The use of the glissando in piano solo and concertocompositions from Domenico Scarlatti to George Crumb

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THE USE OF THE GUSSANDO IN PIANO SOLO AND CONCERTO

COMPOSITIONS FROM DOMENICO SCARLATH TO GEORGE CRUMB

by

Shuennchin Lin

Copyright © Shuennchin Lin 1997

A Document Submitted to the Faculty of the

SCHOOL OF MUSIC AND DANCE

bi Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

WITH A MAJOR IN PERFORMANCE

In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

1997

UMX Number: 980S783

Copyright 1997 by-Lin, Shuennchin

All rights reserved.

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2

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA ® GRADUATE COLLEGE

As members of the Final Examination Committee, we certify that we have

read the dissertation prepared by SHUENNCHIN LIN

entitled THE USE OF THE 6LISSAND0 IN PIANO SOLO AND CONCERTO

COMPOSITIONS FROM DOMENICO SCARLATTI TO GEORGE CRUMB

and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation

requirement for the Degree of DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

icholas Zumbro

Rosenblatt

Dat^ r

Date

Date

Date

Date

Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate's submission of the final copy of the dissertation to the Graduate College.

I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement.

Dissertation Direc Nicholas Zumbro Date

3

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This document has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.

Brief quotations from this document are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder.

SIGNED: __L_1

4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF EXAMPLES 5 LIST OF TABLES 8 LISTOFHGURES 9 ABSTRACT 10

Chapter 1. Introduction 12

Chapter 2. The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries 22 Domenico Scarlatti 23 Ludwig van Beethoven and Carl Maria von Weber 27 Franz Liszt 32 Johannes Brahms and Camille Saint-Sa&is 42 Bedrich Smetana, Mily Balakirev, Edvard Grieg, and Edward Elgar 47

Chapter 3. The Twentieth Century 55 Oaude Debussy and Maurice Ravel 56 Manuel de Falla and B&a Bartdk 67 Heitor Villa-Lobos, George Gershwin, and Aaron Copland 76 Igor Stravinsky, Serge FrokoBev, and Dmitri Shostakovich 88 Paul Hindemith, Michael Tippett, Olivier Messiaen, and Benjamin

Britten 102 George Crumb 110

Chapter 4. Conclusions 118 The Use of the Glissando 118 Summary of the Glissando's Historical Development 120 The Future of the Glissando 122

APPENDIX A: Examples of Glissandi 125 APPENDIX B: The Final Spin—25,000 B. C 133 REFERENCES 139

5

LIST OF EXAMPLES

Example 1: Slide 14 Example 2: F. Qiopiiv Poloaaiser Op. 53 21 Example 3: D. Scarlatti, Sonafii, K. 468 23 Example 4: D. Scarlatti, Sonafca, K. 487 24 Examples: D.Scarlatti,Sonata,K.487.(manuscript) 24 Example 6: D. Scarlatti, Sonafa, K. 379 25 Example 7: L. van Beethoven, Kano Concerto No. 1 in C Major, Op. 15,1 27 Example 8: L. van Beetfioven, Kano Sonata, Op. 53, Rondo 28 Example 9: C. M. von Weber, Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 11, Finale. 29 Example 10: C. M. von Weber, Concertstiick, Op. 79 31 Example 11: C. M. von Weber, Concertstiickr Op. 79 31 Example 12: F. Lisz^ Magyar Dallok—UngarisAe National-Melodien,

No. 9. 33 Example 13: F. Liszt, Paganini Etude No. 5 "La Chasse." 34 Example 14: F. Liszt, Hungarian Fantasia 35 Example 15: F. Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14. 36 Example 16: F. Lisz^ Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15. 36 Example 17: F. Liszt Mephisto Waltz No. 1 39 Example 18: F. Liszt, Concerto in A Major. 40 Example 19: J. Brahms, Paganini Variations, I, Var. 13 43 Example 20: J. Brahms, Ohgarische Tanze No. 8. 44 Example 21: C. Saint-Saens, Piano Concerto No. 5, HI 46 Example 22: C. Saint-Saens, Aquarium from Le Camaval des animaux. 47 Example 23: B.Smeiana, Ballade in E minor. 48 Example 24: B. Smetana, Polka in A minor. 48 Example 25: M. Balaldrev, Islamey. 50 Example 26: E. Grieg, Hailing (Nonvegischer Tanz) from Lyric Pieces,

Op. 71 51 Example 27: E. Elgar, Concert Allegro. 52 Example 28: C. Debussy, Feux d'artiBce. 57 Example 29: C. Debussy, Etude, No. 6. 58 Example 30: C. Debussy, Pour le Piano, Prelude. 59 Example 31: C. Debussy, Suite Bergamasque, Menuet 59 Example 32: M. Ravel, Jieux d'eau 62 Example 33: M. Ravel, Una barque sw L'oc6an 63 Example 34: M. Ravel, A/inaradb de/^radoso. 64 Example 35: M. Ravel, Gaspard dela Nuit Ondine. 64 Example 36: M, Ravel, Les Entretiens de la Belle et de la Bite from

MaMirel'Oye. 65 Example 37: M. Ravel, Concerto for Left Hand. 66 Example 38: M. Ravel, Gaspard de la Nuit Ondine. 67

6

LIST OF EXAMPLES- Continued

Example 39: M. de Falla, Fantasia Baetica 68 Example 40: B.Bart6k, Rhapsody, Op. 1 71 Example 41: B. Bartdk, Tanz-Suite, L 72 Example 42: B. Bartdk, Sonata, I. 73 Example 43: B. Bart6k, Piano Concerto No. 1,1 73 Example 44: B. Bartdk, Piano Concerto No. 1, n 74 Example 45: B. Bartdk, Piano Concerto No. 2,1 75 Example 46: B. Bart6k, Piano Concerto No. 3, IE. 76 Example 47: H. Villa-Lobos, Simples Coletanea, Rhodante. 78 Example 48: H. Villa-Lobos, Dansa Do Indio Branco from Suite Ciclo

Brasileiro. 78 Example 49: H. Villa-Lobos, Dansa Do Indio Branco from Suite Ciclo

Brasileiro. 79 Example 50: H. Villa-Lobos, Moreninha from Suite Prole Do Bebe. 80 Example 51: H. Villa-Lobos, Rudepoema 81 Example 52: H. Villa-Lobos, Momo Precoce. 82 Example 53: G, Gershwin, Rhapsody in Blue. 85 Example 54: G. Gershwin, Concerto inF,l 85 Example 55: A. Copland, Piano Concerto. 87 Example 56: A. Copland, Piano Fantasy. 88 Example 57: L Stravinslg^, Trois Mouvements de P trouchka, IH 90 Example 58: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5, II 91 Example 59: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5, II 92 Example 60: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5,1 92 Example 61: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 1, L 93 Example 62: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 2, III 94 Example 63: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 3,1 94 Example 64: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 3, HI 95 Example 65: B. Bartdk, Piano Concerto No. 2, n 95 Example 66: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 4, HI 96 Example 67: S. Prokofiev, Sarcasmes, Op. 17, No. 4 97 Example 68: S. Prokofiev, Toccata, Op. 11 97 Example 69: S. Prokofiev, Suggestion Diabolique, Op. 4, No. 4 98 Example 70: S. Prokofiev, Ten Pieces, Prelude, Op. 12, No. 7 99 Example 71: D. Shostakovich, Piano Sonata No. 1, Op. 12 101 Example 72: D. Shostakovich, Piano Sonata No. 1, Op. 12 101 Example 73: D. Shostakovich, Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 35, IV 102 Example 74: P. Hindemith, 1922 Suite (Or Klavier, II 103 Example 75: M. Tippet, Piano Sonata No. 2 105 Example 76: O. Messiaen, Pne/ude. Les sons impalpables du reve 107 Example 77: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5, V 107

7

LIST OF EXAMPLES- Continued

Example 78: O. Messiaen, Oe de Feu 1 108 Example 79: B. Britten, Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 13 109 Example 80: B. Britten, Diversion on a Theme for Left Hand and Orchestra,

Op. 21 110 Example 81: G. Crumb, Spring-Fire (Aries) from Makrokosmos L 112 Example 82: G. Crumb, Tora! Tora! Tora! (Cadenza ApocaIittica)from

Makrokosmos II. 112 Example 83: F. Rzewski, The People United Will Never Be Defeated! 124

8

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: The Transposition Process in F. Liszf s La Chasse. 34 Table 2: Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's Die Schlittschuhlaufer. 38 Table 3: The Function of Qissandi Used in F. Liszt's Works 41 Table 4: Summary of F. Liszt's Examples 42 Table 5: Examples in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries in Four

Groups Based on Its Type 53 Table 6: M. Ravel's Kano Works Between 1901 and 1917 60 Table 7: Glissandi in M. Ravel's Concerto for Left Hand. 66 Table 8: Sxmimary of H. Villa-Lobos's Examples 83 Table 9: Pianist-Composers' Dates of Deatfi around the First Half of the

Twentieth Century 86 Table 10: Summary of S. Prokofiev's Examples 99 Table 11: Examples in the Twentieth Century in Four Groups Based on Its

T5rpe 113 Table 12: Examples of the Black-and-White Glissando 114 Table 13: Glissandi with Tempo fodications in The Twentieth-Century

Works 115 Table 14: Examples Used Right Before the End of Each Piece/Movement... 115 Table 15: Special fridication with the Use of Glissandi 116 Table 16: TTie Ntmibers of Examples 118

9

USTOFHGURES

Figure 1.1,12: The Basic Executions of the Glissando 18 Figure 2: The Hand Position for the Glissando without the Destination

Marked 18 Figure 3: Fingered Version of the Example from D. Scarlatti's Sonata, K. 487.. 25 Figure 4: Three Types of Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody

No. 10. 35 Figure 5: The Harmonic Structure on the Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's

Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15. 37 Frgure 6: The Glissando on a Row in A. Copland's Piano Fantasy. 88 Figure 7: The T5^es of the Works in the Use of Glissandi 120

10

ABSTRACT

This document is a thorough study of the glissando throughout its

chronological development, consisting of an examination of differences in

the glissando's functions, types, and executions. Examples are extracted from

piano solo and piano concerto compositions, which were written by

composers from Domenico Scarlatti, bom in 1685, to George Crumb, bom in

1929.

The glissando was used as a formal compositional device in the

eighteenth century, beginning with the works of Domenico Scarlatti. It

evolved from the Schleifer and was omamental and occasionally melodic in

function. Composers of the Qassical period, like Ludwig van Beethoven and

Carl Maria von Weber, expanded the device into octaves, which before the

end of the nineteenth century was adopted by Bedrich Smetana, Joharmes

Brahms, and Mily Balakirev. Franz Liszt produced many two-hand and

double-note glissandi, and his output of glissandi is the most numerous in

the entire piano repertoire.

