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Initial Emergency Response to High-Rise Fire Alarm RoomsInitial Emergency Response 8 The Bellevue...
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Initial Emergency Response 1
Running head: INITIAL EMERGENCY RESPONSE TO HIGH-RISE FIRE ALARM
Initial Emergency Response to High-Rise Fire Alarm Rooms
Bruce Kroon
Bellevue Fire Department
Bellevue, Washington
Appendix G Not Included. Please visit the Learning Resource Center on the Web at http://www.lrc.dhs.gov/ to learn how to obtain this report in its entirety through Interlibrary Loan.
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CERTIFICATION STATEMENT
I hereby certify that this paper constitutes my own project, that where the language of others is
set forth, quotation marks so indicate, and the appropriate credit is given where I have used the
language, ideas, expressions, or writing of another.
Signed: _____________________________________
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Abstract
From 1996 to 2008 the Bellevue Fire Department had seen a significant increase in the number
of high-rise buildings in its response area and had also witnessed a substantial increase in the
number of firefighters within its ranks. Bellevue Fire Department personnel were experiencing
difficulty in the rapid assessment of high-rise building systems features upon arrival and in the
early phases of incident assessment. This Applied Research Project created a job aid for use in
the early phases of high-rise incident assessment by firefighters and command officers. Action
research, combined with a literature review, personal interviews, a questionnaire and field-test of
a job aid were used to answer the following questions: What high-rise building information is
immediately the most useful to first-responding firefighters once at the scene? What type of
high-rise building systems identification methods are employed by other selected fire
departments? What are the duties of first-responding units to high-rise buildings in other selected
fire departments? What high-rise building systems identification process can be employed in the
City of Bellevue? The recommendations from this research project include: incorporating high-
rise walk-throughs as part of the Monthly Drill Check Sheet issued by the Training Division,
insure that all building systems are labeled per IFC and IBC guidelines, creating elevator job aids
for all high-rise elevators in the City of Bellevue, creating a job aid for other building systems
such as alarm panel or fire pumps.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Certification Statement……………………………………………………………………..……. 2
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….……….. 3
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………….....…4
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………...…. 6
Background and Significance……………………………………………………………….…….7
Literature Review……………………………………………………………………………...…10
Procedures………………………………………………………………………………….…….19
Results……………………………………………………………………………………….…...24
Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………..……29
Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………..…36
References……………………………………………………………………………………..…38
Appendix A: IFSTA High-Rise Committee Members Receiving Questionnaire…………….….41
Appendix B: High-Rise Questionnaire…………………………………………...…………..….42
Appendix C: City Center II Elevator Operations Job Aid…………………………….………....44
Appendix D: Job Aid Randomization Schedule……………………………………………...….45
Appendix E: Job Aid Participant Instructions…………………...…………………………...….46
Appendix F: Questionnaire Responses…………………………………………………...……...47
Appendix G: Job Aid Test Evaluation Sheet……………………………………………....….…48
Appendix H: Job Aid Test Results………………………………………………………………51
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LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
Table 1……………………………………………………………………………………….…33
Table 2………………………………………………………………………………………….34
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Initial Emergency Response to High-Rise Fire Alarm Rooms
INTRODUCTION
Within the past 12 years the Bellevue Fire Department (BFD) has seen a significant
increase in the number of high-rise buildings in its response area and has also witnessed a
substantial increase in the number of firefighters within its ranks. In 1996, when this author
joined the BFD, there were 22 high-rise buildings in Bellevue. By 2008 there were 36 high-rises
built and occupied, a 64% increase, with an additional 14 high-rises to be occupied by 2010 (K.
Carlson, personal communication, January 8, 2009). During this same time, the number of
Bellevue firefighters has increased from 180 in 1996 to 217 in 2008. Eighty-one Bellevue
firefighters, or 37% of the work force, were hired after January, 1999 and have ten, or less, years
experience on the job. Twelve years ago, with fewer high-rise buildings and less firefighters to
train, it was possible to expect that most BFD firefighters would be familiar with the high-rises
they responded to in Bellevue. This is not the case today.
The problem is that the City of Bellevue Fire Department personnel are experiencing
difficulty in the rapid assessment of high-rise building systems features upon arrival and in the
early phases of incident assessment. The purpose of this Applied Research Project (ARP) is to
create a job aid for use in the early phases of high-rise incident assessment by firefighters and
command officers.
Action research, combined with a literature review, personal interviews, feedback from
the International Fire Service Training Association (IFSTA) High-Rise Committee and a field-
test of a job aid for elevator operations will be employed to answer the following questions:
What high-rise building information is immediately the most useful to first-responding
firefighters once at the scene? What type of high-rise building systems identification methods are
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employed by other selected fire departments? What are the duties of first-responding units to
high-rise buildings in other selected fire departments? What high-rise building systems
identification process can be employed in the City of Bellevue?
BACKGROUND AND SIGNIFCANCE
The City of Bellevue was incorporated in 1953 with an initial population of 5,950 and by
2008 the population had grown to over 120,000. After World War II, Bellevue began to grow as
people moved east, from Seattle, into what was a once-sleepy suburb. In just 55 years, Bellevue
has become the fifth largest city in the State of Washington and is the metropolitan hub for
business and transportation in the area (City of Bellevue, 2009). Bellevue is a relatively young
city, and with the exception of some residential neighborhoods, a majority of the structures,
including most commercial, are less than 30 years old (K. Carlson, personal communication,
October 12, 2008). The BFD Fire Prevention Division has been very proactive in making sure
that all applicable fire codes have been met in new construction, making Bellevue a very fire-
safe city.
This background is important because although the buildings are newer and safer, the
expansive growth of all structures, and especially high-rise buildings, has made it difficult for
firefighters to be as familiar with their buildings as they once were, making it difficult to assess
the situation in the event of a fire or other emergency. In addition to the sheer number of
buildings, the complexity of the buildings systems such as heating, ventilation and air
conditioning (HVAC), elevators and fire protection and detection systems have also increased,
making it even more difficult for firefighters to know their buildings. What was once a simple
fire alarm panel in the lobby of a building is now an entire fire command center (FCC) (McGrail,
2007, p. 27).
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The Bellevue Fire Department was created in 1965 and for many years its firefighters
fought fires mainly in wood frame residences, three-story apartment homes and in commercial
businesses of two-stories or less (J. Franco, personal communication, January 10, 2009). As the
population of Bellevue grew, so did its fire department. Beginning with a force of 16 personnel
in 1965, the department had grown to 217 sworn members in 2008. In 2008 the BFD responded
to 17,021 calls for service of which 12,936 (76%) were emergency medical service (EMS)
related and 4,085 (24%) were fire related (W. Lie, personal communication, January 6, 2009).
The BFD Training Division produces a comprehensive training program, delivered to firefighters
through the Monthly Training Bulletin. Yet with all the training received, the number of actual
emergency fire responses is relatively few making it difficult for newer members to get a lot of
on-the-job experience with fires. The number of high-rise incidents firefighters respond to is
even fewer.
The BFD responded to approximately 250 high-rise alarms in 2008 most of which (240)
were false alarms (W. Lie, personal communication, January 6, 2009). Of the ten fires reported
in high-rise buildings all but one was the result of burnt food in a stove or microwave and all
were confined to the source of origin. The rapid growth of the department coupled with the
retirement of many seasoned members has created a gap in the level of firefighting skills and
knowledge within the institution. A program designed to help aid first-arriving companies at
high-rises would significantly improve the effectiveness and safety of both firefighters and
citizens.
As compared to other cities such as San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York, Chicago or
Seattle, the construction of high-rise buildings in Bellevue is a relatively recent development.
The oldest high-rise building in Bellevue was built in 1968 (K. Carlson, personal
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communication, October 12, 2008). The high-rise buildings in Bellevue are of the lightweight,
core construction type which creates a number of additional problems not necessarily associated
with older, pre-World War II high-rise buildings (McGrail, 2007).
