Innovation Sources of Economies in Eastern Asia · Innovation Sources of Economies in Eastern Asia...
Transcript of Innovation Sources of Economies in Eastern Asia · Innovation Sources of Economies in Eastern Asia...
Innovation Sources of Economies in Eastern Asia
PRACE NAUKOWE Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we WrocławiuRESEARCH PAPERS of Wrocław University of Economics
256
edited byBogusława SkulskaAnna H. Jankowiak
Publishing House of Wrocław University of EconomicsWrocław 2012
Reviewers:KazimierzStarzyk,BeataStępień,MaciejSzymczak, MaciejWalkowski,KatarzynaŻukrowska
Copy-editing:MarcinOrszulak
Layout:BarbaraŁopusiewicz
Proof-reading:JoannaŚwirska-Korłub
Typesetting:AdamDębski
Coverdesign:BeataDębska
Thispublicationisavailableatwww.ibuk.pl,www.ebscohost.com, andinTheCentralandEasternEuropeanOnlineLibrarywww.ceeol.com aswellasintheannotatedbibliographyofeconomicissuesofBazEkon http://kangur.uek.krakow.pl/bazy_ae/bazekon/nowy/index.php Informationonsubmittingandreviewingpapersisavailable onthePublishingHouse’swebsite www.wydawnictwo.ue.wroc.pl
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyform orinanymeanswithoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthePublisher
© CopyrightbyWrocławUniversityofEconomics Wrocław2012
ISSN 1899-3192 ISBN 978-83-7695-210-9
Theoriginalversion:printed
Printing:PrintingHouseTOTEM
TheprojecthasbeenfinancedbytheNationalScienceCentre accordingtothedecisionNo.DEC-2011/01/D/HS4/01204.
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 9
Part 1. International trade as a factor of innovation in Asian economies
Jerzy Dudziński, Jarosław Narękiewicz, Iwona Wasiak: PricemovementsintheinternationaltradeandAsiandevelopingcountries’exports........... 13
Guenter Heiduk: Is innovation-based competitiveness in trade crisis-resistant?ThecaseofChina....................................................................... 23
Bartosz Michalski: Technological intensity of the international trade. Thecaseofthesecond-tierAsianTigers.................................................... 36
Paweł Pasierbiak: TechnologicalintensityofJapanesemerchandisetrade.... 47Ewa Mińska-Struzik: Learningbyexportingasasourceof innovation in
Asiancompanies......................................................................................... 59
Part 2. Foreign direct investment as a source of innovation in Asian economies
Magdalena Kinga Stawicka: Economic and Technological DevelopmentZones(ETDZ)asaplaceofFDIlocationinChina.................................... 75
Maciej Żmuda: The determinants of Chinese outward foreign directinvestmenttodevelopingcountries............................................................ 86
Tadeusz Sporek: Foreign direct investment in Nepal. Strategy andpromotion.................................................................................................... 98
Aleksandra Kuźmińska-Haberla: Promotionofforeigndirectinvestment.ExamplesfromtheAsia-Pacificregion...................................................... 109
Part 3. Innovativeness of network in Eastern Asia
Sebastian Bobowski, Marcin Haberla: Networkedclusters in thecontext ofknowledge-seekingstrategyofinternationalbusiness........................... 121
Jerzy Grabowiecki: Zaibatsuconglomeratesasorganisational innovations atthetimeofthemodernisationofJapan’seconomy................................. 132
Małgorzata Wachowska: The importanceof the Japanesekeiretsugroupsforknowledgespillover.............................................................................. 144
Małgorzata Dolińska: Network-centricinnovations.ThecaseofChina....... 153Anna H. Jankowiak: Chineseindustrialclusters........................................... 164
6 Contents
Karolina Łopacińska: Cultural differences in the context of managing aninternationalcorporationwithaSwedishandChinesecapital............. 174
Part 4. Innovativeness of Asian financial markets
Magdalena Broszkiewicz: Innovations incorporategovernance systemas anecessaryimprovementsofcapitalmarketinJapan................................ 187
Jacek Pera: Modern trends in financial innovations on theAsianmarket. Anattemptofassessment........................................................................... 198
Artur Klimek: Sovereignwealthfundsintheglobaleconomy...................... 208Paweł Folfas: Dubai–anemergingandinnovativeoffshorefinancialcentre 217
Streszczenia
Jerzy Dudziński, Jarosław Narękiewicz, Iwona Wasiak: Ruchcenwhand- lumiędzynarodowymaeksportazjatyckichkrajówrozwijającychsię..... 22
Guenter Heiduk: Czykonkurencyjnośćwhandluopartanainnowacjachjestodpornanakryzys?PrzykładChin............................................................ 35
Bartosz Michalski: Technologicznaintensywnośćhandlumiędzynarodowe-go.Przypadektygrysówazjatyckichdrugiejgeneracji.............................. 46