In twentieth-century, B^a Bart6k produced a dry effect in the glissando,

while Prokofiev produced the most numerous glissandi in this century.

Hindemitti wrote an unusual form of black-and-white glissando; Tippett's

example is of the "fanfare" effect; and Britten contributed many glissandi in a

single work, to a degree perhaps exceeded only by Liszt's works. For

nationalistic composers, like Manuel de Falla and Heitor Villa-Lobos, the

glissando is a fine device to express the feeling of ethnic emotions, such as

joyful and energetic. Besides, the use of the black-key glissando gives

11

composers a fine application for impressionistic purposes, since its pentatonic

orientation is easy to liken to images of nature: water, wind, etc. Such

examples are found in the works of Qaude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, and

others. Nonetheless, it becomes less crucial in this harmonic consideration in

the works of more recent composers, in whose works the concept of tone-

dusters or just a "noise" is revealed.

This thesis also includes two appendices, one contains a chart of 473

glissandi categorized by function, and the second, an original composition by

the author, which includes numerous glissandi in various types.

Introductioii

The piano has gone through many years of development since the

invention of the "escape" mechanism in the early eighteenth century.

Although our concert instrtmient does not appear imtil the early nineteenth

century, pianistic techniques were refined from ancestral keyboard

instruments such as the virginal, clavichord, harpsichord, and fortepiano.

The development of the piano's mechanism and techniques, as well as the

personal aesthetics of various composers, have had a direct influence on the

evolution of certain compositional devices which are recognized as being

characteristic of personal or historical genres as well. Those pianistic devices

which have been viewed by recent composers as strongly associated with the

"traditional" include glissandi, trills, octave runs, staggered octaves, parallel

passages, tremolos, broken chords, and vibrato-chord passages. In the most

avant garde works, the use of these devices is less clear: some are distorted,

others are dispersed or never used. Instead, extended "non traditional"

technical devices such as tone clusters, muting or plucking of strings, banging

both inside and outside the instrument, wiping on the strings, and vocalizing

are utilized to enrich the piano repertoire.

Composers are still searching for new sounds; pertinent examples can

be foimd in works such as William Bolcom's Twelve New Etudes (1966),

George Crumb's Makrokosmos I (1972) and H (1973), and Gyorgy Ligeti's

13

Etudes pour Piano, premier livre (1985).^ The old pianistic devices continue

to be developed, while new techniques or new combinations of the old

pianistic devices and extended techniques are invented by contemporary

composers.

The understanding derived from a thorough study of the glissando

throughout its chronological development, consisting of an examination of

distinct differences in the glissando's functions, ranges, executions, and tj^es,

can support the viability of this traditional device for future piano

composition. In this study, examples are extracted from piano solo and

concerto compositions; piano chamber music, piano duos, and piano duets,

will not be discussed.^

The term, glissando, which is derived from an Italianized French verb

meaning "to slide," refers to a quick scale produced by single (later multiple)

finger(s). This device could be notated either by written-out smaller-notes

with appropriate markings—such as finger numbers or the word

"glissando"—or by a diagonal line between the upper and lower notes; the

latter is a very common indication used by twentieth-century composers.

Moreover, some glissandi are indicated by connecting the ligatures between

the upper and lower notes, but omitting the middle notes. Examples without

^Carlos Chavez also wrote etudes for the piano. Four New Etudes (1952). Different from the etudes mentioned in context, Chavez's etudes, based on the traditional keyboard plajang, deal with the techniques of "pointillism" and "dodecaphonism."

^This survey is intended to be complete as possible, drawing on the works by composers who were bom between Scarlatti and Crumb (1685-1929). All examples found are listed in Appendix A. However, not every example will be discussed or considered in detail because they are less significant or similar to other examples.

14

the indication of the glissando's destination note are also fotind in modem

works, obviously assiiming a new kind of function.

The Functions. 1. embellishment 2. melody, 3. virtuosic effect, 4.

impressionism, 5. programmatic expression, 6. backward motion, and 7.

modulation tool.

The glissando is an offshoot of the "slide" (Schleifer) (Ex. 1).^

Inasmuch as the slide was one of the most common embellishments in the

Example 1: Slide.

early keyboard repertoire,^ the early glissando evolved from this device.

Gradually, the melodic usage of glissandi became common. As other pianistic

techniques were created profusely during the nineteenth century, the

glissando came to be used as a virtuosic effect by virtuoso pianists. This kind

of usage has been reinforced continuously, while some glissandi were in the

manner of impressionism or programmatic expression. Another function of

the glissando is 'T?ackward motion," which is always followed, or preceded, by

P. E. Bach implicitly suggested the function of ornaments are: 1. to connect notes— melodic function, 2. enlivening—colorific function, 3. giving weight and emphasis—rhythmic function, 4. contributing to a disposition "sad or joyful or otherwise"—melo^c or harmonic function. (See The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, "OTmanents,§VU: Summarized by Function," 13:859-860.) However, this study does not follow his categories since he was concerned with ornaments in general. The study of glissandi intends to be more specific.

'This ornament; also known as the elevation, whole-fall, slur or double backfall, consists of a little conjunct run of two accessory notes leading to its main note." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, "Ornaments, §11: Appoggiaturas," 13:834-835.

^Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, 136-142.

15

a fingered ascending/descending passage whose range is similar to the

glissando. Moreover, some composers used the glissando as a tool for

suddenly changing the tonality between the white-key and black-key

harmonies. In addition, many examples have more than one of these

functions.

The Ranges. As a type of primitive ornament, the range of the

glissando was quite narrow. This resulted from the limited capacity of the

early keyboard instruments and because of relatively primitive keyboard

playing skills. Accommodating the expansion of the piano's compass,^

examples found in the eighteenth century are only within two octaves, but

the range expands to four-and-a-half octaves in the works of the Qassical

period. The composes of the Romantic period expanded it again to five

octaves, and an example of five-and-a-half octaves is also foxmd. This range

reaches its maximum in the twentieth century; with the appearance of the

black-key glissando, the use of the entire keyboard becomes possible in

modem piano works.

The Directions. Since the old slides mostly were ascenciing,^ the

glissando at first followed tiiis model of execution.® The descending glissando

began to be used by the early nineteenth-century composers, and examples of

®Of the compass of the two existing specimens of Bartolomo Christofori's instruments: one has four octaves and the other, four-and-a-half. Mozart's piano has five octaves. In 1790, Broadwood made pianos with five-and-a-half octaves and, in 1794, with six octaves. Liszt's Erard piano has six octaves. The works of Schtimaim and Giopin required nothing beyond six-and-a-half octaves. The present piano usually has seven-and-a-quarter octaves. The extra notes are added to the bass of some large grands by Bdsendorfer, which has seven-and-three-quarters or even eight octaves.

G. Hamilton, Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music, 59.

®See Scarlatti's examples in Chapter 2.

16

continuously descending and ascending glissandi are fotmd in the mid-

nineteenth century. At the same time, the two-hand glissando appeared, first

in the same direction, and later in contrary directions, which even applied to

the two-hand octave-glissandi and black-and-white glissandi. In works with

nationalistic characteristics, ascending examples are more frequent. This

perhaps is because of the influence of folk music.

The Types. Aside from purely musical motivation, the character

of a composer's own instruments, hands, and plajring techniques, led to

various types of the glissando that included: 1. white-key glissandi, 2. octave-

glissandi, 3. two-hand glissandi, 4. double-note glissandi, 5. black-key

glissandi, and 6. black-and-white glissandi.^

The octave-glissando began to be used in the early nineteenth century.

Since it was not always easy to produce on every early piano, an alternative

was frequently provided by the composers themselves or pianists; the most

common one is allotting them to both hands. However, the experiments of

incorporating extremes did not stop with nineteenth-century composers: an

octave-glissando with another single-note glissando and even two octave-

glissandi executed simultaneously are foimd in nineteenth-century works.

Twentieth-century composers seemed to lose enthusiasm for this kind of

^here is a spectacular type of glissando, the chromatic glissando, which was created by Carl Tausig. See more details in the discussion of Prokofiev's Piano Concerto No. 5 in Chapter 3. This kind of glissando is rather unusual and unique; it is not necessary to set up a distinctive category. In addition, in spite of the distinct difference in timbre and acoustics, the idea of a glissando "on the strings" is indeed identical to a chromatic-glisscindo on the keyboard. (In George Crumb's Five Pieces for Piano, the composer used chromatic scale with the marking "gliss." to indicate the use of the glissando on the strings.) Since this kind of glissando requires a different kind of technique, a discussion of it will not be included in this study. Another transformation excluded in this study is the vocalized glissando, such examples are found in Karlheinz Stockhausen's fGavierstiickeXnand George Crumb's The Phantom Gondolier (from Makrokosmos).

17

glissando, since it remains hard to execute on modem pianos. The era of the

virtuoso pianist-composer had all but died out by the mid-twentieth century;

and as composers seek equally effective but easier gestures, these might cause

fewer examples of the "extreme" glissando to be produced.

The two-hand glissando was used beginning in the nineteenth century.

This idea may have been derived from the alternatives for the octave-

glissando, since examples of two-hand gUssandi foimd in this century are all

in octaves. This is not always true for twentieth-century composers: one

example found is in ninths. Another variation foimd in twentieth-century

works is that of the black-and-white glissando; that is, when the black-key

glissando is initiated, some composers create a two-hand effect, combining it

with a white-key glissando.

The double-note glissando is defined as a glissando with two notes in

fixed intervals—excluding octaves—executed by one hand. Examples are

found in the mid-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Compared to the

widespread use of the two-hand version, very few composers used this kind

of glissando. The reasons perhaps are the same as for the relative infrequency

of the octave-glissando, although the technique for the double-note glissando

is easier than the octave-glissando.

The black-key glissando, which outlines the pentatonic scale, weis used

beginning with the impressionist composers. Since then, the black-key

glissando has been adopted by many twentieth-century composers. Also, the

use of the combination of black- and white-key glissandi was commenced in

the early part of this century. As the effect became more common, the black-

and-white glissando could be also executed in contrary directions.

The Techniques. The execution of glissandi frequently accents the

initial note (or interval), and the destination note is on the beat (Fig. 1.1).

