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1. The western contact gave a jolt to India’s traditional life and created “a new awareness, a sense of

urgency as well as alertness in thought and action”. Discuss. 10

Introduction

In the opening decades of 19th century emerged a number of socio-religious reform movements such as the

Brahmo Samaj of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Arya Samaj of Dayanand Saraswati, Rama Krishna Mission of Swami

Vivekananda etc. These reform movements initially emerged in Bengal and then spread to other parts of the

country as the factors responsible for the emergence were most active in Bengal.

During 19th century, Indian society and religion were entrapped in a number of evils such as caste system,

untouchability, sati, child marriage etc. These evils used to affect the common masses and were acting as

hindrance in the path of India’s progress. That is why many reformers started raising their voices to wipe out

the prevailing evils.

Role of Western Contact and the Emergence of Socio-religious reform movements

Although a number of factors played role in the emergence of the socio-religious reform movements, it was

the closer contact of India with the western world that acted as a catalyst and persuaded the Indian

intelligentsia to raise their voice against the prevailing evils. The ideas of enlightenment such as rationality,

scientific outlook, democratic principles etc entered India.

The reformers could see the effects of the American Revolution of 1776, the French Revolution of 1789, the

European Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 etc. The members of the educated middle class were convinced that

they could wipe out the conventional ideas and thoughts prevailing in India just like people in other countries

could do.

Elaboration on the terms of new awareness, a sense of urgency as well as alertness in thought and action

Approach of an Answer

Start with a brief introduction to the Socio-religious reform movements.

Focus on the role of western contact on the emergence of socio-religious reform movements.

Elaborate on the terms “new awareness”, “a sense of urgency”, “alertness in thought and action” by

providing suitable examples.

Conclude on how the movements laid foundation for the future course on striving for independence.

MODERN INDIAN HISTORY & WORLD HISTORY




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New Awareness

Thomas Paine coined 18th century as “the age of reason”. This holds true for India also. Ideas of

enlightenment such as rationalism, scientific outlook, egalitarianism, humanism, efficacy of logic and reason

etc started entering the Indian landmass as well. These tenets created a sense of awareness among the

educated middle class in India such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Debendranath Tagore etc. Enlightenment

propagated empiricism.

Democracy and Constitutionalism of enlightenment; the ideals of Republic and Rule of law of the America;

Liberty, equality and fraternity of French Revolution; the principle of nationalism of European revolutions,

Spanish revolutions also entered the minds of the reformers.

A Sense of Urgency

The British conquest and the consequent dissemination of colonial culture and ideology had led to an

inevitable introspection about the strengths and weaknesses of indigenous culture and institutions. The

response, indeed, was varied but the need of urgent reforms in social and religious life was a commonly

shared conviction. The social base of this quest which has generally was the newly emerging middle class and

the traditional as well as western educated intellectuals.

Reformers started exposing the hollowness of the British concepts of “Providential Mission” and “White Man’s

Burden”. Subjugation of Indians at the hands of the English was also realized by the reformers. They wanted to

throw away the yoke of British colonial regime in India. They felt that there was an urgent need to strengthen

nationalist consciousness among Indians.

Alertness in Thought and Action

Accordingly, the reformers started reviewing the institutions in India through the prism of reason. They

concluded that the prevailing evils in the Indian society were obstructing the path of development. For this, a

number of reform movements by various organizations such as Prarthana Samaj, Sathyashodak Samaj,

Paramahans Mandali was carried out. The positive environment created by the reformers such as Ishwar

Chandra Vidya Sagar, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Behramji Malabari, K.C. Sen pressurized the British Indian

government to enact a number of laws to wipe out the prevailing evils.

Sati was prohibited in 1829 by Governor General William Bentinck.

In 1843 the practice of slavery was abolished by Lord Ellenborough.

Widow Remarriage act was enacted by Lord Dalhousie in 1856.

In 1872 Native Marriage Act was enacted which prohibited child marriage and polygamy.

In 1891, Age of Consent act was enacted to prohibit child marriage.

The period witnessed opening of several educational institutions such as the Vedanta College at Calcutta of

Brahmo Samaj, school for girls by Jyotibha Phule, institutions at Lahore of Arya Samaj etc as the reformers felt

that education was fundamental in creating awakening among the Indians.




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Conclusion

The writings and speeches of reformers of the 19th century played an important role in the growth of

nationalist awakening in India. These reformers brought about intellectual revolution in India. Different socio-

religious groups were brought closer and gradually this cultural awakening got converted into nationalist

political awakening. This nationalist political awakening of the reformers were carried to the next higher levels

by several leaders along years to oust the British out of India and to free the people from the exploitative

colonial regime.

2. Indian nationalism, that confronted British imperialism in the nineteenth century and celebrated its

victory in the formation of India nation-state in 1947, was a product of colonial modernity. Comment

critically. 10

Introduction

Nationalism is an ideology which emphasizes on collective cultural consciousness among the citizens. The

concept of India as a country existed for more than 3000 years. On various occasions in past India enjoyed the

political identity of a State. But it was during 1860s that the spirit of nationalism started becoming visible in

India.

British colonial rulers followed modem methods-political, military, economic and intellectual-to establish and

continue their stranglehold over India and for fuller economic exploitation of India's resourses. A dose of

modernisation was an essential concomitant of the colonial scheme of administration and this modernization

distorted though it was generated some developments and one of these was growth of Indian nationalism.

Role of Colonial Modernity

Modernization of Politico-administration

The British had carried out political unification of India by annexing several native states and by subjugating

the other. A uniform system of administration and modern judicial-legal system based on the concept of rule

of law was introduced in India. These developments paved the way for growth of one common identity among

Indians and gradually the spirit of nationalism emerged.

Modern means of communication

Modern means of communication were introduced by the British such as railways, road networks, telegraph

and modern postal system in India. These means of communication decreased the geographical distance


A few words on nationalism and then an introduction on the emergence of Indian nationalism.

Role of the positive impact of British rule.

Critical examination of the role of the positive impact of British rule.




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among the citizens living in far places and gradually a common identity developed.

Modern press was also introduced in India by the British. Initially the newspaper and journals were owned and

edited by the British. But later on Indian leaders started publishing many newspapers. The growth of press

brought about intellectual unification of India. The events taking place in one corner of India started

generating reactions in other corner of the country. A common cultural consciousness emerged and India got

transformed into a nation.

Modern Education

Modern western education was also introduced in India by the British. It resulted in the growth of rational and

scientific outlook. Modern western ideas entered India through the western education. Nationalism was one

such ideal.

Modern Social Outlook

In the 19th century educated-Indians began to examine afresh their religious beliefs and customs and their

social practices in the light of new knowledge of Western science and philosophy which they had acquired.

The result was various religious and social reform movements in Hindu religion like the Brahmo Samaj, the

Prarhana Samaj, the Arya Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission and the Theosophical Society. Similar movements

reformed Muslim, Sikh and Parsi societies also.

Colonial rulers also brought some social legislations like abolition of sati, restricting the child marriage and this

encouraged to Indian to promote these progressive values across the country. These movements attacked the

caste system, untouchability and other social and legal inequalities, these movements were progressive and

promoted social solidarity and nationalism.

Promotion of Civil Liberties

Moderates promoted civil liberties such civil rights, free speech and rule of law. These liberties ensured

safeguarded shielded the activists from colonial tyranny.

Critical Examination of the Role of Positive Impact of British Rule

A section of British scholars such as Richard Coupland argue that Indian nationalism was the child of

British rule. These colonial scholars tried to take credit for the birth of Indian nationalism. But the

closer examination gives a different picture.

Political unification was carried out to create British Indian Empire. Modern administrative and judicial-

legal systems were introduced to rule India effectively. While Indian provinces were under "direct"

British rule, Indian states were under "indirect" British rule. The British sword imposed political unity in

India. Common subjection, common institutions, common laws began to shape India. Despite imperial

efforts to sow communal, regional and linguistic dissensions, pan-Indianism grew. The establishment of

political unity fostered the spirit of one mindedness.




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Railways were introduced in India to connect ports with markets and the ports with field and not for

the transportation of Indians. The postal and telegraph system also served the British needs as the

British kept informed themselves about various developments going on in various parts of India.

Western education was to create a class of Indians that would be Indian in blood and colour but

European in taste. The English system of education though conceived by the rulers in the interests of

efficient administration opened to the newly educated Indians the floodgates of liberal European

thought The liberal and radical thought of European writers like Milton Shelley, Bentham, Mill,

Spenser, Rousseau and Voltaire inspired the Indian intelligentsia with the ideals of liberty, nationality

and self-government and made clear to them the anachronism of British rule in India.

Most importantly, the impact of British rule on the Indian economy was disastrous. The general object

of British policies-even though claimed to be social welfare by some British scholars-was a systematic

destruction of traditional Indian economy. The sharp reaction to discriminatory British economic and

fiscal policies gave rise to economic nationalism in India by exposing though Drain theory.

On the contrary British enraged Indian by promoting cultural hegemony by promoting their version of

“modernity” which led people to realize the importance of safe guarding traditional way of life and

culture. Later on this has manifested into nationalism For example. Arya samaj an orthodox movement

led by Swami Dayanand sarawathi advocated nationalism by pointing out at the facile modernity

promoted by the British.

Conclusion

Since none of the positive initiatives of British rule were aimed at Indian advancement, the British can never

take credit for the rise of Indian nationalism. Nationalism and colonialism are inversely proportional to each

other. Thus no colonial regime will ever initiate any step consciously that could result in the birth of

nationalism.

3. What was Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of Socialism? How did it differ from Marxian Socialism? 10

Introduction

Socialism is an ideology that believes in a specific form of social, economic and political system. In its social

dimension, it emphasizes on egalitarian system and class cooperation. In terms of economic dimension


A brief introduction to Socialism.