Paweł Pasierbiak: Intensywność technologiczna japońskiegohandlu towa-rowego......................................................................................................... 58
Ewa Mińska-Struzik: Uczenie się przez eksport jako źródło innowacjiwprzedsiębiorstwachazjatyckich.............................................................. 71
Magdalena Kinga Stawicka: Ekonomiczneitechnologicznestrefyrozwojujako miejsce lokowania bezpośrednich inwestycji zagranicznych w Chinach....................................................................................................... 85
Maciej Żmuda: Motywy bezpośrednich inwestycji zagranicznych Chin wkrajachrozwijającychsię........................................................................ 97
Tadeusz Sporek: ZagraniczneinwestycjebezpośredniewNepalu.Strategiaipromocja..................................................................................................... 108
Aleksandra Kuźmińska-Haberla: Promocja bezpośrednich inwestycji za-granicznych.RozwiązaniazkrajówregionuAzjiiPacyfiku.................... 118
Sebastian Bobowski, Marcin Haberla: Usieciowioneklastrywkontekściestrategiiknowledge-seekingbiznesumiędzynarodowego......................... 131
Jerzy Grabowiecki: Konglomeratyzaibatsu jako innowacjeorganizacyjneokresumodernizacjigospodarkiJaponii.................................................... 143
Małgorzata Wachowska: Znaczeniejapońskichgrupkeiretsudlarozprze-strzenianiasięwiedzy................................................................................. 152
Małgorzata Dolińska: InnowacjepowstającewsiecinaprzykładzieChin... 163
Contents 7
Anna H. Jankowiak: Chińskieklastryprzemysłowe..................................... 173Karolina Łopacińska: Różnicekulturowewkontekściezarządzaniafirmą
wielonarodowązkapitałemszwedzkimichińskim................................... 184Magdalena Broszkiewicz: Innowacjewsystemieładukorporacyjnegojako
konieczneudoskonaleniefunkcjonowaniarynkukapitałowegowJaponii 197Jacek Pera: Współczesne tendencjew zakresie innowacji finansowychna
rynkuazjatyckim.Próbaoceny.................................................................. 207Artur Klimek: Rola państwowych funduszy majątkowych w gospodarce
światowej.................................................................................................... 216Paweł Folfas: Dubaj–wschodząceiinnowacyjnecentrumfinansowe.......... 226
PRACE NAUKOWE UNIWERSYTETU EKONOMICZNEGO WE WROCŁAWIU RESEARCH PAPERS OF WROCŁAW UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS nr 256 ● 2012
InnovationSourcesofEconomiesinEasternAsia ISSN1899-3192
Paweł PasierbiakMariaCurie-SkłodowskaUniversityinLublin
TECHNOlOGICAl INTENSITY OF JAPANESE MerCHANdISe TrAde
Summary:Japanisperceivedasacountrywhich,thankstotechnologicaldevelopment,hasreachedahighpositionintheinternationaldivisionoflabour.Itbecamenoticeableespeciallyafterthecrisesofthe1970sandtheearly1980s,whenitappearedthatJapanwasofferingsuccessfulhigh-technologyproductsoninternationalmarkets,andtheshareoftheseproductsinthetotalexportofthecountryoccupiesanimportantplace.Inthefirstdecadeofthetwenty-firstcentury,thesituationchangedsignificantly.Japan,thoughstillhighinitstechnologicalposition,startedlosingshareinglobalflowsofhightechnologygoods(ICTamongothers),andtheroleofsuchproductsintotalimportandexportflowsofthecountrywasdecliningrapidly.Thenegativetrendcanbeobservedin thecaseof thesectoralapproach(sectorofhigh,medium-high,medium-lowandlowtechnology)aswellastheproductone(productswithhighintensityinR&D).
Keywords:Japan,foreigntrade,technology,internationaltraderelations.
1. Introduction
Theanalysisofthelong-termtrendsininternationaltradeshowsthatmerchandiseexchangemoreandmoreincreasinglyincludedtradeingoodswithahighdegreeoftechnologicaldevelopment.Onehas tokeep inmind thatasa resultof relativelyshort-termchangesonmarkets,theshareofcommoditygroupssuchasmineralsoragriculturalwas temporarily increasing,but thepermanentcapacity toeffectivelyengageandmaintainitspositionintheinternationaldivisionoflabourarosefromthebase,whichwasachievedbytheleveloftechnologicaldevelopmentofthecountry,reflectedinthestructureofitsproductionandexports.Progressinthisareaprovidedabasisforcompetitiveadvantageofthecountryasitinfluencedthegrowthoflabourproductivity,which,inadditiontospecialisationinproduction,isoneofthemostimportant determinants of long-term competitiveness of the national economy.1 Technological leadership is an advantage, because the country is able to offer
1 See:B.Mucha-Leszko,M.Kąkol,AnalizahandlutowaramiUniiEuropejskiejwlatach1995–2008,[in:]B.Mucha-Leszko(Ed.),Pozycja Unii Europejskiej w handlu międzynarodowym,Wydaw-nictwoUMCS,Lublin2009,p.42.