Occasionally, especially in a fast tempo or if an acrobatic-like effect is desired,

the last few notes even are not depressed; there might be a little break

between the destination note and flie scale covered by pedal. However, in the

case of a destination note which is not on the beat, generally, it requires

depressing all the notes (Fig. 1.2). For the glissando without the destination

marked, the hand is upwards after the scale in the approximate pitch, and

leaves the keyboard entirely (Fig. 2).

Figure 1.1,1.2: The Basic Executions of the Glissando.

Figure 1.1 Rgure. 12.

Figure 2: The Hand Position for the Glissando without the Destination Marked.

hand position

19

The speeds of glissandi are varied: not every glissando must be played

rhj^thmically evenly; in some examples, accellerando or ritardando is applied

to the execution, and some examples naturally speed up near the end. The

d3mamics are also varied: a brilliant sonority is the glissando's usual effect,

but there are some examples marked "delicatissimo"or even coupled with

the use of the una corda pedal. Glissandi with the crescendo or diminuendo

marked are quite common; for them, the weight of hands is gradually

changed.

The use of the damper pedal is usual with the execution of the

glissando, but this is not always true. Early examples demand a stylistic

interpretation, and some modem examples need a dry percussive effect; the

damper pedal does not serve these purposes appropriately.

The octave-glissando and the double-note glissando require a similar

technique; the difference is a matter of the interval size, and the fifth finger

poses an inevitable disadvantage for the octave-glissando, owing to its

inherent weakness. To execute them, the palm of the hands should be

shaped over the reqtiired interval. Also, there should be enough height for

the fingers to depress the keys, bi the case of octave-glissandi, the use of the

thirnib with the fourth and fifth together, in the descending glissando in the

right hand or the ascending glissando on the left hand, can make the result

more secure.

The execution of the black-key glissando requires a greater key contact

between finger(s) and keys. Use of more than one finger often makes it easier

to depress the keys evenly. Like the octave-glissando, the fingers need

sufficient height to depress the black keys, and some pianists actually stand up

20

in order to place the weight of fingers on the keys efficiently. For the black-

and-white key glissando in an identical register, using only one hand

sometimes is more convenient and shows pianist's virtuosity convincingly.

The two-hand glissando, executed in the same direction, requires the

technique of maintaining the parallel motion of the hands. For each octave,

one must always be aware whether both hands are still on the approximate

notes. For executing the black-and-white glissando, generally, the hands must

be placed closely together so that each hand can support the other.

The Criticisin. A question of whether the use of the glissando is

truly required sometimes occurs. In some cases, the indication given by the

composer is rather clear, but fingering it might be even more effective; while,

on the other hand, for some passages without any indication of using

glissandi, using them might be the better choice. Besides, there are examples

of so-called "quasi-glissando,"io which suggests the passages be played with

the effect of glissando; here, the use of a "real" glissando becomes a possibility.

Although described as "dear to the virtuoso" by Qarence G.

Hamilton,!! not every virtuoso pianist-composer used the glissando in

his/her piano works. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many of

the best-known composers did not use this device, for instance: J. S. Bach,

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Franz Schubert Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,

Fr^d^c Chopin, Robert Schtmiann, and Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky. This might

be because the glissando is characteristically a sort of acrobatic or virtuoso

!Osuch examples appear in Liszt's Reminiscences de Don Juan (Mozart), Smetana's Polka in A Major form Vzpominka na Cechy ve Forme Poiek, Op. 12, chmaninoff s Piano Concerto No. 4,2nd movement Kabalevsky's Piano Concerto No. 3, etc.

!!C. G. Hamilton, Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music, 63.

gesture, or the fact that these composers' personal musical styles were not

dedicated to this sort of keyboard exploitation.^^

21

l For instance, Chopin, described as an "Idealizer of the Virtuoso Element" by Edgar Stillman Kelley, {Chopin The Composer, 45) "the philosopher of the beautiful, fashioned his iridescent harmonies and mysteriously woven lunar colors upon a black-and-white instrument" (Abram Oiasins, Speaking of Pianists, 220). His virtuoso pianistic passage-work was largely dependent upon dexterous finger motion. The glissando does not serve any function for his harmonic and melodic treatment on the piano. Obs^e Example 2 (Polonaise, Op. 53), if we ignore the accidental signs, indeed there are opportunities for the use of the glissando, but Chopin executed all the scales with the fingers.

Example 2: F. Chopin, Po/oiiaise, Op. 53

22

CHAPTER2

The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries

The glissando developed from a primitive ornamental form to an

expanded musical or virtuoso effect during the eighteenth and nineteenth

centuries. Black-key glissandi did not come into use at this time, but octave-

glissandi, double-note glissandi, and two-hand glissandi became a part of the

musical vocabulary of a number of nineteenth-century composers, and were

passed on to composers of the twentieth century. The evolution of the

glissando in its aspects of range, function, and execution wUl be studied in

this chapter.

This sxirvey begins with Domenico Scarlatti, where we find the first use

of the glissando.^ Following the expansive usage by Ludwig van Beethoven

and Carl Maria von Weber, the glissando was used even more lavishly by the

Romantic composers, most notably by Franz Liszt. Other examples found in

the nineteenth century are by Bedrich Smetana, Johannes Brahms, Camille

Saint-Sa&is, Nfily Balakirev, Edvard Grieg, and Edward Elgar; some of their

examples represent virtuosic character, some of them are nationalistic.

Aside from the composers mentioned above, it would appear that

other important composers avoided this device, including J. S. Bach,

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Franz Schubert Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,

Fr^dMc Chopin, and Robert Schtimann. However, in the following century.

^In Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music, 63, Qarence G. Hamilton illustrated Scarlatti's Sonata, K. 487 as the example when he addressed the first use of glissandi. However, in Scarlatti's eeirlier sonata, K. 379, the use of glissandi is also found.

23

the glissando has not only been used with greater frequency, but it has been

used in new aesthetic applications.

Domenico Scarlatti

The glissando was apparently first used by Domenico Scarlatti (1685-

1757), an Italian composer who lived mostly in Spain and therefore was

isolated from his contemporaries. Scarlatti wrote more than five himdred

and fifty sonatas for harpsichord, which display fairly modem types of

technique, such as repeated-notes, cross-overs of hands, wide-range skips,

virtuoso chordal figures, and glissandi.

Among his nimierous sonatas, examples of glissandi are found in

three sonatas: K. 379, K. 468, and K. 487. Glissandi used in K. 379 and K. 468

are ornamental in function, while a glissando in K. 487 is melodic. The

ranges of these glissandi are simply within two octaves: K. 379 is in one

octave, K. 468 is in one-and-a-half octaves, and K. 487 covers almost two

octaves. To indicate the use of the glissando, the composer marked "con dedo

solo"(with one finger) in K. 379 and K. 468 (Ex. 3), though there is no

Example 3: D. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 468.

appropriate accidental for B-flat. In K. 487, there is no glissando execution

marked in Scarlatti's manuscript, but in one edition noted in Qarence G.

Hamilton's Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music, this figure is played as

• Con dedo solo

24

a glissando. Besides, if we observe Examples 4 and 5 (from Scarlatti's

manuscript), there are nine thirty-second notes and five sixty-fourth notes in

one measure in the manuscript The composer did not group them into any

combination within the meter, which makes the glissando a possible mode of

execution.

Example 4: D. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 487.

When we play these works on the piano, the use of the damper pedal is

imnecessary for these glissandi. Examples of glissandi played without damper

pedal do not appear again xmtil certain twentieth-century compositions.^

Moreover, the glissandi in K. 379 and 487 could be more easily executed by the

fingers instead of being played as glissandi, resulting in two different kinds of

interpretations: in K. 379, the thirty-second notes can be divided into two

^Qarence G. Hamilton, Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music, 63.

^An example is B61a Bcirtdk's Tanz-Suite, whidi is dated much later in 1923. The discussion of it is in Chapter 3.

Example 5: D. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 487. (manuscript)

eighth notes evenly using the fingering of 2-3-1-2-3-4-1-2. This makes

it easier to accurately reach the following chord (in 3rd) in the next down beat.

If a glissando is used, the first note (D) of these thirty-second notes needs to be

played "on the beat" The rest of the notes can be faster than the written

value and shorter than the total value (two eighth notes), creating an exotic

effect in this "Minuet" subtitted sonata. In K. 487, tfiis passage, as a cadence (I

-V -1), could be a simple ascending glissando, or it could be divided as in the

following figure and played by the fingers.

Figure 3: Fingered Version of the Example firom Scarlatti's Sonata, K. 487.

There is another kind of execution used in K. 376: in Example 6, the

destination of the glissando is clearly on the third beat, hence, the notes on

the second and third beats must be played in a precise rhythm.

Example 6: D. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 379.

In K. 468, four glissandi occur continuously in the second section of

this sonata. Unlike the previous example, these tiiirty-second notes shotild

be executed only as glissandi, since "con dedo solo" was marked by the

composer and the destination notes are rather easy to arrive at.

26

The idea of quasi gUssandi, which was used later by many composers,

such as Franz Liszt, Dmitri Kabalevsky, etc., is also revealed in Scarlatti's

examples. There is no indication of the use of glissandi in the second section

of K. 379, but the parallel passages imply the same feature. The use of

glissandi is still appropriate. Nonetheless, if fingering passages, the sound

should be "queisi-glissandi" to match the earlier passages in this sonata.

There is not enough evidence to say that no other composer besides

Scarlatti ever used the glissando during this time, but it is true that among

Scarlatti's well-known contemporaries, there is no one—^not Jean-Philippe

Rameau, J. S. Bach, George Frederick Handel, nor C. P. E. Bach—^who wrote

down the glissando as a formal figure in his keyboard compositions. The next

use of the glissando, in Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 1 in C Major, Op. 15,

occurred almost fifty years after Scarlatti died. This device may be a kind of

"gimmick," but firom Scarlatti's examples, which anticipate examples in later

piano compositions, it proved that the use of the glissando is viable.

Unlike the slide, the glissando was used infirequently by the composers

of the Qassical period. There are no examples found in Joseph Haydn's,

Muzio Qementi's, or Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's keyboard works. But

during this era, the octave-glissando, which later was regarded as

"impracticable on modem grands with "English' action,"^ is used in Ludwig

van Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 1 in C Major, Op. 15, and Piano Sonata

^Refer to the discussion in Chapter 1.

footnote on the edition of Hans von Bulow and Sigmund Lebert. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc. 'X. van Beethoven Sonata for the Piano, Op. 53."

27

in C Major, Op. 53; Carl Maria von Weber's Kano Concerto No. 1, Op. 11, and

Concertstiick; and Johann Nepomuk Hummel's Piano Concerto in A minor.

Op. 85.