A note on Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of Socialism.

How did Gandhian Socialism differ from Marxian Socialism?




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socialism emphasizes on coexistence of public and private ownership, progressive taxation and planned

economic development. The political dimensions include a strong state, a welfare state, democratic

decentralization and against the concepts of colonialism and imperialism.

Mahatma’s Gandhi Concept of Socialism

Gandhian socialism generally centers on ‘Hind Swaraj’. It was unique in the way that it laid emphasis on

modernization aspects while retaining self-reliance.

Gandhian movement in India was characterized by the use of active and passive phases. During active

phase mass agitations were organized and during passive phase the Village Reconstruction Program, the

core objective of Gandhiji which was socialistic in character was undertaken. The program focused on

promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity, upliftment of women and lower classes, promotion of cottage industries

and spread of vocational education.

Gandhian Socialism Marian Socialism

Mahatma Gandhi wanted to achieve a

Stateless and Classless society through

non-violent means

Marx wanted to achieve a Stateless and

Classless society through Violent means.

Gandhi opposed capitalism and

exploitation. For that he wanted economic

decentralization, by encouraging cottage

industries and by making capitalist

trustees.

During the time of Marx, the condition of

Europe was such that it was not possible to

abolish capitalism by parliamentary or by

non-violent means. He wanted to remove

government to uproot capitalism.

Gandhiji was decisively a spiritualist. He did

not attach any importance to materialism

and luxuries of life. He wanted man to

have minimum needs.

Marx did not believe in god. He was a

materialist. In fact he gave material and

economic interpretation of history in which

he stressed on important economic factors.

Mahatma Gandhi was not in favour of

using violence for achieving good ends. In

fact he criticized revolutionaries who

adopted violence

According to Karl Marx capitalism could not

be abolished through parliamentary

conventions. A socialist revolution was

needed to abolish it.

Gandhi opined that Class struggle brought

ruin to the country and it made the

production of goods fall considerably.

There is an urgent need to change their

minds.

According to Marx there can never be a

compromise between the two classes –

exploiters and exploited.




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Gandhi favoured co-operative farming. Marx leaned towards collective farming.

Gandhi was ready to accept private

ownership of land.

Marx was not in favour of accepting private

ownership of land.

Gandhiji had a firm faith in democracy, but

he considered western democracy as

incomplete. He wanted decentralization of

power.

Marx believed in the dictatorship of the

proletariat. He wanted maximum powers to

be vested in workers.

Gandhi believed in the benevolent nature

of rich and therefore promoted idea of

trusteeship.

Marx firmly was against the rich and called

for dictatorship of proletariat.

Gandhi’s socialism was increasingly linked

to spiritualism and Hindu way of frugal life.

Marx however detested clergy by branding

them as tools of oppression by the rich and

called religion opiate of masses.

Conclusion

Although Gandhian socialism and Marxian Socialism differed on many dimensions Welfare of the people

remained their ultimate aim. In fact the constitution of India has both Gandhian and Marxian socialist

ideals in its Directive Principle of State Policy.

4. Examine the contribution of moderates in the formative stages of the Indian National Congress. 10

Introduction

The first phase in the history of Indian National Congress was dominated by the moderate politics. G.K.

Gokhale, P.S. Mehta, D.B. Naoroji and S.N. Bannerjee were some of the moderate leaders. The method used

by moderates was also moderate in character.

The national movement during the period of moderates was liberal and progressive in character. Moderates

were secular in outlook and they were firm believers in non-violent methods. They were anti-colonial in

character. They demanded for separation of executive from legislature, simultaneous holding of Civil service

Examinations in India and London, decrease in the expenditure on military activities and increase expenditure

on developmental activities.


An introduction on Moderates.

Their contribution to Indian national freedom movement.

Conclude with the significance of moderates.




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Contribution of the Moderates

Contribution towards Inclusive Administration: It was because of the pressure built by moderates, a

commission was appointed in 1886 named as Aitcheson Commission to review the appointment in civil

services. In 1893 a resolution was introduced in British House of commons with a demand of holding

civil service examinations in India along with London simultaneously.

Contribution towards Inclusive Legislature: They were instrumental in building upon pressure on the

British Indian government in enacting the Indian Councils Act of 1892 which introduced the system of

elections in India.

Contribution towards Accountable Executive: In 1895, Welbey Commission was appointed by the

government to suggest measures for the better management of Indian expenditure.

Awareness about Colonial Exploitation: Economic critique was an important identity of moderates.

Moderate leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade and R.C. Dutt analyzed every dimension of

economic impact of British Rule on India. In 1873 an elaborate drain theory was put forward by

Dadabhai Naoroji in ‘the poverty and UnBritish rule in India’. He estimated that in 1867 8 million

pounds were drained out of India. This amount increased to 34 million pounds by 1905. According to

him excessive employment of Europeans was the main cause of drain of wealth.

M.G. Ranade in 1872 published ‘Essays on Indian Economy’. R.C. Dutt published ‘Economic history of

India’ in 3 volumes from 1901-03. He estimated that 20 million pounds were drained out of India in

1901. According to him excessive burden on land revenue was the main reason of drain of Indian

wealth. He commented that “the moisture being raised from Indian soil under British Rule was

descending as a fertilizing rain largely on England and not on India”.

Despite their efforts the policy of the Moderate leaders or the 'Old Guard' was criticized as political

mendicancy'. It was called as an opportunist movement. They were criticized as opportunist people who

traded in the name of patriotism.

Conclusion

Although the moderates did not get everything they demanded, the efforts made by them increased the

nationalist awakening among the citizens. They exposed the true character of British rule. The efforts made by

them opened the eyes of Indians and the nationalists could see that the British Rule was essentially colonial.

This realization of true character of British Rule played an important role in the emergence of extremist

nationalism.

5. The values of French Revolution and the audacity of Russian Revolution inspired the Indian

revolutionaries. Analyze 10




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Introduction

The closing years of 19th century witnessed the emergence of revolutionaries. Leaders like Chandrashekhar

Azad, Ashfaqullah Khan, Sardar Bhagat Singh, V.D. Savarkar etc were associated with revolutionary activities.

The failure of the mainstream nationalist leaders in building sufficient pressure on British Rule had forced the

younger generation to look towards alternatives. Thus began a new phase in the Indian national freedom

struggle. Their movement was characterized by violent methods, underground work, individual heroism and

quicker results.

Impact of the French Revolution

Idea of Nationalism: The coming together of common Frenchmen across France to uproot the Bourbon

dynasty gave a nationalistic feeling. This nationalistic cry was heard in India as well. Revolutionaries got

inspired by the ideal of nationalism and could do anything for the good sake of their country.

Idea of Patriotism: During the course of French Revolution a group of people known as San Culottes

represented patriotism. They adopted violent methods to attack the evil government. Revolutionaries

borrowed the ideal of patriotism from San culottes and contributed for heroic sacrifices.

Promotion of new Politico-Administrative Ideas: Indian revolutionaries were inspired by the ideals of

Republic, Constitutionalism and democracy. They wanted these ideals to be implemented in India as

well.

Inspired to liberate from Poverty: Just like France, even India was suffering from poverty and

unemployment. After French revolution Indian revolutionaries were of the mind that liberation of the

existing institutions from the clutches of the colonial regime would eliminate the sufferings of people.

Ideals of Equality and Fraternity: The revolutionaries were inspired by the ideals of equality and

fraternity. The Indian revolutionaries felt the pain of their fellow brethren. They dreamt of a society

established based on equality.

Impact of Russian Revolution

The Russian Revolution of 1905 fired up the imagination of Indian revolutionaries. Gandhi said “India was also

switching to this Russian remedy against tyranny”. The revolution made a huge impact on the minds of Indian


A brief introduction on Indian revolutionaries.

Impact of French Revolution on Indian revolutionaries.

Impact of Russian Revolution on Indian revolutionaries.

Conclude on the contribution of Indian revolutionaries to India’s freedom struggle.




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revolutionaries who wanted to get absolute independence by adopting revolutionary methods practiced by

Russians. The auduacity of Russian revolution in the form of cult of violence fired up the imagination of youth.

The Indian Sociologist said in its December 1907 issue: “Any agitation in India must be carried out secretly and

the only methods which can bring the English to their senses are the Russian methods vigorously and

incessantly applied until the English relax their tyranny and are driven out of the country”. These incendiary

articles had an immediate impact, and within a year bombs were exploding and bullets flying across India. On

April 30, 1908, Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose threw a bomb on a carriage in Muzzafarpur in order to kill

Douglas Kingsford, the chief presidency magistrate, but by mistake killed two women travelling in it. A number

of such conspiracies such as Nasik conspiracy case, Delhi conspiracy case were carried on.

Sardar Bhagat Singh was deeply inspired by the October Revolution. He increasingly started reading more and

more books on Russian Revolution, Socialism etc. In fact the members of Hindustan Republican Association

(HRA) were so much inspired by the Russian revolution that they renamed the organization as Hindustan

Socialist Republican Organization (HSRA). The Revolutionary became the main mouth piece of HRA.

A number of secret organizations were established such as Anusilan Samiti, Abhinav Bharat etc. the Indian

Republican army of Masterda Surya Sen had proclaimed a provisional revolutionary government after the

famous Chittagong raid.

Conclusion

The Revolutionaries contributed immensely to the spread of nationalist awakening through their sacrifices not

only in British India, but also in native states and among Indians living in other countries.

6. The principle of Non-alignment adopted by independent India as the corner stone of its foreign policy

produced only limited gains. Comment . 10

Introduction

Non-Alignment had its origin in India’s colonial experience and the non-violent Indian independent struggle,

which left India to be determined by the master of its fate in an international system dominated politically by

cold war alliances and economically by Western capitalism and Soviet Communism.