High-rise buildings are becoming a fact for firefighters all over the United States and
indeed around the world (Norman, 2005, p. 325). Their design, internal systems, height, large
area, water supply issues and high occupant load make fighting fires in high-rise buildings one of
the most unique and greatest challenges for today’s fire service (Terpak, 2002). A high-rise fire
has the potential to be a significant event for any fire department. In 1972 a fire in the Andraus
Building in Sao Paulo, Brazil engulfed the entire 31 story building and killed 16 people
(O’Hagan, 1974). Three firefighters were killed fighting fire on eight floors of the 38-story One
Meridian Plaza building fire in Philadelphia in 1991 (Norman, p. 330). In 2003, a fire on the
twelfth floor of the 37-story Cook County Administration Building in Chicago, Illinois, killed six
people and seriously injured several others (Lakamp, 2007, p. 7).
In 2005 the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) published a series of
recommendations on the collapse of the World Trade Center Towers (Quiter, 2008). The report
included 30 recommendations in 8 general groups. This is significant to this ARP in that the last
three groups (VI, VII and VIII) focus on improving emergency response, procedures, practices,
education and training (Quiter). This ARP is intended to help the Bellevue Fire Department
respond more effectively to the significant challenges presented by a high-rise fire.
This research project directly relates to the Strategies for Community Risk Reduction
(SCRR) curriculum by addressing the role of the executive fire officer in community risk
reduction, assessing community risk, and designing a draft plan for a local risk reduction
initiative as discussed in units 1, 2 and 3 of the SCRR student manual.
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This project will identify improvements that can be made to the City of Bellevue Fire
Department response procedure to high-rise incidents. The investigation will use the action
research method to develop job aids to supplement existing standard operating procedures used
at high-rise responses.
The possibility that firefighters may lack detailed knowledge of building systems for
every high-rise in the City of Bellevue has the potential to lead to firefighter and/or civilian
injuries or deaths in the event of a significant high-rise incident. The topic of this ARP directly
correlates to the third and fifth organizational objectives of the United States Fire
Administration’s (USFA) five-year operational objectives to “reduce the loss of life from fire of
firefighters” and “respond appropriately in a timely manner to emerging issues” (National Fire
Academy [NFA], 2005, chap. II-2).
LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review for this ARP began at the Learning Resource Center (LRC) at the
National Fire Academy (NFA) in Emmitsburg, Maryland in August 2008. Literature on high-
rise fire strategy and tactics as well as high-rise building systems management was collected
from existing ARPs, periodicals and text books found by the researcher and staff of the LRC.
Interviews were conducted with personnel from the Bellevue Fire Department to gather historical
data related to the fire department. Information was also gathered by the researcher from several
internet sites.
There are many definitions currently in use to define what constitutes a high-rise
building. The author found that a large number of entities, including the BFD, consider a
building to be a high-rise if it is in excess of 75 feet in height measured from the lowest level of
fire department access to the floor of the highest occupiable story (McGrail, 2007, p. 18;
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Staskey, 2004, p. 107; Quiter, 2008, ¶ 5; BFD, 2003, p. 2). Clark (1991) defines a high-rise as a
building whose roof is above the reach of a 100-foot aerial ladder and its topmost windows are
too high for effective penetration of outside streams (p. 333). Yet another definition of a high-
rise is “Any fire-resistive building exceeding the length of the available ladders – or buildings in
which all firefighting must be done from the interior because of lack of windows” (Norman,
2005, p. 326).
Over the years, as technology has improved, high-rise construction techniques have
changed. These changes have led to the classification of different “eras” of high-rises. Norman
(1991) and Terpak (2002) classify high-rises into two distinct eras: pre-World War II and those
built after World War II. McGrail (2007) states there are three and potentially four eras of high-
rise construction: late nineteenth and early twentieth century, pre-World War II, post-World War
II, and post-9/11. High-rises built before World War II are commonly referred to has
“heavyweight” buildings, often having 20-23 pounds per cubic foot of construction material,
while those built after World War II are known as “lightweight” high-rises with and average of
8-10 pounds per cubic foot of construction material (Terpak, 2002, p. 310).
There are at least four significant differences found between heavyweight and lightweight
high-rise buildings: core construction, curtain walls, HVAC systems and compartmentalization
(Terpak, 2002). Core construction, found in lightweight high-rises, is the concept of containing
all the building services, utilities, elevators, and stairs within a designated core area. This core is
often in the middle of the building, but can be at either end as well. Lightweight high-rises use
steel frame construction with an exterior skin of walls and windows mounted to the structural
steel of each floor. Heavyweight high-rises were often made of steel I-beams encased in
concrete making them much less prone to fire damage than lightweight high-rises, which tend to
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have a fire retardant sprayed on the steel members (Norman, 2005, p. 331). Heavyweight high-
rises typically do not have the HVAC systems found in today’s high-rises. HVAC systems create
self-enclosed environments and do not have windows that open directly to the outside.
Lightweight high-rises lack the compartmentalization found in older heavyweight high-
rises. Due to construction limitations, heavyweight high-rises relied on using natural light and
natural ventilation. The large, open areas found in newer lightweight high-rises are, for the most
part, nonexistent in heavyweight high-rises (McGrail, 2007, p. 25). Pre-World War II high-rises
are, from a firefighting perspective, considered to be excellent buildings because of their
relatively small floor areas and use of noncombustible materials. The compartmentalization,
available natural ventilation and lack of void spaces can make fighting fires in heavy-weight
buildings less of a challenge than in light-weight high-rises (K. Witt, personal communication,
November 10, 2008). The curtain walls in post-World War II buildings are often fastened to the
frame in such a way that gaps are found between the structural frame and curtain wall. If fire
stopping is not placed in this gap correctly, vertical fire extension will occur (p. 26).
Building systems information
Visible labeling is necessary in order to help responding firefighters locate critical
building systems (Reardon, 2005; S. Sexton, personal communication, January 7, 2009). The
International Fire Code (IFC) and International Building Code (IBC) require that a graphic
display annunciator panel be installed as part of a FCC in high-rise buildings (Reardon, p. 37).
Fire department connections (FDC) should be clearly marked with signs or painted a distinct
color and FCC doors should be clearly marked to allow easy access to the main building.
Adequate signage should be provided for standpipe hose connections and corridor and stairs
should be labeled with numbers to assist firefighters should they become disoriented (Reardon).
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There are numerous high-rises in Bellevue that lack adequate labeling on building
systems equipment (S. Sexton, personal communication, January 7, 2009). Sometimes the lack
of labeling is because signage was removed for painting or renovation and never re-installed.
Changing building codes have also had an impact on signage. What is now required to be
labeled may not have been required when the building was built. Building owners are sometimes
slow to make improvements to building systems, especially if there is a cost associated with the
required change.
The Henderson Fire Department (HFD), Nevada, utilizes a firefighter access plan (FAP),
developed by firefighters, to enable them to quickly familiarize themselves with each floor in a
complex structure (Lockwood, 2004). In order to avoid having multiple engine companies
looking at preplan books in the command center, HFD has placed FAPs in each stairwell for
responding firefighters to reference before they make access to each floor. The FAPs contain
valuable information such as standpipe locations and distances between them, room numbers,
elevators, places of refuge for firefighters, and a “you are here” feature (Lockwood). The FAP
ensures that firefighters have important building layout information they need before beginning
combat operations. An FAP posted on the stairwell walls relieves firefighters of having to carry,
and potentially lose, pre-fire maps.
Realizing that its high-rise standard operating procedure (SOP) had not kept pace with
the changing technology of high-rise building systems, the Charlotte Fire Department (CFD),
North Carolina, revised its high-rise procedure (Anderson, 1984). Although a dated article, the
CFD faced high-rise problems such as building design, HVAC, and elevator issues that are still
problematic today. It is interesting to note that responding CFD firefighters rely on information
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provided by building personnel for technical features of the building and the status of smoke
detector and sprinkler systems (Anderson).