48 PawełPasierbiak
productsoninternationalmarkets,whichareinhighdemandandwhicharegenerallysoldathigherprices,thusaffectingthegrowthofcorporateprofitability.Inthe1980sanexampleofsuchacountrywasJapan.AftertheSecondWorldWartheeconomicstructureofthecountrywasoutdated,anditsexportoffercontainedmainlylabour-intensiveproducts.TechnologicalprogresswhichwasestablishedasabaseofeconomicgrowthenabledJapantobecometheworld’stechnologicalleader.Japanese products started to be perceived as products of high quality with hightechnologycontent,yetofferedatareasonableprice.
ThemainobjectiveofthisstudyistoanalysetheimportanceoftechnologicallyadvancedproductsintheJapaneseforeigntrade.IndicationoftrendsinthisregardwilldetermineJapan’scurrentpositionandalsospecifiesthedirectionofchangeintowhichtheJapaneseeconomyisevolving.Thebasicresearchperiodis2000–2010,butdependingon theavailabilityof statisticaldata, thisperiodmaybe longerorshorter.Inordertoachievethepurposeofthearticle,analytical-descriptiveresearchmethodswereused.ThearticlewasbasedmainlyonprimarysourcesofinformationintheformofOECDandtheWorldBank’sstatisticaldatabases.
2. Technological maturity of Japan
JapanisacountrythatintheperiodaftertheSecondWorldWarwaspromotedfromthepositionofadevelopingcountryintooneofthemostdevelopedcountries.Thebasisofthispromotionwasthetechnicalandtechnologicalprogress,whichinthiscountry took place in a relatively short time.2A skillful use of the opportunitieswhichappearedintheinternationalenvironmentbutalsoconsistentimplementationofpoliciestopromotetechnologicaldevelopmentandbehaviourofinnovativefirmsinlittlemorethantwentyyearscausedJapantocatchupwithtechnologicalleaders,suchas theUnitedStatesandsomeEuropeancountries.3Thepreviouslyexistingtechnologicalgapwasoffset, andJapanhaschanged itspositionofa technologyimitatorintoitscreator.
Japanisacountrywhichformanyyearsallocatedarelativelybigpartoftheirfunds for research and development (R&D). Throughout the postwar period theshare of such expenses in relation toGDPwas increasing, but at the turn of thecenturyitexceeded3%.In2008theratewas3.4%,whichgaveJapanthethirdplaceamongtheOECDcountriesallocatingtherelativelybiggestamountsofresourcesfor research and development.4 The following year, the share decreased slightly(3.36%),but itwasconsiderablyhigher than theaverage forallOECDcountries
2 Moreontheproblemsee,e.g.,P.Pasierbiak,Miejsce Unii Europejskiej w zagranicznej ekspansji gospodarczej Japonii,BiuletynEuropejski1998,WydawnictwoUMCS,Lublin2008,pp.46–48.
3 See, e.g., H. Patrick, Japanese High Technology Industrial Policy in Comparative Context, WorkingPaperNo.1,GraduateSchoolofBusiness,ColumbiaBusinessSchool,1986,p.33.
4 OECD Science, Technology and Industry Outlook 2010,OECDPublishing,Paris2010,p.196.
TechnologicalintensityofJapanesemerchandisetrade 49
(2.4%),theUSA(2.9%)orforEU-27(2.4%).5Itisworthnotingthattheabsolutevalueofdisbursedfundsrosesteadilyuntil2008(148.7billion).6Thefollowingyear,asaresultoftheglobaleconomicslowdown,spendingonR&DinJapan,asinothercountries,declined.In2009itamountedto137.9billionUSD.7ButonehastokeepinmindthatanabsolutevalueoftheresourcesspentonR&Dinvestmentisnotadeterminantofthetechnologicallevelreachedbythecountry.Therearemanyotherindicatorsthatcanbeusedtodescribethecountry’sposition,forexample,inscienceand innovation,whichaffectwidelyunderstood technology.Figure1summarisesthemostimportantmeasuresofthecurrentpositionofJapaninthisregard.
