handling and
storage of food following harvest. (Atanda et al 2011)
Climate change and Nutrition
Changes in climate factors, such as temperature, precipitation, and extreme
weather are key drivers of pathogen introduction, food contamination, and
foodborne disease
The impact of climate on nutrition occurs through multiple pathways. Changes
in air and water temperatures, weather-related changes, and extreme events can
shift the seasonal and geographic occurrence of bacteria, viruses, pests,
parasites, fungi, and other chemical contaminants. For example:
Higher temperatures can increase the number of pathogens already
present on produce.,
Sea surface temperature is directly related to seafood exposure to
pathogens
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Precipitation has been identified as a factor in the contamination of
irrigation water and produce,,,, which has been linked to foodborne illness
outbreaks.,
Changing environmental conditions and soil properties may result in
increases in the incidence of heavy metals in the food supply.,,
While sufficient quantity of food is an obvious requirement for food security,
food quality is essential to fulfill basic nutritional needs. Globally, chronic
dietary deficiencies of micronutrients such as vitamin A, iron, iodine, and zinc
contribute to ―hidden hunger,‖ in which the consequences of the micronutrient
insufficiency may not be immediately visible or easily observed. This type of
micronutrient deficiency constitutes one of the world‘s leading health risk
factors and adversely affects metabolism, the immune system, cognitive
development and maturation—particularly in children. In addition, nutritional
deficiencies of magnesium, iron, selenium, and other essential micronutrients
can occur in overweight and obese individuals, whose diets might reflect
excessive intake of calories and refined carbohydrates but insufficient intake of
vitamins and essential minerals.,,,
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Interactions of Rising CO2 and Climate Change on Nutrition
(Carrington, 2014)
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Climate change and food packaging
Food Packaging Roles and Materials
The principal roles of food packaging are to protect food products from outside
influences and distribution damage, to contain the food, and to provide
consumers with ingredient and nutrition information. Traceability, convenience,
and tamper indication are secondary functions of increasing importance. The
goal of food packaging is to contain food in a cost-effective way that satisfies
industry requirements and consumer desires, maintains food safety, and
minimizes environmental impact.( Ashaye, 2011)
Package design and construction play significant roles in determining the shelf
life of a food product. The right selection of packaging materials and
technologies maintains product quality and freshness during distribution and
storage. Materials that have traditionally been used in food packaging include
glass, metals (aluminum, foils and laminates, tinplate, and tin-free steel), paper
and paperboards, and plastics (Aworh, 2010, Osunde 2008, Fasoyiro et al 2010)
¨ Packaging is optimal, if it fulfills the service expected, in a favorable way, for
both the producer and the consumer; while using the least amount of material
and energy
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¨ Apart from the protective function, packages have a very important
intermediate role in modern marketing. Being a link between production and
consumption, the package carries a message from the producer to the consumer.
The overall negative image of packages derives from their relatively high
percentage in the household waste. This, however, indicates rather the level of
consumption than overpackaging. Packages are never made for themselves. The
major basis of its existence is the delivery of the product to the consumer
Types of packaging materials
Plastics have the most negative image, albeit of being lightweight and sturdy,
thus giving the advantage of maximal service with minimal resource use. It is
especially true for composites, which combine several materials for better
protection, while using minimal amount of the individual materials. Plastics and
composites are optimal packaging materials, and can therefore, be considered as
environmentally preferable. If their utilization and disposal are closely
monitored
¨ Paper uses a renewable source, thus can and will continue to be used widely
for packaging purposes. On the other hand, recycling of paper requires fossil
sources, because of transportation demand, and reprocessing.
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The use of glass for packaging is popular in the country because of its easy way
of handling and the method of packaging. It also a common fact that these
bottles are reuseable...
Aluminium, for its light weight, and the high savings offered with its recycling,
can also be an effective packaging material
The expansion of steel use in packaging is restricted to a narrow horizon of
goods, such as perishable food (fish, meat, vegetables, fruits). Considering their
lightweight, and the expansion of other packaging materials usage, the
percentage rate of steel use may probably decrease.
The use of refill packages, and other specific packages such as vacuum
packagings, aseptic packagings, which offer longer shelf-life is expected, to
further promote an ever higher service.
The use of big packs could also spread, they can be used just for such products,
which have a long life, and are frequently in use. The danger of bigger packs is
that the product looses its quality during the long storage, and finally will be
discarded, thus resulting higher wastage than what was saved with packaging
material. Another problem is their higher weight, difficult handling and larger
space requirement
Reclamation of packaging wastes from the highlighted packaging materials is
an accepted way of reducing the packagings‘ environmental impacts.