Ludwig van Beethoven and Carl Maria von Weber

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) expanded the piano's technique

and sonority to achieve orchestral effects on the piano. Technically, he

incessantly exploited the capabilities of the piano such as the range of

d)mamics, lengthy trills, and octave-glissandi. In his piano works, not only

the ingenious pianistic figures, but also the inspirational musical ideas that

gave the following generation an impressive model.

The glissando in Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 1 in C Major (1801) is

used as a fortissimo cadence (V -1) to the recapitulation section (Ex. 7). This

glissando—^melodic in function—should end on the downbeat (in measure

346). Therefore it must be performed in tempo, and the value of each octave

must be even.

Interestingly enough, since the composer did not mark any indication

of a glissando, how can we know this is a place for an octave-glissando? (See

Example 7.) A similar question occurs if we look at the scherzo movement of

Example 7: L. van Beethoven, Piano Concerto No. 1 in C Major, Op. 15,1.

28

Beethoven's Piano Trio No. 3 in C minor. Op. 1, No. 3. Both examples are

fortissimo descending cadences; since they are in quite a fast tempo, to execute

them either with a two-hand or as an octave-glissando is foolproof, as the use

of octave runs is impractical for these two passages.^

The example from Sonata, Op. 53 (1805), is also melodic in function,

and features a descending as well as an ascending line. Again, the precise

tempo is crucial since each glissando is in two segments, and the pivot octave-

G must come on the down beat of each measure, bi contrast to the previous

example, these glissandi should be soimded very softly (the dynamic

indicated here is pp). On the modem piano, one must use the una corda

pedal for the elegant quality; use of the damper pedal must be careful to avoid

a muddy soxmd. However, Beethoven's Viennese piano was well designed

for the execution of the octave-glissando because of the lighter action, while

piamst Hans von Bulow, one of Liszt's great pupils, suggested an easier

version for these glissandi. See Example 8.

Example 8: L. van Beethoven, Piano Sonata, Op. 53, Rondo.

gtUtaniS' V (sempre t C.)

^Example from Hummel's Piano Concerto, Op. 85, presents a similar situation.

29

Carl Maria von Weber (1786-1826) was best-known as a composer of

opera and his piano works are relatively tmimportant Nevertheless, his

explorations of the piano's potential have enriched the piano repertoire.

Maurice Hinson has observed that Weber's pianistic technique is:

"characterized by large skips, brilliant passages in diirds, sixths, octaves,

dramatic crescendos and awkward stretches."^ Weber's major piano works

include the Concertstuci^ two concertos, four sonatas, more than eight

variation sets, and many dance pieces. Most of them are difficult to play.

Among these works, the use of the glissando is fotmd in the Piano Concerto

No. 1 (1810) and Concertstiick (1821).

Examples found in the last movement of Weber's Piano Concerto No.

1 are rather tmusual; two octave-glissandi® executed—^in thirds—by both

hands simultaneously (Ex. 9). These glissandi are extremely difficult to

Example 9: C. M. von Weber, Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 11, Finale.

play on today's instruments; they may have been practicable at the time

owing to the composer's large hands, and a lighter touch and narrower

^Maurice Hinson, Guide to the Pianist's Repertoire, 672.

®For information about the counting of glissandi, refer to the footnote 1 in Chapter 4.

30

expanse of the keyboard.^ bi later times, only Johannes Brahms's Ongaiische

Tanze has a similar example, which was written sixty years later.^^

"The last, and. unquestionably the most striking of Weber's

compositions for the pianoforte was the Concertstiick."^! This work, actually

the composer's third piano concerto,^^ is superbly written: it features frequent

four-part chords covering a tenth, swift chromatic passages, widening right

hand leaps, octave runs, racing passage work, and the octave-glissando.

There are four glissandi used in the Concertst&ck, and three of them are in

octaves. The first glissando occurs in the opening section (Ex. 10). This is a

glissando of a very wide range—^four-and-a-half octaves—^which is melodic in

function. The first octave-glissando over three-and-a-half octaves occurs in

the third section, right before the orchestra's second repetition of the 'Tempo

di Marda." This glissando, as an embellishment grandiosely punctuates the

orchestra's repeated melody. In the last section, after the orchestra tutti, this

octave-glissando transposed to a perfect fourth higher and repeated once,

recalls the composer's acrobatic virtuosity. Since this glissando is quite

difficult to play on every piano, Franz Liszt suggested two versions for it; one

^ohn Warrack, Carl Maria von Weber, 99.

difference is that Brahms's example is in contrary directions. This example will be discussed later in this chapter.

^^Sir Julius Benedict, Gari Maria von Weber, 158.

l The ConcertstQck includes four sections which Weber bound together as a single movement. However, the early sketch of the work is in three movements. Program-note on "Deutsche Grammophon Gesellschaft" 138710 ST33 SLPM.

31

is executed witii two hands, the other is by substituted fingered scales (Ex.

11).13

Example 10: C. M. von Weber, Concertstuckr Op. 79.

Example 11: C. M. von Weber, Concertstuck, Op. 79. ttrictig fMi#

W

i i tt i •

or A (implificatioa like Ihia tirieltf in tim*

the first octave-glissando used in this work, Liszt suggested octave runs for both hands and soloist join the orchestra in the second repetition of the Ma . See the details in Schirmer edition, revised & fingered by Constantin Sternberg, "Editor's Note."

32

Weber's best-known piano solo work Aufforderung zum Tanz (1819)

was later transcribed by pianist Carl Tausig^^ (1841-1871) in the 1860s. An

octave-glissando is found in this version. Tausig transformed the original C

major and A major octave ascending scales—^in sixteenth notes—^into two

white-key glissandi; the first one in single-notes, and the second in octaves.

Besides, there is a dynamic contrast between the C major and A major scales

in the original version, but Tausig uses a brilliant virtuosic effect in both

glissandi. However, these glissandi stiE retain the melodic character which

Weber intended.

Franz Liszt

Of numerous great piano composers in the nineteenth century, Franz

Liszt (1811-1886) was the one who truly inherited Beethoven's ability to

transfer orchestral power and effects to the piano. Liszt's idiomatic pianistic

technique such as high trills imitating the cjnnbalon, tremendous octave

runs, leaps over long intervals, howling tremolos, sophisticated double-note

phrases, hand crossings, and brilliant glissandi, vastly increased the repertoire

of pianistic effects. After hearing Liszt's performance in Paris, Sir Charles

Hall^is said:

Such marvels of executive skill and power I could never have imagined. He was a giant, and Rubinstein spoke the truth when, at a time when his own triumphs were greatest he said that in comparison with Liszt all other pianists were children Liszt was all sunshine

l HaroId C Schonberg stated:"... Qirl Tausig, perhaps Liszt's greatest pupil. Many considered him the most flawless pianist of the century." The Great Pianists, 2 . Tausigalso made some piano reductions of Richard Wagner's operas.

l 'The first pianist in history to play the cycle of Beethoven sonatas in public. That was in 1861. He also invented an automatic page turner." Ibid., 222.

33

and dazzling splendor, subjugating his hearers with a power that none could withstand. For him there were no difficulties of execution.16

In his glissandi, Liszt used different kinds of executions, including

double-note glissandi and two-hand glissandi. The former are found in the

Paganini Etude, "La Chasse"{W51), MagyarDallok—Ungarische National-

Melodien No. 9 (1840), Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15(1851), and the latter are

found in Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10(1853), Mephisto Waltz No. 1 (1860),

Illustration No. 2 aus dem Prophet (von Meyerbeer) "Die Schlittschuhlaufer"

(1850), Totentanz (1849) and the Piano Concerto No. 2 in A Major (1849).

Other examples are found in Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14 (1853) and

Paraphrase of the Waltz from Gounod's Faust (1868).

Magyar Dallok—Ungarische National-Melodien is Liszt's early cycle of

Hungarian Rhapsodies.^"^ Three double-note glissandi, in sixths or thirds, are

foxmd in No. 9 (Ex. 12). These glissandi are all melodic in function.

Example 12: F. Liszt, Magyar Dallok—Ungarische National-Melodien, No. 9.

iiiiiiiiU^iiiiiPlEl rinforzando

Double-note glissandi are found again in the Paganini Etude "La

Chasse." The key of La Chasse is E major. In the use of glissandi, the

l Qiarles HaI16, Li£e and Letters, 37-38.

l See "Vonvort" in Franz Liszt; Neue Ausgabe Samtlidier Werke, Serie I, Werke fur Klavierzu zwei HSnden, Band 18, £tude (Op.6); Ungarisdie Nationalmelodien by Editio Musica Budapest, 1985.

composer's harmoiiic design is evidently intended to match the glissandi's

natural harmonic implication, in which a simple modulation moves from E

major towards to A minor and followed by C major (see Table 1). These

Table 1: The Transposition Process in Liszt's La Chasse. m. 68 69 70 73 82 83 J 84 87

EM am — — EM pivot-G CM - -

E: a: C:

I V i V

V I

glis

sand

o

glis

sand

o

glis

sand

o

glis

sand

o

double-note glissandi are all in sixths in the right hand (Ex. 13). The

destination chord is given separate stems, which implies that it could be

played by both hands.^s Besides, the symbol of the "wedge" ( • ) suggests

placing this final interval exactly on the second beat.

Example 13: F. Liszt, Paganiid Etude No. 5 "La Chasse."

glineudo

In Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10, the characteristic sonority of the

cymbalon is embodied. In the middle section, the continuous passages of

^8ln "Instructive Edition." Critically revised with fingering, pedalling and marks of expression by Paolo Gallico. New York: G. Schirmer.

35

glissandi can be grouped into three types (see Fig. 4): (a) connected ascending

and descending glissandi, 0?) simple wide-range glissandi, and (c) two-hand

outwards glissandi. The outer notes in types (a) and (b) must be played very

rhythmically and articulated with >, •, or — . Type (b) should also be played

slower since the value within one measure is larger, and type (c), closing the

phrases, needs a heavier touch to provide enough weight for the crescendo.

Figure 4: Three Types of Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10.

Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14 was transcribed from the composer's early

cycle of Ungarische National-Melodien No. 21, which is also the predecessor

in the Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14. Compared to the Hungarian Fantasia,

the latter repeats the first and third glissandi once, while the second one

remains a fingered figure of a g)^sy scale as does its predecessor (Ex. 14).

of the Hungarian Fantasia for piano and orchestra. Three glissandi are used

Example 14: F. Liszt, Hungarian Fantasia.

36

The second glissando is melodic in function as its original form of a g3^sy

scale, while the other two show a virtuosic effect, and require a electrifying

touch and a fast tempo (Ex. 15).

Example 15: F. Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14.