GERD as % of GDP
BERD as % of GDP
Industry financed GERD as % GDP
Triadic patents per million population
Scientific articles per million population
% of firms with new-to-market product innovations (as a % of
all firms)% of firms undertaking non-
technological innovation (as a % of all firms)
% of firms collaborating (as a % of all firms)
Patents with foreignco-inventors
% of GERDfinanced by abroad
Researchers per thousandtotal employment
Science & Engineering degrees as % of all new degrees
HRST occupations as % of total employment
Japan Average
Attention:GERD–GrossDomesticExpenditureonR&D;BERD–BusinessEnterpriseExpenditureonR&D;HRST–HumanResourcesforScienceandTechnology;GDP–GrossDomesticProduct.
Figure 1.ScienceandInnovationprofileofJapanSource:OECDScience,TechnologyandIndustryOutlook2010,OECDPublishing,Paris2010,p.196.
AnanalysisofthedatapresentedinFigure1showsthatthesituationofJapanisthemostadvantageousinsuchareasas“triadicpatents,industryfinancedGERDas%ofGDP,BERDas%ofGDP”and“GERDasa%ofGDP”aswellas“%offirmsundertakingnon-technologicalinnovation”.Thevalueoftheseindexesis
5 Science and Technology: Key Tables from OECD,OECD2012(accessed:18.05.2012).6 Main Science and Technology Indicators,Volume2011/1,OECDPublishing,Paris2011,p.24.7 Ibidem.
50 PawełPasierbiak
considerablyhigherthantheaveragefortheOECD.Atthesametime,itisworthpointingoutthatinsomeareasJapanhasstillalottodoinordertocatchupwithothereconomies.Forexample,inJapanthereisvirtuallynoexpenditureforR&Dbyforeigncapital.8ThissituationisaconsequenceofalimitedcommitmentofforeigndirectinvestorsontheJapanesemarket.Thelackofforeigninvestmentalsoresultsinpoorperformanceinpatentingactivityinwhichonecooperatingpartyisaforeignpartner.Inthatcase,thecomparisonofJapantotheOECDaveragefallsinfavourofthelatter.
On thebasisof thisgeneraloverviewof the technological situationof Japan,itcanbesaidthatJapanhasatechnologicallyadvancedeconomy,whosestructureallowsfortheproductionofgoodswithhightechnologicalintensity.Theirroleintheforeigntradeofthecountrywillbepresentedinsubsequentpartsofthestudy.
3. Japan’s trade in high technology goods
Japan’sforeigntradeturnoverintheperiodbetween2000and2010showedlargefluctuations invalue.Themain reason for the changewas the state of theworldeconomy and the country’s internal situation. In 2000, Japan’s total export valueamountedto479.2billionUSD,inthenextyearitreducedto402.6billionUSD.9 ThiswasaresultoftheglobaleconomicslowdowncausedbyaburstingspeculativebubbleontheITmarket.Majorworldeconomieshavereducedthepaceofitsgrowth,andsomehaveevenexperiencednegativeGDPgrowth.Insubsequentyears,exportsofJapanesegoodsincreased,butin2009itunderwentasharpcollapse.Incomparisontothepreviousyear,thevalueofexportsfromJapanfellby25.7%(to580.7billionUSD)andimportsby27.6%(552billionUSD).Thesharpdeclineinexternaldemandtookplacebecauseoftheglobalfinancialcrisis,bywhichJapanhasbeenhithardasacountrywhichbaseditsgrowthonexports.Duetothefact that thestructureofJapaneseexportswasdominatedbymedium-highandhightechnologygoods,theconjuncture of the country deteriorated because of the decline in exports of thecountry.10In2010,Japan’sexportswidenedto769.8billion,whichalmostcorrespondstoitsvaluebeforethecrisis(2008).Importsamountedto694.1billion,toaccountforanearly70billionUSDlowerlevelthanin2008.
Asalreadymentioned,theJapaneseforeigntradestructure(especiallyexports)inafairlylargeextentrestsonthegoods/sectorswithahighdegreeoftechnological
8 In2009only0.52%oftheprivatesectorexpensesforR&Dwasfinancedbyforeigncapital.Incomparison,inPolanditwas4.46%andinAustriaasmuchas23.34%.OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2011,Paris2011,p.92.
9 OECDDatabase:International Trade by Commodity Statistics,SITCRev.3,OECDiLibrary(accessed:19.05.2012).
10 Highandmedium-hightechnologygoodsareparticularlysensitivetocyclicalchangesofeco-nomicconjuncture.See:OECD Economic Surveys: Japan 2009,OECD,Paris2009,p.25.