The term Non alignment was coined by Indian diplomat V.K. Krishna Menon in 1953 while addressing UNO.

The concept was developed by Prime Minister J. Nehru and this concept was proposed by him at the Colombo

conference of Afro-Asian nations in 1954. Finally in 1961 at Belgrade Non Alignment Movement was

established by the Afro-Asian countries.


A brief introduction to Non-alignment.

Achievements of the principle of non-alignment.

Critical examination of the achievements.




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Achievements of Non-Alignment Movement

Promotion of global peace: The most important achievement of NAM movement was that it initiated

an active international struggle for global peace at height of cold war and militarism. It played

significant role in prevention of some of the regional conflicts and also made efforts towards end of

cold war. India played a peace maker role in Korean War (1950-1953).

Prevention of bipolarization: Since NAM had greater acceptance among the newly emerging

independent nations, it prevented bipolarization of world to great extent. Third world Nations like

Asian and African countries could follow independent foreign policy.

Promotion of self-determination: Its clear call to end colonialism and dismantle the imperialism led

people of different colonized countries demand for right of self-determination and end of all kinds of

neo-colonialism.

Hastened the decolonization process: It also paced up the decolonization of the world. Many African

countries gained independence due to pressure of NAM.

Promoted equality: NAM countries made bold calls to end all racial discrimination and apartheid in

South Africa leading ultimately to the triumph of the African National Congress under the leadership of

Nelson Mandela.

Strengthened the UNO: One of the most outstanding contributions of the NAM was its consistent

support for strengthening the United Nations Organization. On the basis of their numerical strength,

the non-aligned countries exercised a considerable influence on the decisions of the General Assembly.

These countries have supported UN in all of its peace-keeping efforts in different parts of the world.

Mitigated the monopoly of western agencies: NAM had also successfully ended the monopoly of

western agencies over the news dissemination services. Western control over mass media led to the

projection of a distorted image of non-aligned third world countries. But with the setting up of a non-

aligned News pool such distortions have been greatly rectified. This indeed was a great achievement.

Critical Examination

NAM ignores the hard power politics in International realm.

India’s stand during 1956 intervention in Hungary by Soviet Union was seen as pro-Soviet because it

was less harsh in its criticism of imperialism than India’s stand in 1956 Suez crisis.

NAM has not served its purpose during critical times when India required its help the most. 1962 war

ended the romance with NAM. Only a very few countries were willing to support India’s request for

branding China as the aggressor country and none came to support diplomatically. India realized that it

had no friends to count upon. After that India’s approach to international relations has changed

considerably.




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NAM could not pressurize the UN to go for disarmament and denuclearization.

Conclusion

However, it cannot be said that NAM has produced only limited gains. Initially it served India well and it was a

feasible strategy in Cold War era for a newly independent country. An independent foreign policy that was

much appreciated and accepted by many gave India freedom to make choices. With change in times the

foreign policy of a country also changes. India is no exception to this. While the era of non-alignment is now

meager, India is focusing on Multi-alignment. In future India instead of following Multi-alignment by

supporting various ‘poles’ in the world should aim for becoming a major ‘pole’ in global politics.

7. “Colonialism not only deprives a society of its freedom and its wealth, but its very character, leaving its

people intellectually and morally disoriented”. Elucidate. 10

Introduction

Colonialism is an ideology that believes in establishing colonies and exploiting the resources of colonies for the

benefit of metropolis. Colonialism involves establishment, maintenance and exploitation of colonies by one

group of people belonging to one territory in other territory occupied by another group of people.

Colonialism involves a relationship between an indigenous majority of people and the minority of foreign

invaders. These foreign invaders decide political and economic life of colonized people. The resources of the

colony are used for the benefit of mother country.

Effect of Colonialism on Political and Economic Dimensions

The colonial powers initially come as traders and when the ground realities are in their favour, they fight a

number of wars and battles and to gain political power in the colony. Once their political supremacy is

assured, they enact a number of laws to gain control over the economic resources so that the colonial power

could reap maximum possible benefit from it. Unfortunately it doesn’t get ended here itself. Apart from

taking away the freedom of the native people, the acts of the colonial powers push the native people under

the ambit of starvation, poverty, unemployment etc. National economic policy is designed in such a way that

mother country exploit colonial population as labour and its natural resources as raw material.

If the British Indian Empire is taken as an example, the Englishmen fought several wars and battles such as the

Anglo-Mysore wars, the Anglo-Maratha wars, Battle of Plassey, Battle of Buxar etc in order to expand their


An introduction to Colonialism

Effect of Colonialism on political and economic dimensions.

Effect of colonialism on moral dimension.

Conclude with the present state of colonialism.




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area of control. Once their political supremacy was stable, they now focused on economy of India which was

shining with gold, pearls and beads. Economic exploitation of Indians was carried out by British to maximum

possible level. Land revenue reforms, Colonial attitude towards Artisans and Craftsmen, Commercialization of

agriculture were the reflection of the same.

The French colony Vietnam was used for supplying raw materials to the mother country France.

US imperialism has imposed itself on the Filipino people and violated their national sovereignty and thwarted

their aspirations for democracy, social justice and development since 1898 by military, political, economic and

cultural means.

Effect of Colonialism on Moral Dimensions

Moral subjugation is said to be the highest form of subjugation because by policing the mind of the people

control of colonial power on all dimensions was possible. Natives although could see the ground reality but are

unable to understand that they are getting exploited. The culture of natives is held below the culture of the

colony. Thus portraying themselves highly civilized when compared to the natives. Also steps will be taken to

impose the colonial culture on the natives sometimes through force. English education in India is an example

of the same.

If British Indian Empire is taken as an example, the British tried to morally subjugate Indians through concepts

like “Providential Mission”, “White man’s burden” etc. In fact the Charter act of 1813 wanted a class of Indians

who are Indians in blood but Europeans in thought and character. Lord Macaulay once said in British

Parliament “I have travelled across the length and breadth of India and I have not seen one person who is a

beggar, who is a thief. Such wealth I have seen in this country, such high moral values, people of such caliber,

that I do not think we would ever conquer this country unless we break the very backbone of this nation,

which is her spiritual and cultural heritage and therefore I propose that we replace her old and ancient

education system, her culture for if the Indians think that all that is foreign and English is good and greater

than their own, they will lose their self-esteem, their native self-culture and they will become what we want

them a truly dominated nation”.

The European powers justified colonialism in Africa as a moral obligation to bestow modern civilization and

Christianity on African societies. They disregarded the local culture and the ancestral identity was completely

destroyed. Native literature, folk traditions, dress which are the symbols of identity of a culture vanished with

the European colonialism in Africa.

Christianity was one justification that European powers used to colonize and exploit Latin America, Asia, and

Africa. Through the dissemination of Christian doctrine, European nations such as Spain, Portugal, Great

Britain, France, and the Netherlands sought to educate and reform native culture with complete disregard to

native traditions and cultural identities.




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Conclusion

The process of decolonization resulted in the independence of natives. Though decolonization took place

successfully in theory. But in reality colonization continued. It refused to become history. Colonization

reentered in the new form – Neo Colonization, which is the worst form of colonization.

8. Assess the view that popular support was the main factor behind the communist victory in Chinese

Revolution, 1949. 10

Introduction

The civil war in china between Kuo Min Tang regime led by General Chiang Kai sheik and the Chinese

Communist Party (CCP) led by Mao Zedong is known as Chinese Revolution in the modern Chinese history. This

civil war ended in the victory of the CCP and on 1st October 1949 China emerged as a Communist nation.

Role of the Popular Support

In October 1934 the Chinese communists led by Mao were surrounded by the government forces of General

Chiang Kai Sheikh in Jing Xi province in south china. It appeared as if all communists will be captured and KMT

will emerge victorious. To counter this challenge the communists decided to move northward and marched

for 370 days to reach Shaanxi province in north.

This long march enjoys a place of great significance in the history of Chinese civil war as during this march, the

communists came into contact with more than 200 million people. Communist Party could spread its ideas

among the masses and won massive mass support. It was this mass support that helped CCP in winning over

KMT regime.

In the course of long march the soldiers of the red army introduced land reforms in the areas controlled by

them and honest and efficient administration was established by the Communists under the leadership of

Mao Zedong. The period of long march was used by the red army to widen the mass base.

The KMT regime was nationalist only in the name because General Chiang Kai sheikh did not pay any attention

to Japanese invaders who captured Manchuria in 1931. This mistake of KMT regime turned the masses against

it and adversely affected its credibility. On the other hand CCP fought against the Japanese invasion even at a

time when KMT regime was busy in eliminating Communists.


An introduction to Chinese Revolution.

Role of the popular support by the Communist party.

Conclude with a note on significance of the Chinese Revolution.




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Other Factors for Success

Along with the peoples support there many other factors for communist success. They can be listed as

Progressive weakening of the power of the Koumintang. It had to bear the main brunt of the Japanese

invasion and the strain of long resistance to the enemy weakened and impoverished the Nationalist

Government.

The depletion of its effective military power led to a consequent increase in the relative strength of the

Communist armies.

The Kuominang as a governing party and as an agency for national reconstruction, was discredited by

the corruption and inefficiency of its officialdom.

The Kuomintang distrusted the masses and depended on the support of the landlords and the

propertied classes. Hence it lost touch with the people and failed to win their sympathy. The

Communists on the other hand appealed to the peasantry and the common people by carrying on

vigorous propaganda among them. They won their hearts by their austere simplicity and their

insistence on clean government. Wherever they were in power they used it to ameliorate the condition

of the peasants rather than for personal advantage.