Hu 1

Five continuous descending glissandi are used in Hungarian Rhapsody

No. 15, subtitled R^dczy-Marsch. Although these glissandi are written in

double-notes (in thirds), the ossia version (the single-notes glissando

provided by the composer) might be more effective (Ex. 16).i9 These gHssandi

Example 16: F. Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15.

FaenilK

. glissando 1*—m F IJ -

s LA —£ ^ ^ ^ f- f ^ L - . . . P . . # • - . f t m "

the earlier version of this work, the situation is different: the composer suggested the use of double-note glissandi for the descending passages in thirds (mm. 160-164).

37

suggest a harmonic basis for the use of glissandi in the nineteenth century:

the triads on the white keys for the glissando. Figure 5 shows that every triad

on the white keys is used as a beiss for the glissando.

Figure 5: The Harmonic Structure on the Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15.

k -I- 4-

am GM FM em dm CM bO am GM FM (EM)

a; i vn VI V iv in iiO i vn VI (V)

C: vi V IV iii ii I vii® vi V IV (in)

Liszt was also a very active transcriber. Die Schlittschuhlauferwas

transcribed from the theme of Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera Le Prophete.

There is a letter from Meyerbeer to Liszt regarding Liszt's transcriptions from

this opera:

Mr. Schlesinger has informed me of a letter you wrote indicating that you had written a major piano composition based on the anabaptist chorus from Le Proph^te, that it was your intention to dedicate this composition to me when the piece is published I do not want to await the arrival of this letter to express to you how pleased I am that you would think one of my pieces worthy of use as a motif for one of your piano compositions. It is most certinly destined to be performed throughout Europe and shall amaze those fortunate enough to hear your magnificent and poetic performances.^!

^^Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864) was a virtuoso pianist as well as a famous opera composer. Liszt's other transcriptions based upon Giacomo Meyerbeer's works indude Robert le Diable and Les Huguenots. On Ae theme of Le Proph6te, Liszt also wrote his most monumental organ work Ad Nos ad Salutarem Undam, Fantasia and Fugue.

^^Heinz and Gudrun Becker, Giacomo Meyerbeer: A Life in Letters, 139.

38

The quantity of glissandi in this work is amazing, and it is perhaps true

that this work. Die Schlittschuhlaufer (the Skaters), has the largest number of

glissandi in the entire piano repertoire: fif^-seven total, including six two-

hand glissandi.22 All of them are ascending with a maximum range of five

octaves. The composer used the device as a reiterating accompaniment

figure. Two of them bear the indication "poco rit" These glissandi occur in

three sections (see Table 2). The first two sections are enclosed by the two-

hand glissandi. There are some glissandi of approximately one octave;

technically, in this piece, they are more difficult to play than the longer ones.

Besides, since some fingered quasi-glissando passages occur alternately with

the glissandi, it might be easier to execute the short range glissandi with the

fingers.

Table 2: Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's Die Schlittschuhlaufer.

Section Measures Glissandi Two-hand glissandi.

1 203-250 1-34 3

2 305-330 35-53 3

3 464-469 54-57 0

Mephisto Waltz No. 1 ('The Dance in the Village Dm:" Episode 6rom

Lenau'spoem "Faust") was dedicated to Carl Tausig.23 The two-hand

glissando is used light after three measures of silence and followed by the

grandiose main theme (Ex. 17). Concerning the execution of this two-hand

22For information about the counting of glissandi, refer to the footnote 1 in Chapter 4.

^We have previously observed his transcription of Weber's Aufforderung zum Tanz. See the footnote under the discussion.

39

glissando, Emil von. Sauer's edition, published by C F. Peters, has the

following comment: "A fine effect is produced by pla5dng this run glissando

with the right hand, the left hand executing it as a scale." The edition by Earl

Wild has a different opinion: "By starting an octave lower and adding the

octave E in the left hand at the top of the glissando, a greater definition is

accomplished."

Example 17: F. Liszt, Mephisto Waltz No. 1.

The Totentanz (The Dance of Death) is a theme and variations, which

is based on the theme derived firom the plainchant 'Vies Irae" from the Mass

for the Dead. Of this work, Sitwell wrote:

Its shuddering, clanking rhjrthms, its soimds as of dandng bones, are of the weirdest achievement possible. It is, somehow, a piece admirably adapted for piano and orchestra; the piano has a real causus vivendi, a real reason for its presence in the orchestra.

The glissandi used in this tremendous work are a diabolic and sardonic

programmatic expression and also lend a rather virtuosic effect. Thirteen,

including three two-hand, glissandi are used in "Variation H;" and seven in

the closing section, "Allegro animato," which are all two-hand glissandi in

the same register.

^^acheverell Sitwell, Liszt 230.

40

Four two-hand glissandi are used in the Concerto No. 2 in A Major.

These glissandi are all in four octaves. The difference is that in the last one,

the left hand does not follow the right hand but stops on the third octave (Ex.

18). In addition, the descending ones start from F and end on E; such design

suggests the glissando is ornamental in function, while the ascending ones,

between two Es, are actually melodic in function.

Example 18: F. Liszt, Concerto in A Major.

Paraphrase of the Waltz from Gounod's Faust; pianist Femicdo

Busoni's favorite piece, is one of Liszt's most successful works. Seven

glissandi are fotmd in this work. They are all ascending and melodic in

function.

It would be interesting to ask why Liszt did not use octave glissandi

instead of two-hand glissandi—especially since all two-hand glissandi by him

are in octaves, except for examples in contrary directions—and why there

seems to be no use of the black-key glissando. The black-key glissando

outlines the pentatonic scale which simply is not part of Liszt's musical style.

Octave-glissandi are used in Beethoven's works, since the light action of his

Viennese piano was well designed for their execution. There is no doubt that

41

the strength and pliability of the action in Liszt's pianos was quite different

from that of the early pianos. This differentiation necessitated a heavier

action and a considerable lowering of the dip (or "fall") of the keys. Weber's

piano was not only lighter in touch but also narrower.25 Liszt's suggestion for

executing the octave-glissando in Weber's Concertstuckhas already been

discussed (Ex. 11). Likewise, Liszt even wrote ossia passages for glissandi in

his own works, such as two ossia passages in place of the use of double-note

glissandi in Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15, a chord passage substitute for the

two-hand glissando in the Piano Concerto No. 2, and a simplified version for

many lengthy glissandi in Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10.

Liszt's examples are simimarized in Table 3 and Table 4. The cited

Liszt's examples of glissandi were written from arotmd 1839 to the 1850s.26

There are no octave-glissandi written by this significant piano virtuoso,

although derMeister produced many dazzling two-hand and double-note

Table 3: The Function of Glissandi Used in Liszt's Works. Magyar Dalok—Ungarische National-Melodien No. 9.

Melodic.

La Chasse. Ornamental with a virtuosic technique. Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10. Connection of two (or three) displaced melodies. Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14. Virtuosic effect. Melodic. Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15. Ornamental. Die SchlittschuhlSufer. Ornamental. Totentanz. Virtuosic effect. Programmatic expression. Concerto No. 2 in A Major. Virtuosic effect. Ornamented or melodic. Mephisto Waltz No. 1. Virtuosic effect. Waltz (rom Gounod's Faust. Melodic.

25"Weber's piano, a Brodmaim (Vienna), had an octave span of 15.9 cm. as against the modem 16.5 cm." John Warrack, Carl Maria von Weber, 99(.

26in Sacheverell Sitwell's study. Waltz torn Gounod's Faust might be written some yecirs before 1868. Liszt 345.

42

glissandi, and the quantity of glissandi is the most numerous in the entire

piano repertoire. The range of glissandi also was expanded to five octaves at

this time.

Table 4: Sttmmary of F. Liszt's Examples. Title Numbers of

Glissandi Type included® Ossia

version Years

Magyar Dalok—Ungarische National-Melodien No. 9.

3 A A 3rd 6th

1840.

Piano Concerto in A Major. 8 • 1839, rev. 1849-61.

La Chasse. 4 A 6th

1840,1851.

Die Schlittschuhlaufer. 57 A& 1850.

Totentanz. 30 A V ft 1849,1853,1859.

Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10. 28 A V afd • 1853.

No. 14. 3 A V ft 1853.

No. 15. 5 3rd V • 1851,1871.

Mephisto Waltz No. 1. 2 ft 1860.

Waltz 6rom Gounod's Faust 7 A 1868.

key for these symbos is found in Appendix A.

Johannes Brahms and Camille Saint-Saens

Joharmes Brahms (1833-1897) is viewed as "the principal opposite

number to Liszt in the field of keyboard music in the latter half of the

nineteenth century." F. E. Kirby continued,

Brahms had none of the great "international" quality that was so characteristic of Liszt Although, Like Liszt he was a pianist and even conductor by profession, Brahms was never in the public eye by such activities; indeed, when he made his Viennese debut as a pianist, he used his two piano quartets, a genre of composition that had never been associated with pianistic virtuosity.^^

E. Kirby, A Short History of Keyboard Music, 320.

43

Among Brahms's major piano works, glissandi are found in the

Paganini Variations, Op. 35, Bk. 1 (1866), and Vhgarische Taitze No. 8 (1872);

which are all in octaves. The Paganini Variations are actually a study in

piano technique. Brahms wrote two volumes of them; each volume has a

theme and 14 variations. The theme—^in 12 measures—^is derived from the

violin virtuoso Nicolo Paganini's Caprices, Op. 1. Besides Brahms, Robert

Schumann, Liszt, and Sergei Rachmaninoff also composed piano

transcriptions or sets of variations based on this theme.28 Ungarische

Tanze—ten of them—represent Brahms's interest in a national folk-music

character. These works were arranged by the composer himself from his

earlier version for piano duet—the first ten date 1869, and Nos. 11-211880.

Also, Brahms produced orchestral versions of Nos. 1,3 and 10 in 1874.

In the examples from the Paganini Variations, as in many of Liszt's

examples, these glissandi—^melodic in function—could also be construed as

virtuoso effects (Ex. 19). Although they are much shorter than the examples

Example 19: J. Brahms, Paganini Variations, I, Var. 13.

2®See Schumann's Studien, Op. 3 (1832), and Op. 10 (1833); Liszt's Paganini Etudes (1838 and 1851); Rachmaninoffs Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini for Piano and Orchestra, Op. 43 (1934).

of Beethoven or Weber, the fast tempo "vivace e scherzando"assures their

difficulty.29

As in Weber's Piano Concerto No. 1, the example firom Brahms's

Ungarische Tanze shows two octave-glissandi executed simultaneously by

both hands—^but in contrary directions—as a melodic in function with an

expression of the virtuoso character, which the glissando had commonly

become in the nineteenth century (Ex. 20). However, unlike Weber's

example, these simultaneous glissandi do not incorporate the same number

of notes; there are thirteen notes in the right hand and eleven notes in the

left hand. Since this passage is certainly rather difficult to play, Brahms, like

Liszt, provided an Ossia version for both hands.