TechnologicalintensityofJapanesemerchandisetrade 51
intensity.11However,analysingthechangesinthisrespect,wecanseesomenegativetrends.Taking intoaccount the sectoral approach,onemaynote that in1994 thestructureofJapaneseexportsofmanufactureswasdominatedbyproducts fromagroup of medium-high technology industries (with 51.1% share), followed by ahigh-technologygroup(31.2%),medium-lowtechnologyindustries(12.4%)andthelowtechnologyones(5.4%).12Insubsequentyears,thechangesincludedadecreaseintheshareofhightechnologygroup(to28.9%in2003),medium-lowtechnologyindustries(11.8%),low-technology(5.1%)andgrowthofamedium-hightechnologygroup (to 54.2% in 2003). The share of goods from the industries of high andmedium-hightechnologywasmorethan80%oftotalexportsofprocessedgoods.IfoneanalysesthechangeinthesegroupsinJapan’sexportsagainstthebackgroundofsimilarchangesinotherOECDeconomies,itcanbenotedthatinJapantheaverageannualgrowth rateofexportsofhighandmedium-high technology in theperiodbetween 1996 and 2005was the lowest ofOECD countries.13This resulted in adeclineofJapan’stotalexportsofgoodsfromtheOECDgroupofhighandmedium--hightechnologyby3.3percentagepoints–to11.8%in2005,thehighestfallamongOECDcountriesrecordedintheperiodbetween1996and2005.
Theconclusionsdrewfrom thesectoralapproach tochanges in technologicalintensityofJapaneseexportsarealsoconfirmedbytheproductapproach.Whatismore, the tendency to fall in the share in the exports of processed productswascharacteristicofnotonlytheJapaneseeconomy,butalsooftheUnitedStates,theEuropeanUnionandevenworld-wideexport.AgraphicalillustrationofthisproblemispresentedinFigure2.
ThedatainFigure2clearlyindicatetheglobaltrendofadeclineintheshareof high technology products in the exports of processed goods of major worldeconomies. In2000–2010 themostaffectedcountrieswere theUnitedStatesandJapan.However,bothcountrieshaveahighersharethanaveragefortheworldandfortheEuropeanUnion.Thechangesinthevalueoftheexportsofhightechnologygoodsin2000–2010arepresentedinTable1.
11 Twomainapproachesareusedto identify technologyintensity: thesectoralandtheproductapproach.ThesectoralapproachconsidersthetechnologicalintensityofsectorsexpressedasR&Dex-penditure/valueaddedandclassifiesthesectorsashigh,mediumorlowtechnologyaccordingtotheob-tainedscore.High-technologyproductgroupsaredefinedaccordingtotheR&DintensityofproductsfollowingtheconceptsdevelopedbytheOECD–R&Dexpenditure/totalsales.Thesecanbeclassifiedinthefollowingninegroups:aerospace,computers-officemachines,electronics-telecommunications,pharmacy,scientificinstruments,electricalmachinery,chemistry,nonelectricalmachineryandarma-ment.Formoredetailssee:Science, Technology and Innovation in Europe. 2012 Edition,PublicationsOfficeoftheEuropeanUnion,Luxembourg2012,pp.136–137.
12 OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2005, OECDPublishing, Paris 2005, pp.207–208.
13 Forthefirstgroupitwas2%andfortwogroupstogether3.7%.See:OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2007,OECDPublishing,Paris2007,p.215.
52 PawełPasierbiak
0,0
10,0
20,0
30,0
40,0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Shar
e, in
%
World European Union United States Japan
Attention:High-technologyexportsareproductswithhighR&Dintensity,suchasinaerospace,com-puters,pharmaceuticals,scientificinstruments,andelectricalmachinery.
Figure 2. HightechnologyexportsasapercentofmanufacturedexportsofJapan,theEU,theUSAandtheWorld
Source: author’s own work based onWorld Bank’s Database, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/TX.VAL.TECH.MF.ZS/countries(accessed:20.05.2012).
Table 1. Valueofhightechnologyexportsbetween2000and2010,inbillionUSD
Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
World 116.4 1053.4 1069.9 1192.9 1432.2 1588.8 1825.3 1766.8 1840.8 1572.1 –
EU 390.3 386.2 385.3 421.4 499.9 552.0 624.6 554.3 581.9 511.1 574.3
USA 197.5 176.2 162.1 160.3 176.3 190.7 219.0 218.1 220.9 132.4 145.5
Japan 128.9 99.5 95.9 107.1 126.2 125.4 129.2 117.9 119.9 95.2 122.0
Source: author’s own work based onWorld Bank’s Database, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/TX.VAL.TECH.MF.ZS/countries(accessed:20.05.2012).
23.2
−22.8
–3.6
11.717.9
–0.6
3.0
–8.8
1.7
–20.6
28.3
−30,0%
−20,0%
−10,0%
0,0%
10,0%
20,0%
30,0%
40,0%
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Figure 3. ChangesinhightechnologyexportsinJapan,y-o-yin%
Source:author’sownpreparationbasedonWorldBank’sDatabase,http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/TX.VAL.TECH.MF.ZS/countries(accessed:20.05.2012).