Neither Orange County Fire Rescue nor North Las Vegas employs any type of building
system identification (J. Gaut, personal communication, January 6, 2009; B. Evans, personal
communication, January 6, 2009). Instead Orange County Fire relies on quarterly drills with
building representatives and fire personnel to familiarize themselves with building systems while
North Las Vegas does a walk-through of their high-rises once a month.
Of all the numerous building systems firefighters must have knowledge and expertise in
at a high-rise fire; elevators present the biggest danger to first-arriving firefighters (Terpak,
2002). Norman (2005), states that “Firefighters must recognize the use of elevators as a
necessary evil; something to be avoided where possible but used when necessary” (p. 341).
Elevators can be an extremely valuable tool for firefighters but they can quickly become a very
dangerous and potential deadly trap (McGrail, 2007, p. 81). In order to avoid the risk of injury or
death from fire while using elevators at a high-rise fire Lakamp (2007) states that 25 of 33
departments surveyed reported that, if they use high-rise elevators, they exit two floors below the
reported fire floor (p. 41). The BFD high-rise SOP does not encourage elevator use in high-rise
response prior to the establishment of Lobby Control (BFD, 2003). This SOP is currently under
review and may be revised to allow first-responding firefighters the ability to access elevators
sooner during high-rise responses (W. Merritt, personal communication, December 12, 2008).
The high-rise building systems identification process currently used by the BFD is
limited to pre-fire map books found on each responding unit and in a large binder, found in the
alarm room of most high-rise buildings. Pre-fire maps show very general locations of
standpipes, stairs, elevators and alarm panels, but have little, if any, information regarding the
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use of building systems such as “access to tactical elevator from alarm room” or “how to use
building enunciator panel”. The binders found in alarm rooms have detailed information about
each building but it takes time to flip through to find, and then decipher, information specific to
that building. Article 700, Section 4 [High Rise Tactics] of the BFD SOP manual does not give
specific information regarding the building systems for any high-rise in Bellevue (BFD, 2003).
First-in duties
The author found that first-in duties for high-rise events vary from department to
department. The BFD sends the same number of units regardless of the type of high-rise alarm
(BFD, 2003). The Seattle Fire Department routinely sends one engine and one ladder company
to high-rise alarms, where no secondary call or confirmation of fire has been reported (C.
Cordova, personal communications October 21, 2008). The Nashville Fire Department
differentiates response assignments depending if the high-rise call is an “alarm response” or a
“reported fire response” (NFD, 2007).
Lakamp (2007) concluded that there is no single protocol for either apparatus deployment
or initial assignment for a high-rise response in the United States. The type and number of
resources sent on a high-rise alarm varied greatly. The author found that of the 34 departments
responding to his survey, 19 sent four engines, 25 sent two trucks/ladders, 18 sent one heavy
rescue, 14 sent two chief officers, 17 sent one advanced life support (ALS) unit and no
department sent a basic life support (BLS) unit for a report of fire in a high-rise (p. 26). Of the
surveys returned Lakamp noted that 24 of the 34 fire departments automatically assigned the
first-arriving engine company to fire attack, while seven of the departments surveyed had the
first-arriving engine company assigned to a non-combat detail (p.29). The company responsible
assigned to Lobby Control varied greatly with six departments assigning the second-arriving
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engine company as Lobby Control (p. 30). The Bellevue Fire Department initially sends three
engines one ladder, one battalion chief and one Medical Services Officer – 17 personnel total –
on any high-rise alarm (BFD, 2003, p. 3).
In addition to determining the specific fire floor and location of the fire, gaining control
of the building’s systems such as: elevators, HVAC systems, public address systems and fire
pumps should be a top priority of any good high-rise strategic plan (Norman, 2005, p. 327).
Terpak (2002) states that the lobby command post should be established by one of the
first-arriving units. He also asserts that it’s important for first-in companies to determine and
verify the fire floor and to gain control of the building systems such as HVAC, elevators, fire
pumps and communications (p. 348).
Flagstaff, Arizona assigns the first-in company to obtain whatever information is
available in the lobby and proceed to the fire floor to initiate a fire attack (Staskey, 2004, p. 108).
The second-in engine company is assigned to water supply and rapid intervention company with
the third-in engine company assigned to fire attack with the first engine. The first-arriving truck
company is assigned to establish Lobby Control and Base (Staskey).
Philadelphia Fire Department (PHD) assigns the first-arriving engine company to proceed
to the fire and initiate suppression activities and leave the driver with the engine in order to take
a hydrant and prepare to supply the sprinkler and standpipe system (PFD, 2004). The second-
arriving engine company takes a hydrant and proceeds to assist the first-arriving engine
company. The third-arriving ladder company is assigned to establish Lobby Control.
Terpak (2002) suggests a protocol similar to Philadelphia’s by having the first-arriving
engine company wait for the first-arriving ladder company to accompany them to the fire floor
and initiate fire attack. The second-arriving engine and second-arriving ladder report to Lobby
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Command Post, if set up by a chief officer, and then assist the first-arriving companies with fire
attack.
The author acknowledges that staffing levels may also affect how fire departments assign
first-in duties but this variance was not researched as part of this ARP due to time constraints.
Job Aids
Job aids are convenient reference tools that provide information when people need it
(Frank, 1996, p. 99). Job aids are not new. People have relied on job aids since prehistoric times
when details of fire tending, skinning and cooking adorned cave walls (Rossett & Gautier-
Downes, 1991, p. 15). The use of job aids in the military is well established (p. 15). Job aids
can be developed in three to five times less than it takes to develop equivalent training programs
and jobs aids can diminish the need for training (p. 16). In fact, sometimes a job aid can be a
substitute for training (Frank, p. 99).
The difference between instruction and a job aid is that the purpose of instruction is for
the material to become part of the learner’s long term memory, to be called upon later for
instantaneous results (San Diego State University [SDSU], n.d.). Job aids are designed to help
you make decisions in an instant, when you need to make a sound decision as it happens. Job
aids can provide immediate information for the task at hand, while instruction involves
presentation, practice, and feedback pertaining to the information to be mastered (SDSU).
Job aids in high-rise alarm rooms can provide firefighters information in an easily
accessible format that they can look at when they need it. Pulling the key information out of a
thick manual just frustrates users whereas turning it into a job aid, for example, often solves this
problem and makes a task easier (Frank, 1996). This sentiment was clearly stated in an article by
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Ward (2003) “You don’t have time to review a 60-page high-rise manual at 0300 hours with fire
showing on the seventh floor” (p. 116).
Rossett & Gautier-Downes (1991) give the following criteria for when it is appropriate to
use a job aid:
1. When the performance is infrequent;
2. When the situation is complex, has multiple steps or has multiple attributes;
3. When the consequences of errors are high;
4. When performance depends on a large body of information
5. When there is little time or few resources to devote to training (p. 31)
Connelly (2007) suggests 15 tips for creating effective job aids. Some of these tips are to:
Perform a needs analysis, don’t reinvent the wheel, less is more, pictures and symbols are worth
a thousand words, create templates or standard forms, and keep them up to date. All of these
suggestions help to make a job aid both useful and easy to interpret.
Frank (1996) offers several recommendations regarding design and typeface. The design
basics include: Contrast; Repetition; Proximity; and Alignment (p. 3). Contrast is using large
and small, black and white, wide and narrow elements on the page. Repetition is repeating
illustrations and noticeable clues on different pages of a job aid. Proximity is visually grouping
related pieces so the page looks organized and the readers can see the relationship between
elements at a glance. Alignment is to line up the edges of the elements on a page so that,
whenever possible, everything on the page aligns with something else on the page (p. 9).
According to Frank (1996), there are three broad categories of type: serif, sans serif, and
script (p. 14). Most people find serif type easier to read because we have grown up reading it.