Example 20: J. Brahms, Ungarische Tanze No. 8.

gUmuulo

Ccimille Saint-Saens (1835-1921), called the "French Mendelssohn,"

taught Gabriel Faur6 and studied with Friedrich Kalkbrenner, who, along

with Pierre Zimmerman, were the earliest exponents of French school of

^^DetlefKraus's book (trans, by Lillian Lim) fohaimes Brahms: Composer fyr the Piano, 66-67, has a very detailed analysis of the tempos of this work.

pianism. The French school, the opposite of tfie Stuttgart school, was

described as follows:

The touch was sensitive, it stayed dose to the keys, and it did not press deeply. It also was fluent, de^ immaculate like a fine etching. Thereifore the tone was likely to be of smaller dimensions—shallow, pale, transparent Behind it was an unrufQed emotional spirit which highly valued such aesthetic graces as elegant, calculated proportions and subtle phrasing.^o

Saint-Sa&is's pianistic writing was based on his own excellent piano

technique. His music seems to be of less emotional depth than Schumann's

and more transparent than Brahms's, but his use of certain pianistic devices

recalls the Lisztian. Many Lisztian virtuosic devices are easily found in Saint-

Saens's works. About his musical style, Albert Lockwood had the following

comment:

Saint-Saens' quality may be characterized as that of a mirror rather than that of a prism, and his compositions as reflections rather than as paintings. His art always elegant and polished, shines imequaUy, the thought is spim out to inconceivable tenuosity in places. His urbanity and eclecticism preclude pronounced person^ convictions, and he gathers atmosphere from Timbuctoo to Teheran. This is spread like jam and is not transmuted into the inevitableness of great art. His Gallicism is indeed evident, but his personality is so covered with conventions that his compositions as a group, tmlike the works of the greatest writes, do not display a composite soul. A Saint-Sa&is harmonic scheme, to put is differently, does not exist in the larger sense.31

His examples of glissandi are found in the third movement of the

Piano Concerto No. 5, Op. 103 (1896), and Aquarium (from Le Camaval des

animaux). The Piano Concerto No. 5—bearing the sobriquet "Eg3^tian"—^was

^^Reginald R. Gerig, Famous Pianists and Their Technique, 315.

Albert Lockwood, Motes on the Literature of the Piano, 166-167.

dedicated to Louis Di^er, who was a teacher at the Paris Conservatory and

taught Robert Casadesus, Alfred Cortot, Marcel Dupr6, and £douard BUsler.

Besides the intentional use of Eastern color in this concerto, Saint-Sa^ used

many virtuosic devices, such as octave runs, passages of great speed, wide

broken chords, and a glissando, which encompasses a wide range—five-and-

a-half octaves (Ex. 21). Except for an example from Maurice Ravel's Concerto

Example 21: C. Saint-Sa&is, Piano Concerto No. 5, HI.

for Left Hand, this glissando might have the widest range in the entire piano

repertoire. The octave B-flat in the left hand must be played rhythmically,

and the glissando should be performed at an even tempo.

Le Camaval des animaiixis a light work, which Saint-Saens refused to

publish during his life-time for fear diat it would be taken as evidence of his

musical character. However, these fourteen character pieces do represent

Saint-Sa&is's music style, by and large. Aquarium is a programmatic

character work, hi this worig four glissandi—all identical in every aspects—

are foimd (Ex. 22). The style of these glissandi forecasts pianistic

impressionism; later in this vein, many such examples were written by the

new French lions, Qaude Debussy and Maurice J^vel.

V

Example 22. C. Saint-Saens, Acpianuni from Le Cdmsval des aiumswc.

Bednch Snietana, Mily Balakirev, Edvard Grieg, and Edward Elgar

Bednch Smetana (1824^-1884), bom in Bohemia, was one of the

foremost representatives of musical nationalism. Piis musical ideals were

mfluenced by Bohemia's dance music, as in the case of another Bohemian

composer, Antonin Dvorak. Moreover, in some of Smetana's virtuosic

works, Liszt s influence is present but not overwhelming; Smetana's

techmque incorporates a more delicate and crystalline texture than Liszt's

extravagant and grandiose style.

Smetana s most numerous piano works are dance movements,

including polkas, mazurkas, waltzes, Bohemian dances, and Czech dances.

While the Etude, Op. 12, the ConcertStudy "On die Seashore" and the Sonata

in G minor show the composer's ambition to explore the capabilities of the

piano and his own musical imagination. His examples of glissandi are found

in the Ballade in E minor (1858) and the Polka in A minor (from Bohemian

Dances [1877]). The Ballade in E minor is an incomplete work, which later

provided some ideas for his opera Dalibor, and his transcription of Schubert's

sixth song from Die Schdne MuUerin, Der Neugierige. The Ballade,

remaining a 209-measure sketch, was written when the composer was under

48

the spell of his pupil, a Swedish girl, Froi'da Benecke. The set of Bohemian

Dances, four miniature polkas, is from the composer's last period of works.

The Polka in A minor is subdued, as opposed to the usual nature of this kind

of dance.

An octave-glissando used in the Ballade—coupled simultaneously

with another single-notes glissando—^might be the only example with this

kind of execution, which closes the preceding cadenza-like passage (Ex. 23).

Example 23: B. Smetana, Ballade in E minor.

This glissando, as a backward motion, is also a dazzling virtuoso effect. The

example from the Polka, a short, but very electrifying glissando, suggests a

strong folk flavor (Ex. 24). Like the previous example, this glissando—

Example 24: B. Smetana, Polka in A minor.

preceded by a successive descending passage—also functions as a backward

motion, but also as a melodic rather tiian a virtuosic gesture. Later in this

49

piece, the composer used a chromatic scale instead of a glissando to create

another climax.

Both examples of Smetana bear some similar features: 1. white-key

ascending, 2. function as a backward motion, and 3. followed by a new and

clear melody.

Mily Balakirev (1837-1910) was the guiding spirit of the Russian

"Mighty Five."32 His music incoporates various folk resources: Russian,

English, Czech, and Spanish. His use of glissandi is found in his best-known

piano work, /s/amey (subtitled "Fantaisie Orientale"), which was composed in

1869 and revised by the composer thirty years later. Nicholas Rubinstein gave

its premiere in the winter of 1869. The work—^which has been orchestrated by

Alfredo Cassella—^is one of the most dazzlingly difficult piano works in the

entire piano repertoire, and its technique is typical Usztian. Edward Garden

said: 'Tt is perhaps the 'ultimate' technical piece in the pianoforte repertoire."

Garden continued.

There can be no point in such a piece unless it can be flimg out as if it were a technical joke—an amusing ten minutes of exotic colour, insistent rhythm and pianistic exhibitionism. The notes are super-abimdant, certainly, but not one is superfluous or unnecessary to the glittering, rippling, effect of colour, "fhe build-up towards the end is not tmlike the build-up in Tamara—but whereas tfie orchestral work is sombre, dark and hatmting, the piano work, finished so much more quickly, is light, airy; superficial, perhaps, in a way, but fascinating, intriguing and thorougWy worth while.33

^^The other members in this group are Cfear Cui, Alexander Borodin, Nicolai Rimski-Korsakov, and Modeste Mussorgski. This group was known as the "St Petersburg School" as opposed to the "Moscow School," headed by Peter Ilich Tchaikowsky.

33Edward Garden, BalaJdrev: A Critical Study of His Uk and Music, 221.

50

This piece uses three Armenian and Cauoisian melodies. An octave-

glissando is used near the end of the work. This glissando has multiple

functions: 1. as a melody with a virtuosic technique, which is quite obvious, 2.

as a backward motion because of its preceding passage which is a descending

pentatonic scale, 3. as a modulation tool since this white-key glissando is

followed by the melody in the key of D-flat major (Ex. 25). This last is a new

Example 25: M. Balakirev, Islamey.

JET

kind of usage in the nineteenth century. A later composer, Edvard Grieg, and

many twentieth-century composers also utilized this technique.^ This

octave-glissando could be played as a single-notes glissando in the right hand

because of its difficulty as mentioned before.

Edvard Grieg (1843-1907) is frequently remembered by the piano world

only for his great concerto. Most of his piano works reflect many nationalistic

elements; especially, his Lyric Pieces (thirteen volumes in ten books), which

increased the body of lyrical repertoire for the piano. Besides that of

Norwegian folk music, his music also shows the influence of Robert

this usage, since the tonal system still was in the Romantic style, Balakirev's and Grieg's examples are not as clear as die twentieth-century composers'. See more examples in next chapter.

51

Schumann and Felix Mendelssohn, who founded (he Conservatory of Leipzig

in the same year of Grieg's birth, where Grieg started his formal music

education in 1858.

Grieg's use of the glissando is foimd in Hailing (from Lyric Pieces Op.

71 [1901]). Hailing, a Norwegian dance, is one of the works from the

composer's last period. This volume of lyric pieces was dedicated to Fru Mien

Rontgen, a Swede, bi Hailing, Grieg adopted a motive from Swedish folk

music accompanied by a rich use of chromatic harmony. A white-key

glissando leads the tonality from D-flat of the preceding passage to F (Ex. 26).

This glissando can be seen as a modulation tool.

Example 26: E. Grieg, Hailing (Norwegischer Tanz) from Lyric Pieces, Op. 71.

Edward Elgar (1857-1934), bom in Broadheath (near Worcester), was a

leading British composer of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

His piano works are rather limited and relatively unimportant. Perhaps the

Concert Allegro, Op. 46 (1901), is the composer's only masterpiece for piano,

which was dedicated to Fanny Davies, a English pianist. The work was

considered to be lost for more than a half century. John Ogdon gave the first

modem performance of the re-discovered composition in 1968. Two

glissandi are fotmd in this work, the second glissando is an octave wider than

52

the first one. The composer indicated tfie number of notes in these

glissandi—one is 13, the other is 20—which is a rather unusual indication for

the glissando (Ex. 27). A cadenza-like passage is preceded by the glissando, and

the dynamic level is quite elegant as opposed to virtuosic—pp and ppp.

Example 27: E. Elgar, Concert Allegro. , accel. molto

rit.

Examples used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, grouped in

four types, are illustrated in Table 5.