TechnologicalintensityofJapanesemerchandisetrade 53
Accordingtothedata,allthelistedeconomiesshowedalargevariationinrelationtothevalueofexportsofhightechnologyproducts.ShortlyafterthecollapseoftheITmarketintheUnitedStatesattheturnofthecentury,thevalueofexportsdeclinedinalltheanalysedcountries.Insubsequentyearstherewasatrendofgrowing,butthecollapseofglobaltrade,whichtookplacein2009,wasreflectedalsointhefieldofhightechnologytrade.TheillustrationofthechangesthathaveoccurredinthisareafortheJapaneseexportisinFigure3.
According to the data gathered in Figure 3, in 2000–2010 there weremajorchangesinthedynamicsofexportsofhightechnologyproducts.First,therewasalargevariationintheoccurrence,whichconsistsofafive-folddecreaseinthevalueofexportsandsix-foldgrowth,andsecond,thedynamicsofchangewashighatthebeginningandendof theperiod.Analysing thesechangesandkeeping inmindadecliningshareofexportsofhightechnologyproductsintotalJapaneseexports,oneneedstonotethatthenegativedevelopmentalsotookplaceinalmosteverygroupofhightechnologyproducts.ThetrendsinthisareaareillustratedbythedatainTable2.
Table 2. TradebalanceandexportmarketshareofJapaninhigh-technologyexports,inmillionUSDand%
IndustryTradebalance[millionUSD] Exportmarket share[%]2003 2006 2009 2003 2006 2009
Aerospaceindustry –4501.0 –5115.0 –4482.4 1.5 1.5 1.6Electronicindustry 40058.4 38900.1 23416.6 11.1 8.2 6.8Officemachinery andcomputerindustry –47.1 –2249.9 –1595.9 6.4 4.6 3.9Pharmaceuticalindustry –3239.7 –5244.4 –10863.0 1.9 1.4 1.1Instrumentsindustry 11224.6 11548.5 10238.5 11.3 9.4 7.1
Source:author’sownworkbasedonMainScienceandTechnologyIndicators,Volume2011/1,OECD,Paris2011,pp.95–99.
Based on the information contained in Table 2, one can say that Japan’scompetitivenessasacountryexportinghightechnologygoodsisgettingsmaller.Itisevidencedbytheparticipationratesofthecountryinworldexportsoftheseproducts.Outofthefivegroupsofproductsspecifiedinthetable,only“aerospaceindustry”increaseditsshare,butitwasamodestincreasefrom1.5%(2003)to1.6%(2009).Atthesametime,itshouldbenotedthatthebalanceoftradeinthisgroupofgoodswasnegative.Theshareofallothercommoditygroupsalsoshoweddecreases,withthe largest in the“electronic industry”(from11.1%to6.8%)andthe“instrumentindustry”(from11.3to7.1%).TheanalysisofthedatafromTable2clearlyindicatesworseandworseachievementsofJapaneseexports,which is reflectedeither inadecliningtradesurplus(electronicindustry,instrumentsindustry,officemachineryandcomputerindustry),orinagrowingtradedeficit(pharmaceuticalindustry).This
54 PawełPasierbiak
trendcanbeconsideredasapermanentfeatureoftheJapanesetradeingoodsofhightechnologyintermsoftheproductapproach.
Tosomeextent, this trendisconfirmedbydevelopmentsofJapanese tradeinICTgoods.Figure4showsdataillustratingtheimport,exportandtradebalanceofJapanwiththeworldinthefieldofICTproductssince1999.Afterafallinexportsand imports in 2001, the next year saw a faster growth in exports than imports,whichmeantthatby2004Japan’stradebalanceroseto38.4billionUSDsurplus.However,since2005,importsincreasedsteadily,whileexportsshowedfluctuations,withtheoverwhelmingtendencyforitsdecrease.Thecriticalyearwastheyearofthecollapseoftheworldtrade(2009),whenbothexportsandimportsofJapanfellsharply, causing a reductionof a country’s surplus to its lowest level since1999 (7.4billion).Themainreasonsforthesenegativechangeswere:
reduction of the surplus in the groupof computers and peripheral equipment –(from48.8billionin1999to7.4billionin2009);exchangesurpluses in thefieldofcommunicationsequipment (10.3billion in –1999)intodeficit(–1.5billionin2003and–10.6billionin2009);declineinthesurplusinthegroupofelectroniccomponentsfrom13.2billionto –1.8billionUSD.
93.0
108.
8
82.0
82.9 91
.4
104.
3
100.
8
103.
1
94.0
92.5
70.2
44.2
61.5
53.1
50.0 55
.6
66.0 69
.5
71.7
71.3 73.8
62.7
48.8
47.3
28.8 32
.9 35.8 38.4
31.3
31.4
22.7
18.7
7.4
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Exports Imports Balance
Figure 4. JapanesetradeinICTproducts1999–2009,inbillionUSD
Source:author’sownworkbasedonOECDITCSDatabase,Dataset:HarmonisedSystem1996:ICTGoods(accessed:20.05.2012).