This ARP is written in Times New Roman, a serif-type font. Serifs are like small feet on the
Initial Emergency Response 19
bottom of letters. Sans serif type does not have the small feet on the bottom of the letters. Script
type looks like it is handwritten. The serifs at the bottom of each letter help to guide the eye
horizontally across the page (p. 15). Frank warns against using more than two types of typefaces
on any one page and suggests that the only effective combination is the use of a serif and sans
serif, using one for the main text and one for the titles and headings (p. 16).
PROCEDURES
Research Methodology
This ARP employs action research to help address the problem of rapid assessment of
high-rise building systems by first-arriving firefighters in the Bellevue Fire Department. The
procedures used in this research proposal included information gathered from the Internet,
interviews conducted with Bellevue Department personnel and a brief questionnaire that was
sent to selected members of the IFSTA high-rise committee. A job aid, to assist firefighters in
quickly processing information on the elevator panel in the alarm room of a high-rise, was
created and field-tested on 39 Bellevue firefighters.
Literature Review
The research for this ARP began at the LRC at the NFA in Emmitsburg, Maryland in
August of 2008. Information for this ARP was found in periodicals, text books, existing ARPs,
Internet sites, and personal interviews. The focus of the literature review was to find sources of
information on how others identify the use of high-rise building systems, discover how other fire
departments respond to high-rise alarms, and find out what type, if any, of job aid is currently
employed by other fire departments.
Interviews
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Ken Carlson, Fire Marshal, Bellevue Fire Department, gave important historical
background information on the development of high-rises in general as well as detailed
information on the development and construction of high-rises in the City of Bellevue (K.
Carlson, personal communication, October 12, 2008; January 8, 2009).
William Lie, EMS Data Analyst provided this researcher with detailed information
regarding data for run totals and information on high-rise responses for the BFD (W. Lie,
personal communication, January 6, 2009).
An interview with Steve Sexton, Lead Fire Prevention Officer provided background and
insight into the building systems of City Center II, a new 27-story high-rise scheduled for
occupancy in 2009 (S. Sexton, personal communication, January 7, 2009). The interview with
Sexton gave this researcher valuable information as to how the IFC and IBC impact the
construction of high-rise buildings and specifically on the building systems that firefighters may
interface with.
Questionnaire Population
A brief, three-question questionnaire was sent to 15 of the 21 members of the IFSTA
high-rise committee. The author believes that IFSTA is a well-known, and generally
acknowledged, authority on firefighting practices. The author further believes that the members
of the IFSTA high-rise committee have knowledge and expertise in the area of high-rises. The
names of committee members were provided to this researcher by Ed Kirtley, IFSTA Projects
Coordinator, Fire Protection Publications, Oklahoma State University. A list of IFSTA high-rise
committee members is contained in Appendix A. The 15 high-rise committee members chosen to
receive the questionnaire were done so based on the fact that they were directly involved in
either the operations or training of their fire department. Members of the IFSTA high-rise
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committee, not selected to receive the questionnaire, were typically employed with professional
organizations not directly affiliated with a specific fire department. The author wished to solicit
information from officials working directly with firefighters responding to high-rise incidents.
Of the 15 questionnaires sent, the author received information or made telephone contact with 13
members. The questionnaire was sent by U.S. mail to the 15 committee members, along with a
self-addressed, stamped envelope.
The questionnaire, as exhibited in Appendix B, consisted of three questions designed to
ascertain how the fire departments, of IFSTA high-rise committee members, approach the first
five minutes of a high-rise response. The author was trying to discover what these departments
did in the first 1-5 minutes at the scene and compare these answers to the way in which the BFD
responds to high-rise incidents. The author was confident that these professionals would be
likely to respond to the questionnaire because they had already demonstrated an interest in the
development of better high-rise tactics by committing themselves to the IFSTA high-rise
committee.
Job Aid
A job aid, exhibited in Appendix C, was created for use on the elevator panel of the City
Center II building, a new high-rise in Bellevue scheduled for occupancy 2009. The top portion
of the job aid contains a line drawing that shows the FCC, location and orientation of the elevator
panel, and elevator banks. Below the drawing is information about the buildings elevators that
may be of use to responding firefighters. Two fonts were used in the job aid. The major
headings used Times New Roman, a serif font. The body of job aid used Arial, a non-serif font.
Various sizes of the fonts, from 8 to 14, were used depending on their placement within the job
aid. The job aid was created on a Microsoft Word program.
Initial Emergency Response 22
The job aid was field-tested by 39 Bellevue firefighters on January 20, 21 and 22, 2009.
Participants were randomly selected based on the apparatus they were assigned to the day of the
test. Appendix D contains the randomization schedule. The author pre-assigned those
participants that would have use of the job aid and those that would not. The use of a job aid for
each participant was randomized and no preference was given to a participant based on length of
employment with the BFD, regular station assignment or previous knowledge of the building.
All participants were given the same information prior to the event. The test instructions are
contained in Appendix E. Participants were told not to discuss the test with other participants
until after all members had completed the test. The evaluation was timed for all participants from
the time they entered the FCC until the time they finished their last objective which was to
successfully locate an elevator they had selected at the elevator panel. The test was conducted
between 10 a.m. and noon on all three test days.
Assumptions and Limitations
All published research information used in this ARP is assumed to be authoritative and
unbiased in nature. It is assumed that the responses to personal interviews and to the
questionnaire are factual and reflect the current polices of the respondents’ department.
Although the respondents to the questionnaire represented fire departments from a wide
geographic range, the author acknowledges that the small size of the questionnaire population is
not representative of all fire departments. The author considers the respondents to the
questionnaire to be experts in the area of high-rise strategy and tactics because of their position
on the IFSTA high-rise committee.
The job aid was tested on 39 of 217 sworn members of the BFD. This sample size, while
limited, was assumed to be representative of the firefighters in the BFD. The author attempted to
Initial Emergency Response 23
enlist the help from as many on-duty fire units as was possible. For this test Engine 1, Ladder 1,
Aid 1, Engine 5, Engine 7 and Battalion 1 were chosen because of their close proximity to the
City Center II building. All three platoons: A, B, and C, were represented in this test. Any one
of the apparatus participating in the field test may respond to an emergency to the City Center II,
or any other building in downtown Bellevue.
A limiting factor to the questionnaire was that not all respondents chose to answer the
three questions directly. For example, District Chief Travis Ford of the Nashville Fire
Department, and Chief Alan Berkowsky of Evanston Fire & Life Safety Services sent the author
a copy of their current SOP but did not directly answer the questions. Most of the information
the author was looking for could be found by doing a careful reading of the department’s high-
rise SOP. The author received high-rise SOPs from Phoenix (PFD, 1999), Evanston
(Berkowsky, 2008), Orange County (Plaugher, 2008), Fairfax County (Coffman, 2002) and Los
Angeles (LAFD), n.d.).
The research was further limited because of terminology and resource availability within
the fire service. There is no consistent, standard definition for a high-rise building. Each
jurisdiction defines a high-rise either by height, number or stories, length of a department’s aerial
apparatus or a combination of the three. There is no consistency in the number and type of
resources available to respond to a high-rise emergency. The resources within a department or
jurisdiction dictate the number of units to be sent on a high-rise alarm and the actions taken by
those crews. Questionnaires not returned by IFSTA high-rise committee members also limited
the information available to this researcher.
Initial Emergency Response 24
RESULTS
The research for this ARP was done through a literature review, personal interviews, a
questionnaire sent to 15 of the members on the IFSTA high-rise committee and a field-test of a
job aid for elevator operations. Of the 15 questionnaires sent out, 13 were returned through e-
mail, the U.S. mail or by telephone contact. The results of the job aid field-test were recorded
directly onto a job aid test evaluation sheet shown in Appendix F.