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Reclamation, and in particular recycling, however, are also industrial activities,
and have resource demand, and result emissions. Recycling could increase
green house gases (GHG).
Present trend in post harvest handling of foods in Nigeria
The capacity to reduce food loss and enhance its aesthetic appeal is directly
related to the level of technological development and variability in climate. The
slow progress in upgrading traditional food processing and preservation
techniques with prevailing climatic conditions in Nigeria had contributed to
food and nutrition insecurity. Traditional technologies of food processing and
preservation date back thousands of years and, unlike the electronics and
other modern high technology industries, they long preceded any scientific
understanding of their inherent nature and consequences. Traditional foods and
traditional food processing techniques as part of post harvest handling of
perishables, form part of the culture of the people. Traditional food processing
activities constitute a vital body of indigenous knowledge handed down from
parent to child over several generations. Unfortunately, this vital body of
indigenous knowledge is often undervalued. Regrettably, some of the traditional
food products and food processing practices i n N i g e r i a have undoubtedly
been lost over the years and h a s ma d e t h e c o u n t r y poorer for it (. In
most cases, the traditional methods of food processing and preservation in
Nigeria remain at the empirical level. They are still rather crude, are not
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standardized, and are not based on sound scientific principles making them, in
their present form, unsuitable to large-scale industrial production. The processes
are often laborious and time consuming and invariably the quality of the
products require substantial improvements (Ashaye and Adeleke 2009, Ashaye
et al 2001, Aworh, 2008). However a number of successes have been recorded.
Some of these include the mechanization of gari production, the production of
instant yam flour or flakes, the production of soy-ogi, the industrial production
of dawadawa, production of complementary foods from perishables, upgrading
of soyabean, maize and roselle based processing methods. Even with the
mechanization of some of these food processing methods, Nigeria still loses2.7
trillion naira annually as a result of Post harvest food losses due to climate
change and obsolete infrastructural facilities .(Ogugbuaja, 2017)
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Annual Post Harvest Losses of some Food Crops in Nigeria
Food Crop %Loss General comment
Grains 15 Losses are higher
in rural
communities due
to lack of
adequate basic
infrastructure and
facilities.
Roots and Tubers 35
Fruits and
Vegetables
50
Source Ogugbuaja 2017.
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Food Research in Product Development Programme IART
The Product Development Programme of the Institute of Agricultural Research
and Training gives priority to demand driven research to reduce food losses,
alleviate poverty and improve nutritional livelihood of the people.
Major Objectives:
(i) To improve and develop value added agricultural products using
enhanced indigenous food processing technologies
(ii) To assess physical, nutritional, biochemical and microbial properties of
agricultural produce
(iii) To ensure food safety through unique food systems quality control
approach
(iv) To conduct training for local farmers and processors in collaboration with
extension agents on new technologies for enhance productivity
(v) To improve the revenue generation activities of the Institute through
commercialization of developed products and processing technologies.
Achievement
(i) The programme has been able to tackle some of the nutritional
imbalances caused by changes in the climatic condition of the environment and
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other factors by developing shelf stable products high in quality protein,
nutrients with a concomitant high percentage of digestibility. Examples are
more than 25 soy-based products: these include cheap and nutritious exotic
drinks and snacks of soybean or its flour blended with other local staples such
as soymilk, soy yoghurt, soy cheese, tofu sausage and tofu stick meat.
(ii) More than 15 maize based products, high quality protein weaning diet
with high digestibility ‗Propam‘ and ‗Prowena‘ have also been developed.
Some other product such as Soy-corn milk, soy-kokoro, tortilla snacks ‗abari
and others ‘are also developed.
(iii) Ten (10) other legume-based products: these include indigenous local diets
like ‗akara‘, ‗moinmoin‘ from whole or blended legume flours have been
developed from cowpea and pigeon pea flours. Snacks such as cake, buns and
biscuit have been contrived from whole or composite flours of cowpea and
pigeon pea (Ashaye et al 2015). Processing technology of local fermented
condiment ―iru‖ from soybean, pigeon pea and lima bean has been established.
Convenience foods such as whole processed Ogi fortified with pigeon pea is
also well documented.
(iv) Roselle-based products: such as tea, jam, wine and fruits-flavoured
drinks are also produced (Ashaye et al 2008, Ashaye and Adeleke, 2009)
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Most of these processing technologies have been disseminated to women
groups and local processors at IAR&T adopted villages and in South-west
Nigeria to reduce postharvest losses as a result of climate change and for
improved livelihood and income generation activities. We also conduct
trainings on income generating opportunities for the unemployed youths in
Nigeria in collaboration with Division of National Food Reserve Agency,
Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources. The programme also
develop recipe book, guides and training manual. and has also secured several
grants from International Donor agencies (DFID/British Council, IDRC, USDA
and IFS) to facilitate post harvest based research activities.