Communist troops were orderly and disciplined and never looted civilians not outraged women Such

conduct, so contrary to the experience of the people from Kuominang government.

Hence the success of the Communists was due as much to the weakness of the Koumintang as to

communist growing strength and popularity.

Along with this the leadership qualities Mao Zedong proved one of the strong factors for communist

success.

Conclusion

The Chinese Revolution of 1949 enjoys a place of great significance not only in the Chinese history but also in

the history of Asia and the world because the success of Communists in Chinese civil war resulted in the

emergence of powerful and ambitious China. on this case, the elections to the urban local bodies should be

held giving 33% reservations to women.

9. How did the Japanese occupation of South-East Asian countries during the Second World War give a

boost to nationalism in the region and contribute to decolonization? Explain with examples. 10


An introduction to Japanese imperialism during the World War – II.

Japanese invasion of South-East Asian nations and its impact.

Conclusion.




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Introduction

Japan rejuvenated and modernized began to develop an assertive Foreign policy in order to take her due place

among the progressive nations in the world. She sought to remove the badge of inferiority imposed on her.

Japan was part of Axis powers. She began her campaign by the conquest of the south East Asian countries.

Moreover, it changed their political fortune because instead of being regarded as rebels, they are now

government leaders. Japanese Occupation provided the Southeast Asian nationalists valuable administrative

experience and gave them a great confidence boost.

Japanese Invasion of South-East Nations and Its Impact

Japanese Occupation allowed the once marginalised nationalist elites greater participation in government

affairs while limiting the role of those who had cooperated with the pre-war colonial powers. With the gaining

of valuale administrative experience by those nationalist leaders, it provided boost to popular confidence in

their governing ability and paved the way for the rejuvenation of the political fortunes after the war.

INDONESIA Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during WW-II ended the Dutch

rule. Factions from Sumatra sought Japanese assistance for a revolt against the

Dutch wartime government. The last Dutch forces were defeated by Japan in

March 1942. Many Indonesians who lived in areas considered to be important

to the war effort experienced torture, arbitrary arrest, sex slavery etc at the

hands of Japanese. After the surrender of Japan Sukarno proclaimed

independence 17th August.

PHILIPPINE The plan of the independence of Philippines from America was interrupted by

the World War – II when the Japan invaded and the Philippine Republic-II was

established. Many atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war

such as Bataan death march and Manila massacre. After the defeat of Japan in

WW-II, on 24th October 1945, Philippine became one of the founding countries

of the UNO.

BURMA Burma was devastated during World War-II. By March 1942, Japanese army had

advanced on Rangoon and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese

executive administration was established by Japan in 1942. The Burmese

national army and the Arakan national army fought initially with Japan. But

switched allegiance to the allied side in 1945. In accordance to the Panglong

agreement on 4th January 1948 Burma emerged as an independent republic.

FRENCH

INDOCHINA

Due to a war in the pacific in 1941, Japan invaded French Indo-China. During the

course of WW-II Japan was allowed to station its troops in Vietnam. Japan

exploited Vietnam’s natural resources to support its military campaign

culminating in full scale takeover of the country in 1945 which led to famine in

Vietnam.




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MALAYSIA During WW-II the Japanese army invaded and occupied Malaya, North Borneo,

Sarawak and Singapore for three years. During this time ethnic tension raised

and nationalism grew stronger. Popular support for Malaya got increased after

the allied powers reconquered Malaysia.

BRUNEI Japan invaded Brunei on 16th December 1941. During the occupation, the

Japanese had their language taught in schools and government officers were

required to learn Japanese. This was disliked by the natives. After a long period

Brunei emrged independent on 1st January 1934.

MACAU The Japanese respected Portuguese neutrality in Macau. In August 1943 Japan

demanded installation of Japanese advisers under alternative of military

occupations.

Conclusion

During the invasion on south East Asian countries a number of excesses were committed by the Japanese

army. This aroused nationalist feeling among the natives. After the defeat of Japan in WW-II, many wanted

independence. However, the former colonial powers made a reentry. In the course of time due to the

pressure built on international arena all these countries got independence.

10. "The Royal Indian Navy Revolt was an event which marked an end of the British rule and forced British

to leave India immediately." Do you agree with this statement? Give your views. 10

Introduction

The Royal Indian Navy (RIN) mutiny was arguably the single most important event in convincing the British

government that it could no longer hold on to India. The RIN revolt started on 18 February 1946 in Bombay.

The naval ratings on HMIS Talwar protested against the poor quality of food and racial discrimination by

British officers. The protest spread rapidly to the Castle and Fort barracks on shore, and to 22 ships in Bombay

harbour. By the following evening, a naval central strike committee had been elected. The mutineers took out

a procession in Bombay, holding aloft a portrait of Subhas Bose. Their ships also raised the flags of the

Congress, Muslim League and Communist Party.

Significance of the Revolt

The RIN mutiny shook the British establishment in India. Soldiers’ obedience and loyalty now could not be


A brief note on Royal Indian Navy Revolt.

Significance of the Revolt – British lo leave India immediately?

Conclusion




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taken for granted. The very existence of the English in India was through sea and when the Royal Navy

revolted, the clock was ticking for the British to leave India. It showed the percolation of nationalism among

the armed forces and convinced Britain that its time in India was drawing close. It infused the spirit of

nationalism at the most crucial period. One of the steel pillar on which the British Indian Government was

resting had now started rusting.

How far is it responsible for British to leave India?

British PM Response

Which phase of our freedom struggle won for India Independence? Mahatma Gandhi’s 1942 Quit India

movement or The INA army launched by Netaji Bose to free India or the Royal Indian Navy Mutiny of 1946?

According to the British Prime Minister Clement Attlee, during whose regime India became free, it was the INA

and the RIN Mutiny of February 18-23 1946 that made the British realise that their time was up in India.

RIN Mutiny which made the British realise that the Indian armed forces could no longer be trusted to prop up

the British. The RIN Mutiny was treated as a crisis of the empire by an alarmed British cabinet and Attlee

Clement, ordered the Royal Navy to put down the revolt.

National leaders Response

However, It did not force the British to leave India immediately. Moreover, the it could not get he support

from national leaders as well. Both Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Sardar Patel successfully persuaded the ratings

to surrender. Patel wrote, "Discipline in the army cannot be tampered with. We will want the army even in

free India". Mahatma Gandhi, criticised the strikers for mutinying without the call of a ‘prepared revolutionary

party’ and without the ‘guidance and intervention’ of ‘political leaders of their choice’. The negotiations

moved fast, keeping in view the extreme sensitivity of the situation and most of the demands of the strikers

regarding welfare measures were conceded in principle.

Overall Effect

But it definitely fastened the transfer of power to Indians. The RIN mutiny marked the beginning of the end of

British rule in India. The following are the evidence to it:

RIN took place In February, while Cabinet Mission Plan was sent to India immediately on 24th March 1946.

The plan although was for undivided India, the provisions of the plan were almost appealing to most of the

parties in India.

In order to speed up the process of transfer of power to Indians, Lord Mountbatten was appointed as the

Governor General of India. He was known for speedy implementation of the decisions.

Conclusion

The transfer of power to Indians was not an immediate one. A number of stages were witnessed in this

process. However, it can definitely be said that the RIN mutiny acted as a catalyst in the process of India’s

independence.




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11. The economic critique of British rule put forward by Moderates corroded the moral authority of British

rule by linking Indian poverty to colonialism and shattered the myth of "White Man's Burden" used by

British to justify colonial rule in India. Elucidate. 15

Introduction

The concept of “Providential Mission” was used by the British to justify their colonial rule in India. According to

it, the British came to India for guiding the masses onto the path of progress and to uplift them so that they

could lead a better life. They used the concept of “White man’s burden”. It implies that Europeans had a

burden on their shoulder to uplift the humanity from the state of barbarism. The British emphasized that they

were on a divine mission. They reached India on the instruction of God so that entire humanity could lead a

better life.

Economic Critique of British Rule

All these myths received a setback when the moderates came up with their economic critique. They exposed

the colonial character of the British by coming up with a number of works. According to moderate leaders like

Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade and R.C. Dutt there is nothing like “Providential mission” or “White man’s

burden”.

The constant flow of wealth from India to England for which India did not get an adequate economic,

commercial or material return has been described by Indian national leaders and economists as 'drain' of

wealth from India. The drain of wealth was interpreted as an indirect tribute extracted by imperial Britain from

India year after year.

Indian Poverty due to Colonialism

Dadabhai Naoroji described the drain of wealth as the "evil of all evils" and the main cause of Indian poverty.

He maintained that Britain was "bleeding India white". In a letter to Sunderland in 1905, Naoroji wrote, ''The

lot of India is a very sad one. Her condition is that of master and a slave; but it is worse; it is that of a

plundered nation in the hands of constant plunderers with the plunder carried away clean out of the land. In

the case of plundering raids occasionally made on India before the English came the invaders went away ...The

British invasion in continuous and the plunder goes right on".

The colonial plunder could reach the most lowly, the most humble and the most remote. Thus, British

methods of exploitation though less painful were more thorough and resembled the blood-sucking leeches.


A brief introduction on what is “White man’s burden” and a few points on moderates.

Role of Moderates in analyzing the Indian economy and how British were responsible for the pathetic

state of the economy of India.




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The drain had an immense effect on income and employment potential within India. R.C. Dutt quoted 'the

Indian poet as saying that taxation raised by a king is like the moisture of the earth sucked up by the sun, to be

returned to the earth as fertilising rain. Dutt lamented that the moisture raised from the Indian soil under

colonial rule descended as fertilising rain largely on England and not India.