Questionnaire Results
Not all respondents who sent back information in the mail answered the three questions
directly as requested, however, if the respondent did not directly answer the questions they did
send a copy of their current high-rise SOP, from which the author was able to extract valuable
information. While telephone contact was made with Fire Chief Tim Stemple with Lockheed
Martin, information regarding the Lockheed Martin Fire Department was not used since there are
no high-rise buildings served by the department. Appendix G shows questionnaire answers.
Question one asked the respondents what high-rise building information was immediately
the most useful to first-responding firefighters once at the scene. The purpose of this question
was to find out what information, in addition to existing pre-fires and information from dispatch,
was the most helpful to firefighters when they arrived at the alarm room. In other words: What
are firefighters looking for in order to help them decide what to do when they walk into a FCC?
All 12 of the respondents said that the number one priority is to locate the alarm panel, verify
what floor is in alarm, what type of alarm has been tripped and how many alarms have been
tripped.
Initial Emergency Response 25
The 12 respondents all reported that capturing or finding the status of building elevators
is also a priority for first-responding crews. Nine of the respondents reported that identifying
firefighting stairwells was an expected job for the first-responding company.
The second question sought to find out if any other fire departments used special or
unique identification methods to mark building systems equipment. This question was asked
because although the IFC and IBC currently requires that high-rise buildings be equipped with
graphic display annunciator panels this has not always been the case (Reardon, 2005). There are
multiple high-rises in Bellevue that were built under various editions of the IFC and IBC. These
buildings all have different building systems and are labeled differently, if they are labeled at all
(S. Sexton, personal communication, January 7, 2009).
None of the 12 respondents to the questionnaire stated that their department currently
used any type of unique building system identification method. All 12 respondents said they
relied solely on the graphic annunciator panel for building systems information. Their fire
departments did not mark the fire alarm panel, elevator panel, enunciator panel or HVAC panel.
Orange County Fire Rescue, FL holds quarterly drills with high-rise building representatives and
local fire department companies in order to familiarize themselves with building systems (J.
Gaut, personal communication, January 6, 2009). North Las Vegas fire personnel do a walk-
through of their high-rises once a month (B. Evans, personal communication, January 6, 2009).
The third question asked was: What were the responsibilities of the first-arriving
companies for each department? This is different from the first question in that the author was
trying to differentiate between the collection of information by first-responding companies and
what responding companies actually do, once on scene. It was difficult for the author to
determine the exact duties for each arriving company at every high-rise event from a review of
Initial Emergency Response 26
SOPs or even telephone interviews. Nashville (NFD, 2007) has different first-in duties
depending on whether or not the initial call is an “alarm dispatch” or a “reported fire dispatch”,
making it difficult to say for certain what the first engine or truck’s assignment may be. It
appears that each jurisdiction defines an “alarm” differently and consequently the responsibilities
of first-in units cannot be generalized to any degree of certainty.
All 12 respondents reported that the first-in engine company is responsible to find and
report on the fire alarm panel. Eleven of 12 respondents reported that the first-in engine
company is assigned to make initial fire attack on the reported fire floor. Orange County was the
only department that reported that their first-responding engine company is assigned to staging
on the main floor, the FCC and Lobby Control, unless the second-in engine is delayed. Seven
respondents reported that the first-arriving truck or ladder reports to the fire floor to assist the
first engine with fire attack. Some respondents reported that the first engine waits for a second
engine or ladder company to join them before they make a fire attack. Three respondents
reported that the first-in ladder is responsible for Lobby Control and two respondents reported
the first-in ladder is responsible for search and rescue or ventilation. All 12 departments that
responded to the questionnaire reported that it was the first-responding engine company that was
responsible for the capture or status check of building elevators. The BFD high-rise SOP states
that the first-arriving engine makes the initial fire attack, the second-arriving engine company
established lobby control and the first-arriving ladder company assists the first engine with fire
attack (BFD, 2003).
Job Aid Results
Results of the job aid field test can be found in Appendix H. Twenty-one of 39
firefighters participating in the job aid test had use of the job aid while the remaining 18
Initial Emergency Response 27
firefighters had only the elevator panel itself. None of the 39 participants reported that they were
familiar or had a working knowledge of the City Center II building or its building systems prior
to the job aid test. All but 6 of the 39 participants were regularly assigned to the apparatus they
were assigned to the day of the test. The firefighters participating had anywhere from 6 months
to 40 years experience with the BFD.
The participants for this test were given a scenario that a smoke alarm had been reported
on the 22nd floor of the City Center II building at 3 a.m. They were told that no other
information was given to them from dispatch. On arrival participants were told that the first-
arriving company found strobes on the top floors of the building, but did not see smoke or
flames. Participants were instructed that the test related only to elevator systems and that they
were not expected to follow existing BFD high-rise tactics.
The first task was to find the elevator panel itself. All 39 participants were able to locate
the elevator panel. The City Center II elevator panel is located on a remote wall in the FCC, and
is not in close proximity to the alarm panel or the Fire Service Control Panel (FSCP), which
presented a challenge for some firefighters.
The second task was to identify the freight elevator and determine its location in the
building. All 21 of the participants using the job aid were able to identify the freight elevator
and gave the correct position in the building. In the group without the job aid, only one
participant was able to find the freight elevator. The firefighter without the job aid was able to
find the freight elevator by gathering information off of the FSCP.
The third task was to identify an elevator that would take the firefighters to a floor at least
five floors below the reported alarm on floor 22. Most participants said they would like to go
directly to floor 17. Those firefighters using the job aid were able to correctly identify the high
Initial Emergency Response 28
bank elevators, which service the 17th floor 100% of the time. Only two firefighters without the
job aid were able to correctly identify the high bank elevators.
The participants were then asked to identify the Recall/Phase I firefighter switch for the
high bank elevator. These switches were located at the bottom of the elevator panel. All 21 of
the firefighters who had the job aid found the elevator recall switches on the panel. Twenty of
the 21 were able to correctly identify the two high bank elevator Recall/Phase I switches. Fifteen
of the 18 firefighters without the job aid were able to find the Recall/Phase I switches but only
one of them could identify which were the two high bank switches.
The average time it took the firefighters using the job aid to complete all tasks and find
their chosen elevator was 146 seconds (2:26). It took the firefighters without a job aid 171
seconds (2:51) to do the same. Participants were not allowed to use stairs to access the elevators.
Any participant who tried to gain access to the Lobby level of the building via the stairway was
told they could not use the stairs as part of the test. About half of all participants tried to use the
stairs and were told to access the elevators from the same level they were on. If participants
without the job aid told the evaluator they could not accomplish a task, such as locating the
freight elevator, they were instructed to proceed to the next task.
Respondents were asked to give feedback regarding the use of the job aid. Of those that
gave feedback, 16 reported that the job aid was very useful. Suggestions given to improve the
job aid are to have larger print, more use of color and more graphics or symbols. Twelve
participants said that the use of the job aid would likely reduce their anxiety level or give them
more confidence in the event of an actual emergency response.
Initial Emergency Response 29
DISCUSSION
The author found that fire departments do not agree on a common definition of what
constitutes a high-rise building. The BFD defines a high-rise as a building that is more than 75
feet in height from the lowest fire department access (BFD, 2003). This definition of a high-rise
is shared by many (McGrail, 2007; Quiter, 2008; Staskey, 2004) but also leaves room for other
definitions of a high-rise building such as large, windowless buildings (Norman, 2005) and
buildings with a roof that a 100 foot aerial ladder can’t reach (Clark, 1991).
The author discovered that there are at least two, and possibly more, types of high-rises
(McGrail, 2007; Norman, 2005; Terpak, 2002). Regardless of how many types of high-rises
there are, all the authorities agreed that there is a pre-World War II and post-World War II era of
high-rise construction. The City of Bellevue has no high-rise older than 1968 and therefore all
high-rises in Bellevue are of the lightweight, post-World War II type. The light-weight high-
rises found in Bellevue incorporate core construction techniques with exterior curtain walls, have
extensive HVAC systems, and have large open spaces, all of which create challenges for
firefighters in the event of a fire response. Firefighters in cities such as Chicago, that have
numerous heavy-weight high-rises, find that fighting fires in these type of buildings can be less
of a challenge than light-weight high-rises because of the compartmentalization, availability of
natural ventilation and lack of void spaces found in heavy-weight high-rises (K. Witt, personal
communication, November 10, 2008). The author agrees with McGrail (2007) that post-world
War II high-rises present challenges to firefighters not seen in early types of high-rise buildings,
making firefighting even more challenging.