Ifonealsotakesadditionallyintoaccountthechangeinthecommoditystructureofexports (vide Figure5), i.e., thegrowing importanceofelectroniccomponentsgroup and a decline in the importance of communications equipment group, thechangesdoappearseriousandpermanent.
TechnologicalintensityofJapanesemerchandisetrade 55
29.0 22.710.1
7.1 3.4
8.6
17.518.3
16.3
42.1
43.0
55.8
4.312.5 9.2
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
2000 2005 2009
Exports of ICT productsMiscallaneous
Electronic componentsConsumer electronic equipmentCommunication equipment
Computers and peripheral equipment
44.3 39.628.2
7.94.4
16.5
10.913.3 15.3
33.4
32.5 31.9
3.510.1 8.1
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
2000 2005 2009
Imports of ICT products
Figure 5. ProductbreakdownofJapaneseICTproductsexportsandimports,in%
Source:author’sownpreparationbasedonOECDITCSDatabase,Dataset:HarmonisedSystem1996:ICTGoods(accessed:20.05.2012).
The changes visible in Figure 5 are not surprising if one takes into accountgeographical breakdownof Japanese turnovers of ICTproducts. Figure 6 clearlyindicatesthedirectionofchangeinthisrespect.TheshareofdevelopedcountriesinJapaneseexportsfallsbut,atthesametime,theshareofAsiandevelopingcountries(China,ASEANandAsianNIEs)showsatendencytogrowth.
16.4
13.6
16.4
11.2
14.6
11.3
6.8
5.6
18.6
22.3
35.1
45.4
14.9
16.4
17.7
16.5
33.0
35.1
24.7
21.9
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
2007
2010
2007
2010
Expo
rtsIm
ports
USA EU China ASEAN Asia NIEs
Attention:Inthecaseofimportsasumofsharesexceeds100%becausebothASEANandAsiaNIEsgroupsincludeJapanesetradeflowswithSingapore.
Figure 6. GeographicalbreakdownofJapaneseICTproductsexportsandimports2007–2010,in%
Source:author’sownworkbasedon:2009JETROWhitePaperonInternationalTradeandForeignDirectInvestment,GlobalStrategyforJapaneseCompanies:EnvironmentasaNewGrowthEngine,JETRO,Tokyo2009,pp.241–242;2010JETROGlobalTradeandInvestmentReport,AGlobalStrategyforJapaneseCompaniestoOpenNewFrontiersinOverseasMarkets,JETRO,Tokyo2010,pp.135–136;2011JETROGlobalTradeandInvestmentReport, InternationalBusinessasaCatalystforJapan’sReconstruction,JETRO,Tokyo2011,pp.118–119.
56 PawełPasierbiak
Thechanges inexports,however, areonlyminorcomparedwith thechangesobservedinthefieldofimports.WithinjustfouryearsthecombinedshareoftheUSandtheEUdecreasedby6.4percentagepoints,whiletheshareofChinaaloneincreasedby10.3points. It is alsoworthnotingadiminishing importanceof theJapanesesupplymarkets,suchasASEANandthenewlyindustrialisedeconomiesofAsia.Dynamicsofchanges in theICTtrade ishigh,soonecanexpectfurthermodification of the geographical structure of Japanese exports and imports. TheAsianregion(mostlydevelopingcountries)hasbecomethefactoryoftheworld,soICTproductsareincreasinglyproducedintheselocations.ThiswillmeanafuturedeclineintheimportanceofJapanasamanufacturerofsuchgoods;therefore,thiswillalsoreducetheimportanceofthecountryinworldexports,whileincreaseinimports.
4. Conclusions
JapanisacountrythataftertheSecondWorldWarreachedahighleveloftechnologicaldevelopment.Offeringoninternationalmarketstechnicallyadvancedproductshasbecome the source of the country’s economic success. In the first decade of thetwenty-first century the technological position of the country still remains high;however, somemeasures describing the situation differs from those of themostindustrialisedcountries(OECD).Whatseemsofparticularimportanceistodirectlarge amounts on research and development, which positions Japan among thehighestintheworld.Ontheotherhand,therelativelyhighaversiontoforeigncapitalresults in low ratesof technologicaldevelopment in theareaof cooperationwithforeignsubjects.