Moral Drain

Naoroji also referred to the 'moral drain' which, according to him consisted in the exclusion of Indians, from

positions of trust and responsibility in their own land. He wrote, "All the talent and nobility of intellect and

soul, which nature gives to every country is to India a lost treasure. There is, thus a triple dwarfing or stunting

of the Indian race is going on under the present system of administration".

Moral degradation set in the Indian society. The farmer realized that the more he laboured the more he would

have to pay to the revenue-farmers and government officials would work no more than was absolutely

necessary for the bare needs of his family. Similarly, the weaver who could not keep all the reward of his hard

work did not give his best to his work. The incentive for work being no longer there, the society became static

Degradation of Moral Authority of British Rule

Morris D. Morris has emphasised the" Providential mission" theory and Britain's role of "a night watchman,

providing security, rational administration and a modicum of social overheads on the basis of which economic

progress was expected to occur". Indian scholars have referred to the malutilisation and under-utilisation of

foreign capital and colonial administration's deliberate policy of "guided underdevelopment",

In the historical perspective, the Drain of wealth theory high-lighted the foreign and exploitative character of

British rule in a language within the comprehension of the average Indian. During our Freedom Struggle the

Drain theory became a convenient slogan for any condemnation of British colonial rule in India by questioning

the moral authority of the British rulers to rule India.

Conclusion

The economic critique brought to light that the Indian poverty, hunger and recurring famines were the

outcome of colonial exploitation of Indian resources. Drain theory played an important role in intensifying

anti-British sentiment and strengthening Indian national movement.

12. How far it is correct to say that the Gandhian methods convinced the British rulers that transfer of

power into Indian hands was inevitable and it could no longer be delayed? 15


A brief note on Gandhiji and Gandhian movement.

Elaborate on how Gandhian methods convinced the British to transfer power.

Conclude on the significance of the Gandhian movement to India’s freedom struggle.




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Introduction

The emergence of Gandhiji as the supreme leader of national movement during the course of 1919-20 marked

the beginning of a new phase in the history of India’s struggle against the British rule as Gandhiji imparted new

orientation to national movement.

Gandhiji launched a number of agitations and demonstrations against British rule to pressurise them for

initiating necessary changes in the beginning and force them for leaving India ultimately.

How Gandhian Methods convinced British to transfer power?

Mobilized the so called “dumb masses”: Gandhian movement was a true mass movement. The

participation of masses, their strength and capacity during mass movements shook the British Indian

Empire.

National level politics reached even the remotest areas: The nationalist struggle under Gandhiji was

no longer limited to towns and cities. Villagers also started participating in the movement. The struggle

for independence now became pan India.

Adoption of innovative and peaceful methods: Gandhi’s useful of radical methods were highly

effective. Non Cooperation, Civil disobedience, Peaceful court arrest and wilful violation of law in a

non-violent manner were other important aggressive methods of Mahatma Gandhi.

Bringing Class harmony: Gandhian movement was a multi class movement as every section of Indian

society such as peasants, workers, women, students, business class etc participated actively.

Defining real Swaraj: The movement under Gandhi was a composite one not just a political struggle.

Gandhiji raised social, economic, cultural issues along with the political demands. This convinced the

masses.

Ethical dimension to the long drawn struggle: Satyagraha, ethical-moral struggle were other

dimensions of the Gandhian movement. As a fighter for India's freedom, Gandhi had no peer. He was a

saint-politician who employed moral means for the attainment of political ends. He used 'soul-force'

against brute force. He used legal and extra-legal methods but never immoral or dishonest means to

achieve his objectives.

Other Factors

However, along with Gandhian methods, many other factors also convinced the British to leave India. They

can be summarized as:

Degrading support of the administration for the British rule. National Indian Army movement and RIN

revolt is an example of this case.




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Mass awakening by different movements like peasants, workers, socialists, communists and

revolutionary movements.

Changed global politics in Post-World War II era. USSR and USA were in support of decolonization.

Weakening economy of the Great Britain. They could no longer hold the Indian colony.

Because of all the above factors along with Gandhiji’s contribution, the transfer of power to the Indians by the

British Indian Empire was inevitable.

Conclusion

However, the ruling circles in Britain realized that Gandhi and the Congress could arouse the masses against

the Government at any time and make its functioning difficult and he could repeat this performance whenever

he liked. Gandhian movement erased the fear of British rule from the hearts and minds of masses. The

common people who participated in the national struggle under the leadership of Gandhiji could see the

helpless situation of the British. Without the leadership of Gandhiji the task of achieving independence would

have been difficult.

13. Non-Cooperation Movement was like a mighty tidal wave which swept through the length and breadth

of the whole country and drawing into it all sections of people. Discuss 15

Introduction

The Non-Cooperation movement was the first nationwide mass movement. The year 1921-22 witnessed an

unprecedented movement in the nation’s history, when there was a widespread unrest among students

A nationwide tour was taken up by Mahatma Gandhi and Ali Brothers of Khilafat movement C R Das. Moti Lal

Nehru, M.R Jayakar. Saifuddin Kitchlew (Punjab), Vallabhai Patel, C.Rajagopalachari. T. Prakasam and Asaf Ali

left their legal practice and jumped in the full-fledged politics of congress. Thousands of students left

government schools and colleges and joined the movement. Women participated in large numbers for the

first time. The mass base further got widened when the peasants jumped into the movement.

Non-Cooperation from different sections of people and geographical regions

Boycott of schools and colleges

In the first month itself, thousands of students (90,000 according to one estimate) left schools and colleges

and joined more than 800 national schools and colleges that had sprung up all over the country.

The educational boycott was particularly successful in Bengal, where the students in Calcutta triggered off a

province-wide strike to force the managements of their institutions to disaffiliate themselves from the


An introduction to the Non Cooperation movement.

Spread of the Non Cooperation Movement across various parts of India.

Conclude with the significance of the movement on India’s freedom struggle.




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Government. C.R. Das played a major role in promoting the movement and Subhas Bose became the principal

of the National Congress in Calcutta. The Swadeshi spirit was revived with new vigour, this time as part of a

nation-wide struggle.

Punjab, too, responded to the educational boycott and was second only to Bengal, Lala Lajpat Rai playing a

leading part here despite his initial reservations about this item of the programme.

Others areas that were active were Bombay, U.P., Bihar, Orissa and Assam, Madras remained lukewarm.

Boycott of law courts

The boycott of law courts by lawyers was very dramatic and spectacular. Many leading lawyers of the country,

like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, M.R. Jayakar, Saifuddin Kitchlew, Vallabhbhai Patel, C. Rajagopalachari, T.

Prakasam and Asaf Ali gave up lucrative practices, and their sacrifice became a source of inspiration for many.

In numbers again Bengal led, followed by Andhra Pradesh, U.P., Karnataka and Punjab.

Boycott of foreign cloth

But, perhaps, the most successful item of the programme was the boycott of foreign cloth. Volunteers would

go from house to house collecting clothes made of foreign cloth, and the entire community would collect to

light a bonfire of the goods.

Prabhudas Gandhi, who accompanied Mahatma Gandhi on his nation-wide tour in the first part of 1921,

recalls how at small way-side stations where their train would stop for a few minutes, Gandhiji would

persuade the crowd, assembled to greet him, to at least discard their head dress on the spot. Immediately, a

pile of caps, dupattas, and turbans would form and as the train moved out they would see the flames leaping

upwards.' The value of imports of foreign cloth fell from Rs. 102 crore in 1920-21 to Rs. 57 crore in 1921-22.

Picketing of toddy shops

Another feature of the movement which acquired great popularity in many parts of the country, even though

it was not part of the original plan, was the picketing of toddy shops. Government revenues showed

considerable decline on this count and the Government was forced to actually carry on propaganda to bring

home to the people the healthy effects of a good drink.

The Government of Bihar and Orrisa even compiled and circulated a list of all the great men in history (which

included Moses, Alexander, Julius Caesar, Napoleon, Shakespeare, Gladstone, Tennyson and Bismarck) who

enjoyed their liquor.

Peasant movements

The Non-Cooperation Movement had other indirect effects as well. In the Avadh area of U.P., where kisan

sabhas and a kisan movement had been gathering strength since 1918, Non-cooperation propaganda, carried

on among others by Jawaharlal Nehru, helped to fan the already existing ferment, and soon it became difficult

to distinguish between a Non cooperation meeting and a kisan meeting,"




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In Malabar in Kerala, Non-cooperation and Khilafat propaganda helped to arouse the Muslims tenants against

their landlords, but the movement here, unfortunately, at times took on a communal colour.

In Assam, labourers on tea plantations went on strike. When the fleeing workers were fired upon, there were

strikes on the steamer service, and on the Assam-Bengal Railway as well. J.M. Sengupta, the Bengali

nationalist leader, played a leading role in these developments.

Defiance of forest laws became popular in Andhra. Peasants and tribals in some of the Rajasthan states began

movements for securing better conditions of life.

Protest for Religion

In Punjab, the Akali Movement for wresting control of the gurdwaras from the corrupt mahants (priests) was a

part of the general movement of Non-cooperation, and the Akalis observed strict non-violence in the face of

tremendous repression,"

However even though there was widespread participation the negative impacts of the movement like mixing

religion with politics and sudden withdrawal of the movement had its long-term impacts.

Conclusion

Gandhi was able to see the real picture of India. He realized that the real power of India lies in the rural areas

and not in urban area. There was a need for general awakening the masses to their political rights and

privileges, and further there was a total loss of faith in the system of government. People could realize that it

was only through their own efforts that India could hope to be free. There was a mass imprisonment and the

sense of terror of the jails was removed and “going to jail” became a badge of honor.