The questionnaire revealed that one of the most important pieces of information a first-
responding company can find is the alarm panel. Once the panel is located companies need to
Initial Emergency Response 30
verify the floor in alarm, the number of alarms registered and the type of alarm registered. This
information lets the first-responding companies where to begin the fire attack the and guides in
other companies as well. Norman (2005) and Terpak (2002) also believe that first-arriving
companies must locate the alarm panel and verify the alarm. The author agrees with these
findings.
All but one of the respondents to the questionnaire reported that their department assigns
the first-arriving engine company to initial fire attack. Seven of the 12 questionnaire respondents
said that their department also sends the first-arriving truck company to assist with fire attack.
Lakamp (2007) reported that 24 of 34 fire departments surveyed automatically sent the first-
arriving engine company to fire attack. The Philadelphia Fire Department also sends the first-
arriving engine company to initiate fire attack (PFD, 2004). The BFD currently sends the first-
arriving engine company to initiate fire attack and the first-arriving ladder company is sent to
assist with fire attack (BFD, 2003).
The author discovered that any building systems firefighters may have reason to interface
with such as alarm panels, FCC rooms and elevator panels that are to be clearly marked
(Reardon, 2005; S. Sexton, personal communication, January 7, 2009). This is not always the
case in Bellevue. Changes in the IFC and IBC, changes in building ownership, renovations and
updates all can impact whether or not proper labeling is kept current in high-rises (S. Sexton,
personal communication, January 7, 2009).
The use of elevators by first-responding firefighters is well documented in the SOP’s
received by this author. High-rise elevator use protocols and instructions are prominent in
Evanston (Berkowsky, 2008), Fairfax County (Coffman, 2002), Orange County (Plaugher, 2008)
Initial Emergency Response 31
and Phoenix (PFD, 1999) high-rise SOPs. The BFD high-rise SOPs give specific, restrictive
guidelines about elevator use during a high-rise incident (BFD, 2003).
From the questionnaires sent back to the author it is clear that elevator use is both a
necessity and a great concern to all 12 respondents. All 12 questionnaire respondents reported
that the first-responding company, from their department, was responsible to recall or give the
status of elevators in a high-rise. These first-responding companies were allowed to use elevators
to gain access to upper floors for initial fire attack. The author is aware that the BFD places
great emphasis on the safe use of elevators and is in the process of re-evaluating its position on
elevator use during a high-rise event. The author is also aware that elevator panels in Bellevue
are not always correctly labeled (S, Sexton, personal communication, January 7, 2009) and
gathering information from an unmarked elevator panel is not easily done, especially on a fire
alarm, when time is very short.
The author was surprised to discover that no other fire departments employed a unique
identification method for high-rise building systems. None of the 12 IFSTA high-rise committee
members the author contacted said that their departments employed job aids to help firefighters
identify and use their high-rise building systems. Henderson Fire Department uses a job aid,
known to them as a FAP, to help firefighters identify specific floor plans in large buildings, but
does not employ any type of job aid in their FCC (Lockwood, 2004). Charlotte Fire Department
relies on high-rise building personnel to give responding firefighters information about the
building (Anderson, 1984). Orange County Fire Rescue relies on quarterly drills with building
representatives and fire personnel to familiarize themselves with building systems (J. Gaut,
personal communication, January 6, 2009). North Las Vegas does a walk-through of their high-
Initial Emergency Response 32
rises once a month to gain knowledge of their building systems (B. Evans, personal
communication, January 6, 2009).
Rossett & Gautier-Downes (1991) stated that job aids are not a new idea and have been
employed in the military for years. Job aids can be especially useful for situations where the
performance is infrequent, the situation has multiple steps, the consequence for errors are high
and when there is little time or few resources to devote to training (p. 31). The author believes
that the reasons to employ the use of a job aid, as sited by Rossett & Gautier-Downes, directly
apply to building systems in a high-rise and specifically to elevator operations. Using elevators
in an emergency is not something firefighters typically do on a day to day basis. Deciphering an
elevator panel can be very challenging and mistakes in elevator use can be devastating (McGrail,
2007, p. 88). It is also very difficult to find enough training time to make all firefighters
tactically proficient at elevator operations (p.82).
The job aid field-test conducted by the author showed that those firefighters who had use
of a job aid performed consistently better, and were far more accurate in their assessment of
information on the elevator panel, than were firefighters without the use of a job aid. Table 1
shows how accurate the firefighters with the job aid were compared to the firefighters who did
not have the use of a job aid.
Initial Emergency Response 33
Table 1
Test accuracy with and without use of job aid
Firefighters using the job aid were more accurate in identifying the freight elevator, correctly
choosing an elevator that would to take them to the floor they wanted to go to and correctly
identifying the bank of Phase I switches for the high bank elevators. Both groups were able to
identify the Phase I switches on the elevator panel. Each Phase I switch on the elevator panel
controlled two or three elevators and were marked with elevator numbers but if you did not know
what elevator belonged to each number you could not chose, with certainty, a specific bank of
elevators to put into Phase I operation.
Feedback from those who participated in the field test suggested the job aid could be
improved by the use of larger font, using more color and more graphics or symbols. Several
firefighters suggested that the job aid be standardized for use on all elevator panels in the city.
The firefighters said that if they had a standardized job aid what knew what information may be
Initial Emergency Response 34
contained on it, they would be able to make better use of the job aid. The author believes these
are good ideas and should be incorporated into the final version of this job aid.
Years of experience, station assignment or familiarity with the building did not appear to
play a factor in the results. A firefighter with 6 months experience on the job was able to
accurately complete the same tasks and in less time then a firefighter with 40 years on the job.
Table 2 shows that firefighters using the job aid had an average completion time of 146 seconds
(2:26) compared to an average time of 171 seconds (2:51) for those firefighters who did not have
the job aid.
Table 2
Completion time with and without job aid
The author believes that the times recorded for the field test do not truly indicate how
beneficial the elevator job aid proved for participants. The participants who used the job aid
were able to complete all of the objectives with almost 100% accuracy, with limited interaction
with the evaluator. All participants were told they were not to use the stairs if they tried to do so
during the evaluation period. The group of firefighters who did not have use of the job aid were
not able to complete several of the objectives on the field test. The evaluator had to allow all but
Initial Emergency Response 35
one of the non-job aid participants to continue on when they were unable to complete the
objectives. If the evaluator had not allowed non-job aid participants to continue, without
finishing their tasks, it is unknown how long their times would have been.
The author found through literature review and a questionnaire that gathering information
about high-rise elevator systems is very important for first-responding firefighters. A job aid
created for elevator operations and field tested on Bellevue firefighters appears to be of great
value to firefighters during the initial response period. The next step to validating the use of a
job aid for elevator operations would be an expansion of this test to include all elevator panels in
Bellevue high-rise buildings. An expanded test would help validate the effectiveness of a job aid
for first-responding firefighters on different types of elevator panels in many different high-rise
buildings. Indications are that the application of a job aid may be useful for other high-rise
building systems identification such as alarm panels, fire pumps and enunciator panels.
The author found that no other fire departments use job aids to help first-responding
firefighters decipher building systems. In the absence of a job aid or other identification method
for high-rise building systems, firefighters rely on building personnel (Anderson, 1984) or
physically walking through buildings to gain knowledge of these systems (B. Evans, personal
communication, January 6, 2009; J. Gaut, personal communication, January 6, 2009). The author
agrees that having building personnel, who have expertise of their building, report to responding
firefighters can be a very valuable tool but this is often not available to first-responding
companies. The author further agrees with Evans and Gaut in that physically walking buildings
or holding high-rise drills on a periodic basis is an excellent way to gain knowledge of a
building.