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Pictures of some of our developed products
Spiced soyogi
Soymilk
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Soychinchin and Soy biscuit
Soybread
Lima bean dawadawa
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Cocoyam Bambara-groundnut biscuit
Flavoured Roselle drink
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Roselle wine
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STRATEGIES IN REDUCING POST-HARVEST FOOD LOSSES
In cereal and legume grains
Most grains have a single annual harvesting season, although in bimodal
rainfall areas there may be two harvests. Farmers normally harvest grain crops
once the grain reaches physiological maturity (moisture content is 20-30%)
(FAO, 2011). At this stage the grain is very susceptible to pest attacks. Poor
farmers sometimes harvest crops too early due to food deficiency or the
desperate need for cash. In this way, the food incurs a loss in nutritional and
economic value, and may get wasted if it is not suitable for consumption.
Quality cannot be improved after harvest, only maintained; therefore, it is
important to harvest at the appropriate time.
Drying: Most farmers in Nigeria, both small and large, rely almost
exclusively on natural drying of crops by combining sunshine and movement of
atmospheric air through the product; consequently, damp weather at harvest
time can be a serious cause of postharvest losses. Grains should be dried in such
a manner that damage to the grain is minimized and moisture levels are lower
than those required to support mold growth during storage (usually below 13-
15%). This is necessary to prevent further growth of fungal species that may be
present on fresh grains. The harvested crop may be dried in the yard or in a crib
Threshing/shelling: For some grains, particularly millet and sorghum,
threshing may be delayed for several months after harvest and the unthreshed
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crop stored in open cribs. In the case of maize, the grain may be stored on the
cob with or without sheathing leaves for some months, or the cobs may be
shelled and grain stored. Some machinery suitable for small small-scale
operation exists such as: maize shellers;
In roots and tubers
When harvesting roots and tubers, care must be taken to avoid mechanical
injury, If they are bruised or otherwise damaged during harvesting,
consideration of improved handling or packaging is not likely to be worthwhile,
since an early infestation with moulds and virus will occur and rotting will have
started. If harvesting operations are correctly undertaken there is greater scope
for later introduction of improved methods. Provision of the proper tools and
equipment for harvesting and training workers in their correct use should be a
priority prevention of food loss activity.
Handling: The skin of roots and tubers is an effective barrier to most of the
opportunistic bacteria and fungi that cause rotting of the tissues. Breaking of the
skin also stimulates physiological deterioration and dehydration. Careful
digging and movement of roots and tubers significantly reduces post harvest
losses.
Packing: Among the various types of packaging material that are available:
natural and synthetic fibre sacks and bags as well as moulded plastic boxes
seem to be more suitable and have greater promise for packaging roots and
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tubers and for their transport to distant markets. However packing of the roots in
the field should be done with utmost care.
Transportation: Temperature management is critical during long distance
transport, so loads must be stacked to enable proper air circulation to carry away
heat from the produce itself as well as incoming heat from the atmosphere and
off the road. In Nigeria traditional baskets and various types of trays or buckets
are used for transporting produce to the house or to village markets. These are
usually of low cost, made from readily available material and serve the purpose
for transport over short distances. But, they have many disadvantages in large
loads carried over long distances (i.e. they are difficult to clean when
contaminated).
Storage: The following three things must be done to ensure successful
storage of fresh roots and tubers.
i) Carefully select only top quality roots and tubers without any signs of
handling or pest or disease damage for storage.
ii) Keep them in specially designed stores.
iii) Check the stores at regular intervals. Many farmers do not routinely store
fresh roots and tubers, but leave them in the ground until required. It is possible
to store fresh roots successfully in specially constructed pits or in mounds, or
clamp stores. For example, when storing potatoes, a field storage clamp is a low
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cost technology that can be designed using locally available materials for
ventilation and insulation.
Processing: Root and tuber crops (cassava, sweet potato, yam etc…) are both
important household food security and income generating crops. Overcoming
the perishability of the crops, improving marketing, enhancing nutritional value
and adding economic value through processing are the main strategic areas in
reducing postharvest losses. Processing such as peeling and washing, grating,
pressing/fermentation should be done timely without any delay in processing
and this depends on end product.
In Fruits and Vegetables
Harvesting: Harvesting should be carried out as carefully as possible to
minimize mechanical injury such as scratches, punctures and bruises to the
crop. The time of the day when harvesting is done also affects produce quality
and shelf-life. In general, harvesting during the coolest time of the day (early
morning) is desirable; the produce is not exposed to the heat of the sun and the
work efficiency of the harvesters is higher. If harvesting during the hotter part
of the day cannot be avoided, the produce should be kept shaded in the field to
minimize product weight loss and wilting.