14. "The developments in India during 1937-1939 greatly undermined Indian national unity and paved the

way for Partition of India in 1947." Critically examine this statement. 15

Introduction

The developments witnessed in India during 1937-39 transformed a cultural movement into a separatist

movement. Demands for the creation of Pakistan started emerging and the separatist forces continued to gain

strength in the course of time.

The outcome of the 1937 general elections played an important role in triggering the demand for a separate

state. In this election, Muslim League was a miserable failure. It could not form government in any of the


A brief note on separatist movement.

The developments in India during 1937-1939 that undermined Indian national unity.

Conclude with the circumstances leading to the partition of India.




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province. Other Muslim parties such as United Sindh Party, Unionist Party, Krishak Praja Party were much

more successful than the Muslim League.

Various developments during the period of 1937-39

Muslim League failure in elections: Outcome of the elections of 1937 changed the relationship

between the congress and the Muslim League. In spite of the repeated requests by Jinnah, Muslim

League was not invited to join ministries. Muslim League felt humiliated at this and decided to adopt

radical polarization policies to widen its mass base.

Hostility between Congress and the League: Old slogan that Muslim interests are in danger was

abandoned and the league adopted a new radical slogan that Islam is in danger under the Hindu

majority congress. These developments converted the formal friendship between Congress and the

League into intense hostility and this animosity continued to increase with the passage of time.

Radical propaganda: A number of fabricated reports were published by the League such as Pirpur

report (1938), Sharif report (1939), Fazl Haq’s report (1939) to create an environment of fear among

Muslims to ensure their mobilization under its banner. These reports emphasized that Mosques were

demolished, Koran was insulted, Muslim women were being dishonoured and Muslim children being

killed in the congress ruled states. This radical propaganda proved to be highly effective and the

popularity of Muslim League shot up instantly.

Thousands of branches of Muslim League were opened within a short span of time. This growing mass

appeal was used by the League to pressurize other Muslim parties to join hands with it against the

congress.

Extreme Communalism: Communal politics till 1937 was organized around government jobs,

educational concessions, and the like as also political positions - seats in legislative councils, municipal

bodies, etc. - which enabled control over these and other economic opportunities. It may also be noted

that though the communalists spoke in the name of their 'communities,' the reservations, guarantees

other 'rights' they demanded were virtually confined to these two aspects.

Communalism remained at liberal stage till 1937 when it increasingly started assuming a virulent,

extremist or fascist form. Extreme communalism was based on fear and hatred, and had a tendency to

use violence of language, deed or behaviour, the language of war and enmity against political

opponents. It was at this stage that the communalists declared that Muslims, 'Muslim culture' and

Islam and Hindus, 'Hindu culture, ' and Hinduism were in danger of being suppressed and

exterminated.

W.C. Smith's words, 'fervour, fear, contempt and bitter hatred,' in the extremist or fascist phase of

communalism after 1937. Phrases like oppression, suppression, domination, being crushed, even

physical extermination and extinction were used.




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It was also at this stage that both the Muslim and Hindu communalists put forward the theory that

Muslims and Hindus constituted separate nations whose mutual antagonism was permanent and

irresolvable. The Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha after 1937 and the increasingly veered

towards extreme or fascistic communalism.

Mass appeal for extreme communalism and road to partition: Communalism also now, after 1937,

increasingly acquired a popular base, and began to mobilize popular mass opinion. It was now sought

to be organized as a mass movement around aggressive, extremist communal politics among the urban

lower middle classes.

This also required an issue or a slogan which could arouse mass emotion. Because of the reactionary,

upper class base of communalism, an appeal to radical social issues could not be made. In other words,

communalism could not base itself on a radical socio-economic, or political or ideological programme.

Hence, inevitably, an appeal was made to religion and to irrational sentiments of fear and hatred.

Day of deliverance: When the congress provincial ministries resigned in October, 1939 Muslim League

celebrated their exit as “day of deliverance” on 22nd December 1939.

Conclusion

All these developments led to the growth of strength of communal parties like Muslim League. It was was

revealed by the outcome of elections held in 1945-46. In these elections Muslim League won 75% of the total

Muslim votes. It formed government in Bengal and Sindh. It was a force to reckon with.

Most importantly blaming this phase alone for partition may be wrong. The divisive nature of British policies

like communal electorate, appeasing one section at a time and pitting over the other section are also

responsible for the partition.

15. "With great skill and masterful diplomacy and using both persuasion and pressure, Sardar Vallabhbhai

Patel succeeded in integrating the hundreds of princely states with the Indian Union”. Discuss. 15

Introduction

At the time of independence, there were 562 native States. Out of these 30 were located within the territories

given to Pakistan and 532 were left in India. Integration of these native States into Indian union was a difficult

task. The challenge was further complicated by the provision of Independence of India act that gave freedom

to native States to join India, join Pakistan or remain independent.


A note on integration of native states and the role of Sardar Patel towards it.

Strategies of Sardar Patel in integrating hundreds of princely states with the Indian Union.

Conclusion with a futuristic note.




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This complicated task was handled by Sardar Patel, the head of home department and the department of

native states. He was aided by V.K. Krishna Menon, the secretary to the home department.

Strategies of Sardar Patel for the Integration of Native States

Great skill and masterful diplomacy

On 27 June 1947, Sardar Patel assumed additional charge of the newly created States' Department with V.P.

Menon as its Secretary. Patel was fully aware of the danger posed to Indian unity by the possible intransigence

of the rulers of the states. He told Menon at the time that 'the situation held dangerous potentialities and that

if we did not handle it promptly and effectively, our hard-earned freedom might disappear through the States'

door'. He, therefore, set out to tackle the recalcitrant states expeditiously.

Patel's first step was to appeal to the princes whose territories fell inside India to accede to the Indian Union in

three subjects which affected the common interests of the country, namely, foreign relations, defence and

communications. He also gave an implied threat that he would not be able to restrain the impatient people of

the states and the government's terms after 15 August would be stiffer.

The policy of Persuasion

Under the Strategy of Persuasion, he appealed to the nationalist spirit of native rulers. Their contribution to

India in the past was appreciated. The native rulers were termed as great leaders of India. Their leadership

was sought for the newly emerging Indian nation. The native rulers were guaranteed complete ownership

rights over their property held by them. The revenue loss taking place as a result of integration with the Indian

union was to be compensated with the system of Privy Purse. The native rulers were promised high status and

place of prestige in Indian Union.

Fearful of the rising tide of the peoples' movements in their states, and of the more extreme agenda of the

radical wing of the Congress, as also Patel's reputation for firmness and even ruthlessness, the princes

responded to Patel's appeal and all but three of them-Junagadh, Jammu and Kashmir and Hyderabad acceded

to India by 15 August 1947. By the end of 1948, however, the three recalcitrant states too were forced to fall

in line.

The policy of Pressure

Pressure was applied to those native rulers who failed to respond to the carrot of persuasion. Such native

rulers were threatened with the possibility of mass agitation and police action. They were warned that they

would lose their entire resources as well as their prestige.

This deadly combination of pressure and persuasion was highly effective. By 14th August 1947, 529 native

states had agreed to sign instrument of accession for joining Indian Union.

Only three states were left out.




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1. Hyderabad was annexed through police action

2. Junagadh through Plebiscite

3. Jammu & Kashmir through instrument of accession

Conclusion

Although the native states were annexed into the Indian Union, another big difficult was at the doors steps of

Indian government in the form of reorganization of states. The role played by Patel has rightfully earned him

the title Bismarck of India.

16. The sequence of events in Europe during the quarter century after French Revolution in 1789 can be

described in four dramatic words: Revolution, War, Dictatorship and Empire. Discuss. 15

Introduction

The French Revolution of 1789 is one of the most significant events in entire human history as in Many ways it

left a lasting impact an entire humanity. It doomed the fate of medieval France and opened the doors of

modernity to the common Frenchmen. The principles on which the Ancient Regime in France was resting such

as absolute monarchy, feudal privileges, despotism etc. were uprooted during the phase of revolution. The

French revolution stood for the ideals such as liberty, equality, fraternity, separation of powers, democracy

etc.

Events in the aftermath of the French Revolution of 1789 Revolution

The French Revolution is significant not only in the context of France but it left its impress on Europe and the

whole world. The ideals If the Revolution-liberty, equality, fraternity and democracy-brought about a political

awakening in Europe. People now began to rise in revolt to demand their rights.

It resulted in end of the autocratic system, feudalism, privileged society, supremacy of church. It resulted in

declaration of human rights.

War

In France, a constitutional monarchy was established which ended in a failure. Later it was followed by the

reign of terror which unleashed the blood of around 40,000 Frenchmen.

With the invasion of France by the European Coalition-I in 1791 started the period of war between France and

other European powers. A number of wars and battles were fought during this period such as the Battle of

Trafalgar, Battle of Jena-Austerdt, battle of Fried land etc.


Start with an introduction to the French Revolution of 1789.

Elaborate on the events in the aftermath of the French Revolution.

Conclude with the contribution of the French Revolution.




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During the Revolution people had to suffer a lot of troubles. Many innocent people were guillotined during the

Reign of Terror. Disturbance, anarchy and disorder continued in France for a long time. Foreign reactionary

nations waged war against France to end the Revolution. These wars lasted 23 years and adversely affected

French economy.

Dictatorship

Republican system could survive only for a few days in France. Directory was under immorality and corruption.

It was followed by the dictatorship of Napoleon when he was crowned as the Emperor of France in 1804. He

introduced several steps which were against the ideals of French Revolution, but at the same time symbolized

dictatorship of Napoleon such as the institution of the legion of honour, practice of nepotism, curbing of

democratic institutions etc.

Napoleon ascended the throne of France when it was lying vacant. He introduced a number of reforms in

accordance with the ideals of French Revolution. The period of Napoleon’s rule from 1799 is seen as an

extension of revolution and not as a hindrance. Because Napoleon himself was a representative of revolution.