Initial Emergency Response 36
RECOMMENDATIONS
The BFD needs to pursue the following recommendations: 1) Incorporate high-rise walk-
throughs as part of the Monthly Drill Check Sheet issued by the Training Division; 2) Insure that
all building systems are labeled per IFC and IBC guidelines as required; 3) Create elevator job
aids for all high-rise elevators in the City of Bellevue; 4) Create a job aid for other building
systems such as alarm panel, enunciator, or fire pumps.
These recommendations will have little impact to the BFD budget but would certainly
have a big impact on the performance of firefighters on high-rise responses. Monthly walk-
throughs of high-rise buildings will require either additional drill time for firefighters or change
in drill priorities. The Training Division will have to find the best way to incorporate the high-
rise walk-throughs with crews. It will be difficult to find more time for mandatory high-rise
walk-throughs, but the benefits to the time cost can pay huge dividends in the event of a high-rise
fire.
There will likely be costs associated with these recommendations for the building
management companies of some high-rise buildings. It is essential that all high-rise building
systems be labeled appropriately to better serve firefighters responding to alarms. A discussion
between building representatives and the BFD Fire Prevention Division may be necessary to gain
support and compliance.
The current elevator job aid seems to be very useful to firefighters but additional
feedback from firefighters and command officers is necessary to insure that as much vital
information as possible is presented in the final elevator job aid. Standardizing the look of the
job aid, so that it has the same “look” regardless of the building will also help. The creation of
Initial Emergency Response 37
additional job aids can be done by on-duty personnel. There is a small office expense in
laminating and posting the finished job aids.
The number of high-rises in Bellevue is growing quickly, with each building having its
own unique building systems. Giving firefighters the ability to decipher complex building
systems equipment, such as elevator alarm panels, in an expedient fashion and under extreme
pressure will be a benefit to the BFD and those citizens working and residing in Bellevue high-
rises.
Initial Emergency Response 38
References
Anderson, B. (1984, September). Testing high-rise SOPs. Fire Engineering, 137(9), 57-60.
Berkowsky, A. J. (2008, August 18). High-rise operations. (Available from the Evanston Fire &
Life Safety Services, Evanston, IL)
BFD, (2003, August 19). Standard Operating Procedure. (Available from the Bellevue Fire
Department, 450 110th Ave NE, Bellevue, WA 98004)
City of Bellevue (2009). City profile history. Retrieved January 5, 2009, from
http.//www.ci.bellevue.wa.us/history.htm
Clark, W. E. (1991). Firefighting principles and practices (Rev. ed.). Saddle Brook, NJ: Fire
Engineering Books and Videos.
Coffman, J. B. (2002, June). High rise building fires. (Available from the Fire and Rescue
Departments of Northern Virginia, Fairfax County, VA)
Connelly, J. (2007). Reduce tech-support requests with cheat sheets. Retrieved September 11,
2008, from http://www.techsoup.org/learningcenter/training/page6101.cfm
Edwards, J. D. High-Rise Firefighting an Analysis of Procedures for Operational Effectiveness.
(Available from the National Fire Academy, Emmitsburg, MD)
Frank, D. (1996). Terrific training materials high impact graphic designs for workbooks,
handouts, instructor guides, & job aids (1st ed.). Minneapolis, MN: Lakewood
Publications.
LAFD, (n.d.). High Rise Incident Command System. (Available from the Los Angeles Fire
Department, Los Angeles, CA)
Initial Emergency Response 39
Lakamp, T. C. (2007, June). Examining Fire Department Response and Occupant Actions With
High-rise Structures in Cincinnati, Ohio. (Available from the National Fire Academy,
Emmitsburg, MD)
Lockwood, R. (2004, April). Roadmap to response. Fire Rescue Magazine, 22(4), 80-87.
McGrail, D. M. (2007). Firefighting Operations in High-Rise and Standpipe-Equipped
Buildings. Tulsa, Oklahoma: PennWell Corporation.
National Fire Academy. (2005). Applied Research Project Guidelines [Brochure]. Emmitsburg,
MD: Author.
NFD, (2007, July). High Rise Firefighting. (Available from the Nashville Fire Department,
Nashville, TN)
Norman, J. (2005). Fire Officer’s Handbook of Tactics (Rev. ed.). Tulsa, OK: PennWell
Corporation.
O’Hagan, J. T. (1974, July). Sao Paulo, Brazil, Adds to High-Rise Fire History. Fire
Engineering, 127(7), 18-25.
PFD, (1999, July). High-Rise Plans. (Available from the Phoenix Fire Department, Phoenix, AZ)
PFD, (2004, December). Operational Procedure #33. (Available from the Philadelphia Fire
Department, Philadelphia, PA)
Plaugher, C. L. (2008, March 1). High-Rise Structure Fire Incidents. (Available from the Orange
County Fire Rescue Department, Orange County, FL)
Quiter, J. R. (2008). High-rise buildings: what should we do about them? [Online exclusive].
Fire Protection Engineering. Retrieved September 5, 2008, from
http://www.fpemag.com/articles/article.asp?i=228
Reardon, M. (2005). Thinking inside the box. Building Safety Journal, III (5), 36-38.
Initial Emergency Response 40
Rossett, A., & Gautier-Downes, J. (1991). A handbook of job aids. San Diego, CA: Pfeiffer &
Company.
San Diego State University (n.d.). Job aids. Retrieved September 11, 2008, from
http://edweb.sdsu.edu/Courses/EDTEC540/540WWW/home.html
Staskey, P. (2004, August). Regional Training on Target Hazards. Fire Engineering, 107-111.
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Initial Emergency Response 41
Appendix A
IFSTA High Rise Committee Members Receiving Questionnaire
Roxanne Bercik, Assistant Chief, Los Angeles Fire Department, CA
Alan Berkowsky, Fire Chief, Evanston Fire & Life Safety Services, IL
Frank Cardinale, Division Chief, San Francisco Fire Department, CA
Bruce Evans, EMS Chief, North Las Vegas Fire Department, NV
Travis Ford, District Fire Chief, Nashville Fire Department, TN
Yves Gaumond, Program Coordinator, Quebec National Fire Academy, Canada*
James Gaut, Battalion Chief, Orange County Fire Rescue, FL
Anthony Luke, Captain, Cleveland Division of Fire, OH
Dan Melhase, Fire Captain, Clark County Fire Department, NV
Mark Pare, Chief of Department, Wrentham Fire Department, MA
Tim Stemple, Fire Chief, Lockheed Martin, TX
Brandon Wagoner, Fire Protection Engineer, Phoenix Fire Department, AZ
James Walsh, Battalion Chief, Fairfax County Fire and Rescue Department, VA
Keith Witt, Battalion Chief, Chicago Fire Department, IL
Renaldo Works, Captain/Assistant Fire Marshal, Tulsa Fire Department, OK*
*No contact made
Initial Emergency Response 42
Appendix B
High-Rise Questionnaire
October XX, 2008 Chief XXXXX, My name is Bruce Kroon and I’m a Captain with the Bellevue (WA) Fire Department. I am currently working on a research paper for the Executive Fire Officer Program at the National Fire Academy (NFA). I recently had the pleasure of having Ed Kirtley as an instructor at the NFA and he was kind enough to provide me with the names of the members of the IFSTA High Rise Committee. As a member of this committee, your help will be invaluable to me regarding research for this paper. What I’m trying to find out is how other fire departments approach high rise responses, specifically the first 1-5 minutes on-scene. I am most concerned with what does the first-in engine company does and who reports to the fire alarm room (control center). The City of Bellevue has had tremendous growth in the past 5 years and it has become difficult for firefighters to know how every high-rise building system operates. I would be very grateful if you could please respond to the following questions: 1. What high-rise building information is immediately the most useful to first-responding firefighters once at the scene? Explanation: Most engine/ladder companies have some sort of pre-fire on their buildings, they have some sort of report from the alarm company, and some information relayed from dispatch. I am looking for information that firefighters could gather at the scene, in the first few minutes of the call. 2. What type of high-rise building systems identification methods are employed by your fire department? Explanation: Every high-rise has a unique building system. Alarm panels are different, elevator panels are different, building enunciator panels are different. What, if anything, does your department do to help responding crews to quickly sort out what is important and how to manage building systems? Do you rely solely on building engineers for immediate information? 3. What are the duties of first-responding units to high-rise buildings in your department? Explanation: Where does the first-responding company go? Are they Lobby Control? Do they go to the fire floor? A copy of your existing high-rise response policy would be very helpful.