1. Octave-glissandi were used beginning in the early years of the

nineteenth century in the works by Ludwig van Beethoven, Carl Maria von

Weber, and Johann Nepomuk Hummel. Even simidtaneous two octave-

glissandi were used. Afterwards, examples of octave-glissandi are found

again, this time further developed by adding another glissando, as in Bedrich

Smetana's example, and simultaneous two octave-glissandi in contrary

directions are found in Johannes Brahms's works. After Brahms's

Ongarische Tanze No. 8, the octave-glissando is not foimd again imtil in

Dmitri Shostakovich's Sonata No. 1, Op. 12, written, almost fifty years later,

in 1926.

53

Table 5: Examples in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries in Four Groups Based on Its Type. Type 1. Octavfr~"

glissandi

Title Beethoven, Piano Concerto, Op. 15. Beethoven, Pfano Sonata, Op.

Weber, Piano Concerto No. I.

Weber, Concertstuck. Hununel, Piano Concerto, Op. 85. Smetana, Ballade in E minor. Weber-Tausig, Auffbrderungzum Tanz.

Brahms, Paganini Variation L

Balakirev, Islamey. Brahms, Ungarische Tanze No. 8.

Year W 1805

1810

1821 1821 1858

1860s 1866

1869 1872

#sofGI.a Details 1 5 3 4 3 4 1 1 1 2 4

1 2

Fdrtissimd. Pianissimo. Two octave^glissandi simultaneously in 3rds.

With another glissando.

Short range, but frequently.

Two octave-glissandi simultaneously in contrary directions.

2. Double-note glissandi

Liszt; Ma^rarDalok—Ungarische National elodien No. 9. Liszt Chasse." Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15. Liszt Piano Concerto in A Major.

Liszt Totentanz.

Liszt DieSddittschuhlSufe.

Liszt Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10. Liszt Mephisto Waltz No. 1.

1840

1840 1851

4 5

In 6ths or 3rds.

In6ths. In3rds.

3. Two-hand glissandi

1839

1849

1849

1853 1860

4 10 30

57 3_ 27 1

In the same register.

All ascending.

In contrary directions.

4. Other glissandi

Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 379. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 468. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 487. Liszt Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14. Liszt Waltz 6rom Gdunotrs Faust Smetana, Polka in A minor. RimsW-Korsakov, Cbncerfo, Op. 30. Saint- ens, PranoConcertoA/b. m. Grieg, Hailing (Norwegischer Tanz). Elgar, Concert Allegro. Saint-Sagns, Aauanum.

1853 1868 1877 18SZ 1896 1901 1901

12 4 1 3 7 1 5 1 1 2 4

Short. All ascending. Very wide range. Modulation tool.

All identical. ®In entries that appear as fractions: total glissandi found is the denominator, while the number of them which fit in the specified category appears as the numerator. In the case of two-hand glissandi, the numerator indicates the number of "examples," not the nimiber of "glissandi." For other details which refer to the counting, see the footnote 1 in Qiapter 4.

2. Franz Liszt did not use, or even consider the use of octave-glissandi,

but he was the only major composer who wrote double-note glissandi and

two-hand glissandi in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In addition,

his use of the gesture was prolific; his body of works shows the greatest

number of glissandi of any composer in these two centuries.

54

3. Examples found in the works of Bedridi Smetana, Mily Balakirev,

and Edvard Grieg, might not be viewed as "virtuosic" as those of Beethoven,

Weber, Liszt, and Brahms, but generally they all have a common character

which is nationalistic.^

4. Beginning with an ornamental function at the outset, examples are

foimd in the early part of the nineteenth century, with the melodic function

as the most common usage. Later in the century, the use of the glissando as a

virtuosic effect, programmatic expression, backward motion, or modulation

tool became more important.36

5. The range of glissandi began with Domenico Scarlatti's one octave,

through Beethoven's three-and-a-half, Liszt's five, and reached Saint-Saens's

five-and-a-half, which is the maximum range in the nineteenth-century

works.

6. The harmonic structure implied in these glissandi is rather

distinctive. Within these musical periods, the white-key glissando must

function within its natural harmonic consonance; that is, the harmony built

by the white keys, such as CM, am, GMm7, etc. Examples from Liszt's

Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15 show this most clearly. (Refer to the discussion

in pages 36-37.) In other examples, the composers generally all followed this

harmonic principle for the use of glissandi.

35scarlatti's examples are of a virtuosic diaracter in his time, complementing the Spanish background so often represented in his music.

36All of examples' function can be seen in Appendix A.

^^The use of GMm7 or GMmM9 instead of GM, and emM7, emm7, bmM7, dmM7, are found in the examples of Brahms's Paganini Variations, Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10 and Die Schlittschuhlaxikr. In Saint-Saens's example, a white-key glissando above B-flat outlines CMm7 chord which is resolved later in FM (V-I).

55

CHAPTERS

The Twentieth Century

Nineteenth-century composers developed the function of glissandi

from that of a simple ornamental device to include melodic usage and the

gesture of virtuosic fanfare. Twentieth-century composers inherited this

point of view, and bestowed new aesthetic interpretations and ingenious

modes of execution on them. Octave-glissandi and two-hand glissandi were

still used; in addition, in the first decade of the twentieth century, black-key

glissandi appeared, while in the 1920s, glissandi on the strings were initiated.

As composers in the previous century, many twentieth-century

composers did not use this device in their piano compositions at all;

however, the development of glissandi is still vivid and noteworthy. Some

examples show the combination of white-key glissandi and black-key

glissandi simultaneously executed in the same or contrary directions;

glissandi used to change djmamics or tempos also give this device another

novel feature. One graphic notation of the glissando has become more

universal among twentieth-century composers. In addition, the glissando's

"destination," which originally was the main note for the siide, gradually is

omitted by some twentieth-century composers, since the glissando itself

becomes more and more significant and interesting, assuming a new

function.

This chapter will continue to trace the evolution of the glissando (on

the keys) in the aspects of range, function, executiorv and characteristics,

beginning with the works by the two foremost impressionist composers.

56

Qaude Debussy and Maurice Ravel, and followed by the works of the

nationalists: Manuel de Falla and Bfia Bartdk in Europe, and Heitor Villa-

Lobos, George Gershwin, and Aaron Copland in America. Examples of

octave-glissando appear again in two Russian composers' works: Igor

Stravinsky and Dmitri Shostakovich, while another Russian composer. Serge

Prokofiev, employed the most frequent use of the glissando in the twentieth

century, parallel to Franz Liszt in the nineteenth century. Returning to

European composers, Paul Hindemith, Michael Tippett^ and Olivier Messiaen

also contributed some glissandi, while Benjamin Britten is another prolific

composer in the use of glissandi. The final discussion in this chapter

concerns examples from George Crumb's Makrokosmos I and JT.

Oaude Debussy and Maurice Ravel

Qaude Debussy (1862-1918), who studied at the Conservatoire

Nationale de Paris from the age of ten, "added more to the piano than any

composer since Chopin: new theories about pedaling, new ideas about

sonority, a completely new concept of figuration and layout."^ Harold C.

Schonberg continued, "After Chopin, the significant advance in piano

technique came from two composers—Qaude Debussy in France and Serge

Prokofiefr in Russia."^

Debussy's varied uses of glissandi are foimd in Menuet (from Suite

Bergamasque [1890]), the Prelude (from Pour le Piano [1901]), the prelude Feux

d'artifice (1913), and the Etude: Pour les huitdoigts (1915). Among them, the

^Harold C Schonberg, The Great Pianists, 343.

2lbid., 388.

57

most significant feature is that he used the bladc-keys in the glissandi in Feux

d'arUBce and Etude: Pourles hvdtdoigts. The composer's common harmonic

devices such as parallel chords, modal scales, whole-tone scale, and

pentatonic scales, are compatible with the tonality of the black-key glissando,

which had never been used by the nineteenth-century virtuosos.

In an example from Feux d'artifice (Fireworks), Debussy even

combined simultaneous white- and black-key glissandi (Ex. 28).3 Since the

Example 28: C. Debussy, Feux d'artiGce.

execution of these glissandi is quite difficult, some pianists actually stand up

in order to execute them successfully, while for other pianists with strong

fingers, the use of executive right hand alone is a convincing and convenient

execution. Another black-key and white-key glissando illustrated in the

Etude: Pour les huit doigts (For Eight Fingers) is not executed simultaneously,

but connected by both hands (Ex. 29).^ The composer stated:

^On observing these glissandi, Paul Roberts said: "On closer examination we can see that the glissando is intimately related to the opening ostinato: its descending black notes are bom from the three descending black notes of die first measure." Paul Roberts, Images: The Piano Music of Claude Debussy, 185.

^This execution is prepared by the preceding measure where after a black-key glissando (by left hand), right hand "plays" a short (four notes) interruption. This process repeats twice.

58

In this study the changing position of the hands make the use of the thimibs inconvenient, and the execution of it would thereby become acrobatic.5

Example 29: C. Debussy, Etude, No. 6.

For these glissandi, Paul Roberts's suggestion of fingered execution of the

black-keys allotted to both hands, rather than playing a "glissando," perhaps is

even more breathtaking in resxilt.^

The function of these glissandi, besides as an acrobatic effect, has its

impressionistic ptirpose. Debussy frequently interpreted his music in terms

of the action of natural phenomena upon his emotions. He said:

Music is the expression of the movement of the waters, the play of curves described by changing breezes. There is nothing more musical than a stmset He who feels what he sees will find no more beautiful example of development in all that book which, alas, musicians read too little—the book of nature.^

If we observe Example 28, where descending glissandi cover almost the whole

keyboard, they create a theatrical visual and aural excitement, as if the flame

of the kaleidoscopic fireworks is suddenly extinguished. Paul Roberts

described these glissandi:

footnote on the score.

^Paul Roberts, Images: The Piano Music of Claude Debussy, 310-1.

^Leon Vallas, Theories of Claude Debussy, 8.

59

As the excitement increases, the electrifying glissando becomes the only way out, as if this is the only possible culmination of music made out of such sparse matenal—an audacious theatrical gesture that appears to negate all musical intention.®

In examples from the suite Pour le Piano, Prelude, the memory of the

bravura briUiancy of the old German organ toccata is reinforced by these

glissandi (Ex. 30). In the Suite Bergamasque, the Menuet, a sixteenth-century

Example 30: C. Debussy, Pour le Piano, Prelude.

Italian dance, was inspired by Paul Verlaine's poems Fetes galantes (1869).

Robert Schmitz likened it to "... a reflection in a mirror—a menuet in the

distance seen through the windows from a garden."^ Also since this

glissando is executed at a very soft dynamic (ppp) (Ex. 31), it seems to imply a

Example 31: C. Debussy, Suite Bergamasque, Menuet

V

®Paul Roberts, Images: The Piano Music of Claude Debussy, 185.