He was the child of revolution.

Empire

Napoleon wanted to become the Emperor of not just France but entire Europe. For this he took a number of

military expeditions. For this, he set up Grande Armee and took the personal command of it most of the times.

Thus the boundary of France went on increasing until the end of Napoleon in the Battle of Leipzig.

Conclusion

French Revolution influenced not only the French public but left an indelible impression on Europe and the

entire world. That Revolution rejuvenated the political, social, religious and economic systems of France. The

French Revolution is significant not only in the context of France but it left its impress on Europe and the

whole world. The ideals If the Revolution-liberty, equality, fraternity and democracy-brought about a political

awakening in Europe.

The ideological impact of French Revolution and the changes brought about by Napoleon started the process

of decline of the old order based on traditional ideas. France emerged as the intellectual leader of Europe and

masses throughout Europe started looking towards France for guidance and inspiration.

17. First World War was unsought and unintended end product of a long sequence of events which began

from Franco-Prussian war in 1871. Critically examine. 15


Introduction to the World War-I and Franco-Prussian war in 1871.

Elaboration on the series of events responsible for World War – I.

Conclude with critical examination of the events responsible for the outbreak of WW-I




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Introduction

World War I was a defining event in world history. In August 1914 the nations of Europe tumbled into a war

that would ravage their continent and shape the course of the next century. Mankind had known wars of

destruction and folly before but none approached the scale and barbarity of World War I. For four years

Europe was paralyzed and ravaged by the horrors of industrial weaponry, militarism and total war. It was

fought between 28th July 1914 - 11th November 1918.

The battle of Sedan was fought on 1st September 1870. French forces were decisively defeated. 82000

soldiers were imprisoned along with Napoleon-III. An extremely humiliating Treaty of Frankfurt was imposed

on France in May, 1871. This treaty was signed in central hall of mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. That was

the symbol of French prestige.

Developments from Franco-Prussian War in 1871: Responsible for the WW-I

The perfect balance of power which was there in the middle of the nineteenth century began to dwindle with

the Franco-Prussian war in 1871. The period of 40 to 50 years before the World War I witnessed a keen

competition among the states to increase their military strength, to occupy new colonies in Asia and Africa

and to redistribute the territories already captured.

Coalitions for self-defence were being formed and military equipment was fast expanding. Unsought and

unintended developments in different countries caused World War I.

France: France was preparing to take revenge on Germany which in 1870 had deprived it of Alsace and

Lorrain-its deposits of mineral wealth.

Italy: Italy was not satisfied with her unification and was arousing the feelings of world conquest

among its youth.

Poland: Poles living in Austria, Russia and Germany wanted to establish a new state of Poland.

Germany: Germany entered into friendly alliances with the neighbours of France and strengthened her

military power. It inculcated chauvinistic feelings among its youth and preached that war is a necessity

in the absence of which the world begins to stagnate. Germany concentrated on increasing the

strength of her navy and in 1882 signed Triple Alliance with Austria and Italy, which provided that in

case of invasion by a foreign power they would jointly retaliate it. Thus, Germany made her position

strong.

Britain: Britain grew apprehensive of German militarism and signed treaties with Japan (1902), France

(1904), Russia and France (1907). It ratified the treaty of 1893 which had bound Britain, France and

Russia against Bismarck.

Pan-slavism: Southern Slavs inside and outside Austria-Hungary wanted to unite in a separate state.




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The Balkan states: The Balkan states were in a state of turmoil which alarmed the monarchy in the

multi-racial Austria-Hungary. Bulgarian ruler donned the title of Czar and Greece dreamt of an empire.

The Balkan states were torn by religious and social problems also. The Christian rulers here wanted to

overthrow the domination of the Islamic Turkey and for this Austria-Hungary were ready to extend

their help.

Russia: Russia, under this excuse, wanted to expand till the Mediterranean but Britain did not like it.

Russia also designed to increase its area of influence against Germany, Austria and Hungary in the near

east and the Balkan states.

Colonial rivalries: Colonial and imperial rivalries prevailing among powers in Europe was also

responsible for the outbreak of WW-I. The aggressive expansionist policy carried on by Kaiser William-I,

Moroccan crisis-I and II were the outcome of the same.

Economic rivalries: Economic rivalries between the German and British capitalists were competing

against each other for market share in Europe was also a factor. This created a sought of fragile

environment in Europe.

The Rise of Nationalism: By the opening years of 20th century, an extremely radical form of

nationalism had emerged in Balkan Peninsula. It was practically impossible to satisfy the nationalist

aspirations of all the groups in Balkan as the interests of each other clashed.

Absence of an International Organization-At this time there was no international organization in

Europe which could solve disputes between various states through negotiations and put off the

imminence of war. Every state considered herself most affluent and turned an indifferent eye towards

international promises.

Bismarck’s foreign policy was based on the system of peacetime secret military alliances established a very

wrong tradition in European history. When German King Kaiser William-II could not manage these alliances,

Europe got divided into two mutually hostile camps. In 1894 Franco-Russian alliance came into existence. In

1904, Anglo-French entente cordiale was established. In 1907, triple entente emerged when Russia joined the

Anglo-French alliance. Triple alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy was already there in Europe.

Conclusion

Very few countries wanted to take part in WW-I. But very few believed that they can stay away from the war.

This dichotomy played the most important role in bringing the war nearer.

18. The policy of appeasement pursued by western democracies during inter-war period was quite

incompatible with the notion of collective security as prescribed in the Covenant of the League of

Nations. Analyze. 15




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Introduction

Many statesmen after world war-I were determined that the horrors of the First World War should never be

repeated. President Woodrow Wilson of the USA came up with a plan for a League of Nations, which would

settle future disputes by arbitration and keep the world at peace through a system of 'collective security'.

But this system has taken a big blow with the policies of western democracies towards fascist forces. The

policy of appeasement was pursued by western democracy that is Britain in particular, France and other

democratic states in general towards fascist forces that are Germany and Italy in particular. Appeasement

refers to an approach of extreme pacifism in which even the wrong demands are accepted and the wrong

activities are deliberately sidelined to keep certain individuals happy.

This policy was quite incompatible with the notion of collective security as prescribed in the Covenant of the

League of Nations.

Analysis of the Incompatibility of the Policy of Appeasement and the Notion of Collective Security of League

of Nations

The Policies of Western Nations Contradictory to the League of Nations

The mutual disputes among the Allied Powers also contributed to the development of the fascist powers in

Italy and Germany. After the Paris Peace Conference, the group of 'Five Allied Powers' came to an end and the

responsibility for enforcing the peace treaties mainly fell on the shoulders of France and Britain. But

differences between these two states had increased on the questions of reparation, collective security and

disarmament

Britain policies

It was unfortunate that for the sake of her commercial benefits, Britain implicitly helped Germany in her plans

of rearmament. To maintian her world wide empire and international trade Britain wanted to ward off any

danger in the Mediterranean region and the Far East. This was why she appeased Italy. Britain did not oppose

Japan (from Manchurian crisis till Sino-Japanese war) because it appeared to be the only way of safeguarding

her immediate and future trade interests in Far and South-East Asia.


An introduction to Policy of Appeasement.

Analysis on incompatibility of the policy of appeasement and the collective security of the League of

Nations.

Conclude with the limitations of the Policy of Appeasement.




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French policies

Another reason for adopting the policy of appeasement was that after World War I France had become very

powerful in Europe and to keep her under control Britain wanted to strengthen Germany. This enraged the

Allied Powers and France made separate treaties with Poland, Belgium and Czechoslovakia.

Response during Manchuria crisis

When Japan captured Manchuria in 1931, the response of western democracies was quite subdued. The

League’s failure to do anything about Japan setting up Manchukuo and then quitting the League brought

further shame. “Their inactivity and ineffectualness in the Far East lent every encouragement to European

aggressors who planned similar acts of defiance.”

Response during Abyssinia crisis

As the conquest of Abyssinia by Italy would have threatened Britain economically, strategically and

diplomatically, the British Government followed a muddle-headed policy of appeasement. Britain took a firm

stand against Italy in January 1935. Sir Anthony Eden, the British delegate in the League of Nations denounced

the action of Italy in harsh terms and managed to influence the Council of the League with the decision of

imposing sanctions against Italy. One may say that such an action amounted to the abandonment of the policy

of appeasement, but later developments showed that as France was reluctant to implement the decision of

sanctions against Italy, Britain also decided to do likewise.

Response during Czechoslovakia Crisis

The aggressive policies of Hitler were tolerated by western democracies without much reaction. The most

famous case of appeasement would be the Munich Conference in 1938 after Hitler violated the World War I

Versailles Treaty by invading the Sudetenland in western Czechoslovakia. Hoping to avoid getting involved in

another war, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and French Premier Edouard Daladier met with

Mussolini and Hitler in Munich and decided to let Hitler to keep the industrial area since most of the people

living in the region were Germans, not Czechs. At the time, Chamberlain was lauded in Britain for keeping

peace. Hitler, though, emboldened by the West's unwillingness to go to war, proceeded to take the rest of

Czechoslovakia and, a year later, invaded Poland starting World War II.

The promise of Disarmament was broken

The Allied Powers had assured Germany that after some time general disarmament would be implemented to

ascertain collective security, but the policies adopted by different nations only encouraged armament.

Conclusion

Both France and Britain “abandoned the concept of collective security in favour of appeasement in the face of

growing German militarism under Hitler.” Hitler and Mussolini took full advantage of the differences between




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France and England and of the policy of appeasement. Mutual distrust weakened the front of Allied Powers

and they found it difficult to check the growing power of the dictators. Thus the policy of appeasement

completely demolished the concept of collective security.