Initial Emergency Response 43
The information gathered from this research will be directly put into practice with the Bellevue Fire Department. It is my goal to create some kind of identification system to enable responding companies a “quick reference” to high-rise building systems, using some of the “best practices” I can find from professionals like you. You can respond to this request by using the self-addressed, stamped envelope enclosed, or by e-mail. I can be reached by e-mail at: [email protected]. My direct phone line is 425.452.2745 I truly appreciate your time in this matter and look forward to your responses. Yours, ____________________________ Bruce Kroon, Captain EMS Division Bellevue Fire Department
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Appendix C
City Center II Elevator Operations Job Aid
City Center II ELEVATOR OPERATIONS 110th Ave NE
BANK NUMBER FROM TO BEST ACCESS Low Rise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Level A thru floor 14 Level A
High Rise 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Level A & Lobby to floors 15 – 26 Level A
Freight 11 Loading dock level thru floor 26 ½ flight up Level A
Garage 12, 13, 14 Level D to Lobby Lobby
Handicap 15 110th Street entrance to Lobby Lobby
El Gaucho 16 Level D to El Gaucho Lobby El Gaucho
RECALL INFORMATION General Alarm Elevators DO NOT recall in General Alarm
Alarm in machine room or elevator lobby Elevators recall to Lobby
Firefighter Phase I Recall and Reset are here on the elevator panel not in elevator lobby
Garage (access on Lobby level)
Low
Rise
High
Rise
Handicap (Lobby level)
FCC Entrance on street to Level A
Freight (1/2 flight up from Level A)
You are here, on Level A
Stairs up to Lobby level
Door to elevators on Level A
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Appendix D
Job Aid Randomization Schedule
1/20/09 1/21/09 1/22/09 C platoon B platoon A platoon
Job Aid Job Aid Job Aid E1 Officer Yes No Yes E1 Engineer No Yes No E1 FF Yes No Yes A1 Driver No Yes No A1 Officer Yes No Yes E5 Officer No Yes No E5 Engineer Yes No Yes E5 FF No Yes No E7 Officer Yes No Yes E7 Engineer No Yes No E7 FF Yes No Yes B1 No Yes No SA Yes No Yes L1 Officer No Yes No L1 Engineer Yes No Yes L1 Tiller No Yes No L1 FF Yes No Yes Strike through = were not able to participate due to scheduling or on emergency calls at time of test
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Appendix E
Job Aid Participant Instructions
Scenario – Time: 0300 hours Dispatch: Report of smoke detector activation on 22nd floor of City Center II building (26 stories). No further information. Arrival: See strobes on top floors of City Center II building. No smoke or fire visible. Assignment –
1. Locate the elevator panel in Fire Command Center (FCC)
2. Select a floor you will initially respond to. (Does not matter what floor you select, but it
must be at least 5 floors below floor in alarm)
3. Identify the freight elevator and give its current position in building
4. Identify an elevator, by number, that will take you to your selected floor (Must be at
least 5 floors below floor in alarm)
5. Locate the Firefighter Phase I switch for high rise bank elevators
6. Physically locate the elevator that will take you to your desired floor
Note – You will be timed from when you enter the FCC until you have located the elevator you have selected. There are not “right” or “wrong” answers or “bad” times. This is event is for learning purposes only. You will not be expected to follow all Bellevue Fire Department high-rise procedures during this event. Elevators will not be used or recalled for this event. All elevators are to remain in service.
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Appendix F Job Aid Test Evaluation Sheet
Date:___________ Pre Test: Apparatus assignment and position:_____________________ Regular Station Assignment:_________ Number of years in BFD:______________ Familiar with City Center II building: Yes/No Job Aid used: Yes/No
Objectives/Tasks: 1. Find elevator panel 2. Choose initial floor to respond to 3. Identify freight elevator and its position in building 4. Identify elevator for initial use 5. Locate high-rise elevator bank Phase I switch 6. Physically find chosen elevator
Test check list: Identify freight elevator on panel: Yes/No Identify elevator for initial use on panel: Yes/No Identify Phase I switches: Yes/No Correctly identified high-rise Phase I switches: Yes/No Time:_______ Post Test: (completed by participant) If Job Aid used was it helpful? What could be done to improve its effectiveness? (colors, graphics, etc) Did the job aid lower anxiety or make you feel more confident in abilities?
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Appendix H Job Aid Results
Date Position Reg. Assign Exp. Familiar
Job Aid
Ident Freight
ID elev.
Phase I
Phase I correct Time
Job Aid
Useful Improve
20 E5 Eng 5 6 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:45 1 larger and darker print
20 E7 Off 7 25 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:05 1 arrows, larger font
20 E7 FF 7 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:40 1 colors, arrows
20 E5 Off 5 30 0 0 0 0 1 0 2:25
20 E5 FF 3 6 0 0 0 0 1 0 2:01
20 E7 Eng 7 19 0 0 0 0 1 0 3:15
20 SA 1 25 0 1 1 1 1 0 2:20 standardize
20 E1 Eng 1 25 0 0 0 0 1 0 1:25
20 A1 Off 3 4 0 1 1 1 1 1 1:59 1 larger print, symbols
20 E1 FF 1 6 0 1 1 1 1 0 2:30 1 standardize
20 E1 Off 1 6 0 1 1 1 1 1 1:43 1 colors
20 A1 Eng 7 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 3:01
21 L1 Tiller 1 20 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:21 1 none
21 E5 Off 5 14 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:21 1 removable for use
21 A1 Eng 1 4 0 1 1 1 0 0 2:10 1 removable for use
21 L1 Off 1 30 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:51 1 less info, important info
only
21 L1 FF 1 5 0 0 0 1 0 0 3:30
21 L1 Eng 1 17 0 0 0 0 1 0 3:00
21 A1 Off 1 4 0 0 0 0 1 0 3:01
21 E5 FF M1 18 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:56 1 standardize, colors
21 E5 Eng 5 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 2:39
21 E7 FF 7 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:25 1
21 E7 Eng 1 9 0 0 0 0 1 0 3:30
21 E1 FF 1 5 0 0 1 1 1 0 3:50
21 E1 Eng 1 20 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:45
21 E1 Off 1 17 0 0 0 0 1 0 3:02
22 E1 Off 8 40 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:30 larger font
22 E5 Off 5 20 0 0 0 0 1 0 3:10
22 E7 Eng 7 16 0 0 0 0 1 0 2:09
22 E5 FF M1 12 0 0 0 0 1 0 2:50
22 E5 Eng 4 25 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:17 1 larger font
22 E7 FF 7 12 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:07 building engineer 24/7
22 E7 Off 7 24 0 1 1 1 1 0 2:50 1 better graphics
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22 L1 Off 1 19 0 0 0 0 1 0 2:44
22 L1 Tiller 1 9 0 0 0 0 1 0 2:52
22 L1 Eng 1 23 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:34 1 color, larger font,
graphics
22 L1 FF 1 7 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:40 1
22 E1 Eng 1 35 0 0 0 0 1 0 2:55
22 E1 FF 1 6 0 1 1 1 1 1 2:21