Handling: Mechanical injury provides sites for pest attack and increases
physiological losses. Therefore, avoid mechanical injury to the crop while
handling. Because of their soft texture, all horticultural products (fruits and
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vegetables) should be handled gently to minimize bruising and breaking of the
skin. The skin of horticultural products is an effective barrier to most of the
opportunistic bacteria and fungi that cause rotting of the tissues. Breaking of the
skin also stimulates physiological deterioration and dehydration. Reducing the
number of times the commodity is handled reduces the extent of mechanical
damage.
Packaging: Proper packing is essential to maintain the freshness of leafy
vegetable. Packaging should be designed to prevent premature deterioration in
product quality, in addition to serving as a handling unit. Use clean, smooth and
ventilated containers for packaging. This is a very important factor in cutting
down losses in these crops during harvesting, transportation, marketing and
storage. Use containers that are appropriate for the crop.
Transportation Minimizing losses during transport necessitates special
attention to vehicles, equipment, infrastructure, and handling.
The use of clean and well-ventilated vehicle covered at the top for
transportation is very critical. Harvested crops should be transported during the
cool part of the day by driving carefully to minimize damage to crop. Fresh
produce must not be watered prior to loading, as this will lead to decay, rotting,
and extensive losses. Major causes of losses are improper handling during
loading and unloading.
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Storage: Only crops with high initial quality can be stored successfully; it is
therefore essential to ensure that only crops of the highest quality (mature,
undamaged) are stored. Shelf life can be extended by maintaining a commodity
at its optimal temperature, relative humidity and environmental conditions.
Processing: Processing is an important value-added activity that stabilizes and
diversifies food supplies and creates employment and income opportunities. It
can minimize the high perishability problem of leafy vegetables. Processed
products are also more stable, have improved digestibility, and permit a better
diet diversity, giving consumers access to a wider choice of products and a
wider range of vitamins and minerals
RECOMMENDATIONS
Food control systems should be developed and operated in accordance
with fundamental principles including a food chain approach, risk
analysis, transparency and the involvement of all the concerned
stakeholders.
Marketing companies and cooperatives are essential for handling
produce and reducing postharvest losses by providing facilities for
accumulating, preparing and transporting produce to markets;
by coordinating marketing activities; and by distributing profits equitably to
members
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It is important to select the technologies that are appropriate for the size
of each postharvest enterprise.
Price efficiency inducing policies designed to increase the responsiveness
of the marketing system to consumer direction by improving market
information and establishing consumer grades and standards.
Structural policies designed to modify the behaviour of the middlemen so
as to improve market performance through the establishment of co-
operatives. Infrastructural policies necessary for the development of
capital-intensive (roads, silos, irradiation facilities, warehouses,
processing equipment, etc.), capital-extensive (post-harvest market
extension services, agricultural research, etc.), and institutional
(subsidies, tax dispensation, etc.) infrastructures. These policies are
necessary if we are to improve the efficiency of our post-harvest systems
Hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) approach along the food
chain should be closely monitored.
The need to refocus on food fortification is also very critical in order to
improve on nutrient disproportions by climate change.
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Acknowledgement.
First and foremost I give God all the honour, glory and adoration for his ever
sustaining help and for aiding me to what and where I am today.
I will also want to acknowledge my late doctoral supervisor Prof J.O Aina for
his thoroughness and for contributing positively to my academic career. May his
gentle soul continue to rest in peace.
I wish to thank my mentors Prof Mrs Olusola. Omueti, now of Adekunle Ajasin
University Akungba ,Ondo State, Prof J.O. Akingbala of Bowen University
Iwo, Prof O. C. Aworh, Prof G.O. Adegoke, and Prof A.O. Olorunda all of the
department of Food Technology University of Ibadan for their priceless support
in my career. The unflagging efforts of Prof Salomon Helfgott of Universidad
Nacional Agraria La Molina Peru, Dr Irene Koomen of Wageningen University
and Research, Holland, Prof Zippora Gershon of Hebrew University of
Jerusalem and Prof G.B. Oguntimehin of Morgan state University, U.S.A. are
also appreciated. God bless you in all your undertakings
I wish to express my gratitude to Prof J.A Adediran, the Executive Director of
Institute of Agricultural Research and Training and other eminent professors in
the Institute for their numerous assistance and encouragement at all times.
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I sincerely appreciate my wife Mrs Awujoola Ashaye and my wonderful
children for their support. To my parents and siblings, I say God bless you all.
I also acknowledge with thanks the programme staff of Product Development
Programme for their support
Thank you all.
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