TheanalysisofJapan’sforeigntradedevelopmentintermsofitstechnologicalintensity in 2000–2010 allows formulating some conclusions. First, the share ofexportsofhightechnologyproductsintotalexportsofJapanhasbeendecreasing.Second,accordingtothesectoralapproach,itcanbearguedthatthereisafall inJapan’sshareinexportsofgoodsproducedbythesectorsofhightechnologyandgrowthinsectorsofmedium-hightechnologies.Third,theanalysisintermsoftheproductsapproachconfirmsthenegativetrendsintheexportsofJapan–inallthesubgroupsunderconsiderationtradesurpluseswerereducedanddeficitsdeepened.Fourth,theanalysisoftradeinICTproductsconfirmstheaforementionedtrendofworseningthesituationofJapan.Thesurplusisstillmaintainedbutsince2004ithasstartedtoshrink.Thisisduetomovementoftheproductioncentrestolocationsthatoffermorefavourableconditions(includinglowercostsamongothers).
Theconclusionsfromtheanalysishaveaclearlynegativeconnotation.Butoneshouldbearinmindthatnowadays,becauseoftheglobalisationoftheenterprises’valuechain,productionprocessesofvaryingcomplexitycanbelocatedindifferentcountries. Therefore, even a high share in exports of high technology does notnecessarilyreflectthecomplex,sophisticatedindustrialactivityofcountries.Itcan
TechnologicalintensityofJapanesemerchandisetrade 57
beconcludedthatthedecreaseinhightechnologyproductsintheexportsofJapandoesnotmeanadropintheleveloftechnologicaldevelopmentofthecountry.
references
2009JETROWhitePaperonInternationalTradeandForeignDirectInvestment,Global Strategy for Japanese Companies: Environment as a New Growth Engine,JETRO,Tokyo2009.
2010JETROGlobalTradeandInvestmentReport,A Global Strategy for Japanese Companies to Open New Frontiers in Overseas Markets,JETRO,Tokyo2010.
2011JETROGlobalTradeandInvestmentReport,International Business as a Catalyst for Japan’s Reconstruction,JETRO,Tokyo2011.
Main Science and Technology Indicators,Volume2011/1,OECDPublishing,Paris2011.Mucha-LeszkoB.,KąkolM.,AnalizahandlutowaramiUniiEuropejskiejwlatach1995–2008,[in:]
B.Mucha-Leszko(Ed.),Pozycja Unii Europejskiej w handlu międzynarodowym,WydawnictwoUMCS,Lublin2009.
OECDDatabase,International Trade by Commodity Statistics,STCRev.3,OECDiLibrary(accessed:15.05.2012).
OECD Economic Surveys: Japan 2009,OECD,Paris2009.OECDITCSDatabase,Dataset:HarmonisedSystem1996:ICTGoods(accessed:20.05.2012).OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2005,OECDPublishing,Paris2005.OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2007,OECDPublishing,Paris2007.OECD Science, Technology and Industry Outlook 2010,OECDPublishing,Paris2010.OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2011,OECDPublishing,Paris2011.Pasierbiak P.,Miejsce Unii Europejskiej w zagranicznej ekspansji gospodarczej Japonii, Biuletyn
Europejski1998,WydawnictwoUMCS,Lublin2008.PatrickH.,Japanese High Technology Industrial Policy in Comparative Context,WorkingPaperNo.1,
GraduateSchoolofBusiness,ColumbiaBusinessSchool,1986.Science and Technology: Key Tables from OECD,OECD2012(accessed:18.05.2012).Science, Technology and Innovation in Europe. 2012 Edition, PublicationsOffice of the European
Union,Luxembourg2012,pp.136–137.World Bank’s Database, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/TX.VAL.TECH.MF.ZS/ countries (ac-
cessed:20.05.2012).
58 PawełPasierbiak
INTENSYWNOść TECHNOlOGICZNA JAPOńSKIEGO HANDlU TOWAROWEGO
Streszczenie:Japoniajestpostrzeganajakokraj,którydziękirozwojowitechnologicznemuosiągnąłwysokąpozycjęwmiędzynarodowympodzialepracy.Szczególniewyraźniezauwa-żalnestało się topookresiekryzysów lat70. ipoczątku80.XXw.,kiedyokazałosię, iżJaponianarynkachmiędzynarodowychoferujezsukcesamiproduktywysokichtechnologii,audział tychproduktówweksporciekrajuzajmujeważnemiejsce.WpierwszejdekadzieXXIw.sytuacjazmieniłasięznacząco.Japonia,mimowciążwysokiejpozycjitechnologicz-nej,traciudziaływświatowychprzepływachdóbrwysokichtechnologii(m.in.ICT),arolatego rodzaju produktóww całkowitych strumieniach eksportu i importu kraju szybko sięzmniejsza.Negatywnetendencjedająsięzauważyćwprzypadkuujęciasektorowego(sektorwysokich,średniowysokich,średnioniskichiniskichtechnologii),jakrównieżproduktowe-go(produktywwysokiejintensywnościwydatkównaB+R).
Słowa kluczowe: Japonia, handel zagraniczny, technologia, międzynarodowe relacje handlowe.