Britain was not in favour of stiffening the provisions of the Covenant of the League of Nations. She preferred

regional security to world-wide collective security. Britain was not in favour of entering into military alliances

or commitments in Eastern Europe. Britain refused to make any commitments in Eastern Europe in 1925.

France differed from Britain in all these respects. From 1919 to 1933, the policies of France prevailed and that

contributed to the rise of Hitler.

19. The situation prevailing in middle east today with so many involved countries and so many

interrelationships between internal and external political issues is very much similar to the Balkan land

of pre-World War I. Analyze 15

IIntroduction

In the nineteenth century the Turkish Empire in Europe included the whole of what is known as the Balkan

Peninsula. 'Balkans' is a Turkish word meaning mountains, and as a term of political geography. This region,

from the pre-historic times, has been the meeting place of races. Here for centuries the Crescent had ruled

over the Cross, and although the Turkish rule had not been intolerant in many ways, it was wholly

incompetent and unprogressive at times it could be ruthlessly cruel. They fought for self-determination

against Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Similarly middle-East is also a place where many races. Like Balkan Peninsula before World War I, the situation

today is more complex than ever. Many wars and battles are taking place among the people. Here like Balkan

peninsula people are fighting for dignity, respect and pursuit of happiness.

However, with interests of many big powers like in the case of Balkan Peninsula before World War I, the

middle-eastern crisis is assuming a dangerous form.

Comparing the Situation

Involvement of many stakeholders

The situation right before World War I was a complex one, including the degrading Ottoman Empire, the

imperialist scramble for colonies, the prior Balkan Wars, a rising Germany seeking parity or superiority with


A brief note on how crisis in Balkan Peninsula led to WW-I.

Comparison of the situation between the then Balkan Peninsula and today’s Middle East.

Conclusion




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Great Britain, an unstable alliance system, an unworkable Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the complex internal

politics of Russia.

In today’s Middle East, a broadly festering situation across multiple fronts is visible, with many smaller players,

lots of internal political struggles and unstable political units, and commitments from some major external

powers, including the U.S., Russia, Iran and Turkey. It can be found a close analogy with 1914. Here the

existing governments were not capable enough to handle the diversity and aspirations of people.

Russian interests

Balkan peninsula: The growing influence of Russia in Balkan Peninsula was against the interests of

Britain, France and Austria. Russia was trying to extend her interest onto the Mediterranean Sea

through the Balkan land. Because of this the Sea Lines of Communications being used by Britain and

France to reach their Empire were being threatened. To counter this Battle of Crimea was fought.

Middle East: The growing influence of Russia in Middle Eastern countries like Syria and Iran is against

the interests of western countries like USA, Britain, France and Austria. Russia was trying to extend her

interest onto the Indian Ocean through the Middle East. Therefore, it supported the Syrian

government in civil war and Crimea was also annexed in in 2014 through so called legitimate means.

Conflict over religion

Before 1914 the critical trouble spot was the Balkans, where nationalist passions were overlaid with

religious conflicts between Christian states, such as Greece and Bulgaria, and the Islamic Ottoman

empire. The Habsburg monarchy, run by a Roman Catholic elite, was being challenged by Orthodox

Serbia. The Balkan states to a degree stood proxy for larger powers, notably tsarist Russia, Germany

and Austria-Hungary.

Similarly in the Middle East today, Sunni and Shia conflicts are becoming complex due to support of

states like Saudi Arabia and Iran. These countries are using the ethic differences and fighting proxy

wars. Iran support Shia sect while Saudi Arabia is supporting Sunni sect of Islam.

Adoption of Terrorist Means

In both cases the people adopted violent means to express the grievances and government resorted to

ruthless suppression.

Incompetent home governments and creating great game conditions.

During 1914, Balkan Peninsula was administered by incompetent administration therefore the violent protests

of people could not be handled sensibly and it fell prey to the national interests of foreign countries. In Middle

East also same situation is inviting the foreign countries to play great game.




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Conclusion

In the early 21st century, however, when the threat of a nuclear conflict between the world’s leading powers

has receded, the lesson we need to learn from the catastrophe of 1914 is a different one. Although France,

Germany and other participants in the First World War will be telling us to stop a repetition of the disaster by

building European unity and understanding, the focus of politicians should really be on the Middle East, the

Balkans of the early 21st century, which still threaten to explode into a wider, more dangerous conflagration.

The intervention of friendly and peaceful countries like that of India in resolving various issues is required.

Although the UNO is trying its best to maintain peace in the region, it’s still under the practical control of the

P5 nations. Major Powers of the world should try to learn from the past history and take effective measures to

solve the issues. Otherwise, those who do not learn history are doomed to repeat it.

20. A major problem, perhaps the most serious one that India has faced since 1947, has been of national

unity or consolidation of the nation. Examine. 15

Introduction

Integration of Indian people as a political community after independence in 1947 was perhaps the most

serious of all problems faced by the newly formed dominion. In a country like India with immense cultural

diversity, the idea of unity was trivial. The leaders had to be very particular about the meaning of the phrase

‘unity in diversity’ as a concept of national integration, which was not to be loss of identity in order to

homogenize. The national movement had laid the foundation for welding Indians together into a nation and

inducing the feeling of Indianness.

As Nehru put it in 1952, 'the most important factor, the overriding factor, is the unity of India’. To quote him

again: 'Personally, I feel,' he said in 1957, 'that the biggest task of all is not only the economic development of

India as a whole, but even more so the psychological and emotional integration of the people of India.

Challenges in fostering the spirit of National Integration

The challenges to national integration came from the following factors:

More than 560 princely states were to be integrated.

Multi lingual identities and demand for states reorganization on the language.


Introduction about the national unity.

Discuss the challenges in fostering of spirit of national integration.

Highlight the steps taken in fostering of spirit of national integration.

Explain the forms of National Integration.

Conclude by highlighting the continuous efforts going till present.




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Challenges in integrating tribal dominated parts of India like North eastern region.

Creation of Pakistan has created problems with the integration of Jammu and Kashmir.

Communal tensions and caste tensions further aggravated the challenge.

The leaders of the national movement realized that the making of the nation was a prolonged and continuous

process and one which was open to continuous challenges and interruption, disruption and even reversal. One

such disruption had already occurred in 1947. The emergence of a strong national identity and the

preservation of India's rich diversity were seen as simultaneous processes. Regional cultural identities would

develop not in conflict with but as part of the all-India identity.

It was, however, recognized that the diversity of India could also be a source of weakness. Diversity could be

used for divisive purposes and transformed into disruptive tendencies, such as communalism, casteism and

linguistic or regional exclusiveness.

Steps taken in fostering the spirit of National Integration

The leadership evolved a political institutional structure conducive to national consolidation. At the heart of

this structure lay the inauguration of a democratic and civil libertarian polity.

Constitution and Social Justice

The constitutional structure established in 1950 encompassed the demands of diversity as well as the

requirements of unity. National integration required policies which would promote social justice and greater

social and economic equality. The Constitution laid the basis for reduction of social disparity by putting an end

to any discrimination on grounds of religion, caste or sex. From the start, the founding fathers stood for

secularism as the basis for the nation. So that vulnerable sections like tribals, minories can live with dignity

under Indian administration.

Political System

The Constitution provided for a federal structure with a strong Centre but also a great deal of autonomy for

the states. The makers of the constitution kept in view the difference between decentralization and

disintegration and between unity and integration and centralization. The constitutional structure was not only

conducive to national integration but provided the basic framework within which the struggle against divisive

forces could be carried on.

Also, political parties acted as a great integrating force. All the major post-1947 political parties-Socialist Party,

Communist Party of India, Jan Sangh and later the Swatantra Party- were all-India in character and in their

organization and ideology and they stood for the unity of the country.

Administrative System

The Indian army and administrative services were also a force for forging national unity. India developed after

1947 a national administrative service with recruitment to its top echelons, the lAS, the IPS, and other central




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services, taking place on the basis of individual merit, irrespective of caste or religion, from all regions and

linguistic areas.

Economic Structure

The Indian economy, national market and transport and communication networks were further unified after

1947.

Role of Leaders

The role of the leadership and its manner of functioning in nation-making and national consolidation is quite

important. The prominent leaders of independent India-Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel, Maulana Azad,

Rajendra Prasad-were not associated with anyone region, language, religion, or caste. This was also true of the

prominent Opposition leaders such as Jayaprakash Narayan, J.B. Kripalani, Rammanohar Lohia, Syama Prasad

Mookerjee, B.T. Ranadive and Ajoy Ghosh.

Dealing with Language Issue

The problem posed to national consolidation by linguistic diversity was solved in two major forms.

The dispute over official language of the union was solved amicably

The linguistic reorganization of the states has strengthened the Indian Union.

What are the forms of National Integration?

The developments can be summarized in the following forms:

More than 560 princely states were integrated and created a Union.

Indian Union was reorganized based on language to meet the regional demands.

Hindi was not imposed on any section of the society rather all Indian languages were regarded as

equally important as Hindi.

Special provisions were created in the constitution for special regions like North east and J&K.

Minority culture and languages are protected constitutionally.

Various Institutions like National Development Council and National Integration Council also helped to

integrate the Indian Union.

Conclusion

Therefore, the above explanation provided insights on how the gigantic task of fostering the spirit of national

integration was achieved during early decades after independence. However, the process of national

integration is a continuous process and continuous efforts must be shown towards in this direction. We must

recognize that India is a diverse nation having different religions, languages, dresses, food etc. to promote

national integration in India there should be a respect for diversity. National integration is actually a

harmonious situation that binds the people of India together. The nation is built by its people must live in

unity for the development of the nation as a whole. We must have a common identity as Indians to promote

national integration.

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