Robert Schmitz, The Piano Works of Oaude Debussy, 51.

60

programmatic plan of preparing the atmosphere of the following piece, Clair

de Lime (Moonlight).

As an impressionist composer, Debussy was very exact in indicating the

nuances of dynamics in the glissando. In Example 30, the dynamic is soft,

starting with a sforzando, then increasing in volume to fortissimo. In

Example 29, diminuendo and crescendo are used in the glissando. In

addition, although the glissando tisually bears a brilliant sonority, delicate

colors based upon frequent pianissimos were also applied to the glissando,

such as the example in the Menuet(Ex. 31).

Maurice Ravel (1875-1937) was an impressionist with aspects of the

classicist. His piano works could be divided on the basis of these two

characteristics; he and Debussy are the quintessence of impressionism, and he

and Igor Stravinsky are credited with the initiation of the neo-classic

movement. Ravel's first mature work for piano solo, feux d'eau, was

composed in 1901. After 1917, the composer did not produce any piano solo

works, but his two concertos were composed in 1930-31. Ravel's major solo

piano works between 1901 and 1917 are collected in Table 6.

Table 6: M. Ravel's Piano Works Between 1901 and 1917.

Jeux d'eau. 1901 impressionist.

Sonatina. 1905 neo-classical.

Miroirs. 1905 impressionist

Gaspard de la nuit 1908 impressionist.

Valses Nobles etSentimentales. 1911 neo-classical.

Le Tombeau de Couperin. 1917 neo-classical.

61

Interestingly, Ravel's examples of glissandi in the works of this period

are all impressionistic in style: Jewc d'eau^ Une barque surl'oc^an and

Alborado del gradoso (from Miroirs), Ondine (from Gaspard de la Ntdt), and

a transcription work, Les Entretiens de la Belle et de la Bete (from the suite

Ma Mkrel'Oye). Later in 1930s, examples are found again in the composer's

two concertos—Concerto in G Major and Concerto for the Left Hand. Black-

key glissandi are found in feux d'eau, Ondine, and Une barque surVocian.

Continuously ascending and descending glissandi are used in Alborado del

gradoso, executed in parallel double-notes (in thirds or fourths); in the first

movement of Concerto in G Major, where the continuous execution begins

with single hand and ends with both hands; glissandi encompeissing a very

wide range are seen in another example from Ondine and in Concerto for the

Left Hand, where even a glissando covering the whole keyboard (on the

white-keys) is found.

Jeux d'eau, which "invites comparison with Liszt's Jeux d'eau a la villa

d'Este,"' ^ was the starting point of his "pianistic novelties." F. E. Kirby

pointed out:

Jeux d'eau has in it many features characteristic of musical Impressionism: the simple ternary formal plan, the episodic character, the coloristic use of dissonance, here arpeggio figurations involving simultaneous seconds, the use of glissandi and chromatic scale runs, and irregularities in the rhythm.ii

A descending black-key glissando used in the work is characterized as a

feature of impressionism from the above statement, and this is the first black-

l oger Nichols, Ravel, 16.

E. Kirby, A SbortHistory of Keyboard Music, 387.

key found in this study (Ex. 32). Examples from Une barque sur I'oc^an and

Ondine also represent this kind of character.

Example 32: M. Ravel, Jewc d'eau.

j/iKnndu.

The title, Une barque sur I'ocedn (A Boat on the Ocean), suggests the

programmatic subject. This piece demands an immense variety of color,

making it akin to an orchestral work. In the words of Olivier Messiaen,..

there exists an orchestral kind of piano writing which is more orchestral than

the orchestra itself and which, with a real orchestra, it is impossible to

realize."i2 Technically, it inevitably brings to mind Usztian virtuosic writing,

with the numerous effective arpeggios, which suggests the waves striking the

boat and the swaggering feeling of the tempest The black-key glissandi recaU

the one in feux d'eau, although this time the composer uses a narrower range

in the middle register, ascending and descending with more musical

interpretation, which represents the breakers ebbing and flowing (Ex. 33).

Later in this worlg a parallel passage—in measure 74—is played with the

fingers with a touch similar to the glissando. Ravel's music was "inspired by

the sound of water, and the music of fountains, cascades, and streams."i3 if

Original resource is from A. Gol6a,/?enco/7fres a vecOtfwer l Arbie Orenstein, Ravel: Man and Musidan, 37.

63

Jeux d'eau is "the play of the water," then Une barque stir I'oc^an is "a

struggle with the water."

Example 33: M. Ravel, Une barque sur L'oc^an.

/riiaando j

rt r*

Alborado del gradoso (The Jester's Serenade) is the best-known piece in

this set. It is a "wild Spanish dance with brilliant harmonic coloration and

rhythmic excitement

Following in the steps of Domenico Scarlatti, he turns the keyboard instrument into a huge guitar. In its treatment of staccato, repeated notes and glissandi^ both single and double—^which Ravel could do wonderfully well, probably because of his squarish thumbs.i^

Roger Nichols attributed these glissandi to the composer's hands; in

technically, these double-note ghssandi—^in thirds or fourths—are not as

difficult as the octave-glissando. These double-note glissandi have an exotic

effect, especially in fourths (Ex. 34). They are actually derived from the

previous scales in measures 44 and 46. The composer extended these

continuously ascending and descending scales into the figure of glissandi,

which create a brilliant virtuosic effect. They are the only double-note

glissandi found after Franz Liszt's examples in this study; Liszt's examples

l David Burge, Twentieth-Century Piano Music, 47.

^%oger Nichols, Ravel, 45. The statement of "single" must be a mistake since there are only double-note glissandi used in this piece.

64

represent the pianistic fianfare, while Ravel's examples suggest the guitaristic

feature.

Example 34: M. Ravel, Alborado del gradoso.

Perhaps the set Gaspard de la Muit is Ravel's most difficult solo piano

work. "It is rather the musical achievement—colorful evocations of three

diabolical poems by Aloysius Bertrand—that impresses today."^^ first

piece in this set, Qndme, like feux d'eau and Une barque surl'oc^an, is

another imaginative work inspired by water. Ondine is a water spirit. The

use of the glissando suggests the spirit is coming out of the water. A glissando

encompassing a very wide range, from CC to a^, is foimd in the work, where

an omission of the indication of "8va" in measure 75 obviously is a mistake

by the composer, who appears to have been a poor proof-reader (Ex. 35).

Example 35: M. Ravel, Gaspard dela Nvit, Ondine.

Ir pit* p ponith

^^David Burge, Twentieth-Century Piano Music, 49.

65

Les tretiens de la Belle et de la Bete is a transcriptioii from tfie

composer's Ma Mdre I'Oyer^"^ a suite of five pieces for four hands. The

original version and the two-hand version are completely identical,

including tiie glissando—omamental in function—^which is preceded by a

silent moment (Ex. 36). This silence recalls an example from Franz Liszt's

Example 36: M, Ravel, Les Entretiens de la Belle et de la Bete from Ma M&e rOye.

VMoav

Mephisto Waltz No. 1 (Ex. 17), while in effect different from Liszt's grandiose

re-opening. Ravel created a static atmosphere preceding the ending section.

Concerto for Left Hand is a large movement with three sections of

confrasting tempo—^Lento, Allegro, Lento—and was dedicated to Paul

Wittgenstein in 1931.18 Far from the impressionistic and neo-classic qualities

of Ravel's musical style, this work shows the influences of jazz, Hisparuc and

Ma Mdre I'Oye, glissandi are found in other movements: two black-key glissandi in Laideronnette, Imp4Tatrice des Pagodes and fifteen white-key glissandi in Le Jardin (4erique. However, only Les Entretiens had been transcribed for piano solo by the composer.

ISpaui Wittgensein, Austrian-bom American pianist; subsequently commissioned left-hand piano works since he lost his right arm in tfie World War I. Besides the work by Ravel, Wittgensein also premiered the works of Richard Strauss, Erich W. Komgold, and Benjamin Britten. See Baker's Biographical Dictionary ofMusidans, 8th edition, 2064.

modemism.i^ Five glissandi are found in this work: one in the first section,

two in the second section, and two in the third section. They are all on the

white keys and ascending, including one covering the entire range of white

keys (Ex. 37). Their functions are various. From Table 7, we see that the range

Example 37: M. Ravel, Concerto for Left Hand.

is--.

for those which are melodic in function is much shorter than those which are

ornamental, backward motion, or virtuosic features.

Table 7: Glissandi in M. Ravel's Concerto for Left Hand. Section Glissando liange Function

A 1 4

Embellishment Backward motion.

B 2 4

Melody.

3 4

Melody.

C 4 6 Embellishment. Backward motion. 5 Embellishment Virtuosic feature.

^Section A: mm. 1—120. Section B: mm. 121-453. Section C: mm. 454-525.

The influence of jazz is foimd again in Ravel's Concerto in G Major

(1932). This work was dedicated to Marguerite Long.20 The composer used

^^aurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Ordtestra: An Annotated Guide, 241.

^^arguerite Long, a French pianist and pedagogue, was credited as having an important role in promoting French music. See Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, 8th edition, 1079-80.

many continuous ascending and descending glissandi in the introduction of

the first movement, and this section is concluded by two-hand glissandi. In

this movement, glissandi are found not only in tiie piano part; later in the

middle of this movement, dramatic chromatic-gUssandi by the harp and

strings, and even the quasi-glissando scales in the woodwinds all represent

this kind of virtuoso gesture. Since the intent of this concerto is to please and

amuse,^! these glissandi work quite well for this purpose.

Like Debussy, Ravel was also very exact in indicating the nuances of

dynamics in the glissando: Example 38 shows a glissando executed at a very

soft dynamic (ppp) and in Example 35, 7eplusp possible" was marked in a

long-range glissando. In Les Entretiens de la Belle et de la Bete, a glissando is

in a very delicate treatment (Ex. 36).

Example 38: M. Ravel, Gaspard de la Nuit Ondine.

• It f fn •!«*• fktnc antAn 1

ppp

Manuel de Falla and B41a Bartdk

In Spain, the uses of glissandi are found in the sonatas of an Italian,

Domenico Scarlatti, in the eighteenth century. No Spanish-bom leading

composer (such as Isaac Manuel Francisco Albeniz and Enrique Granados)

^^Maurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Ordiestra: An Annotated Guide, 241.

68

used this device until Manuel de Falla. In Hungary, there are many examples

written in the manner of Htmgarian folk music by Franz Liszt, and in the

twentieth century, the Htmgarian-bom composer, B4Ia Bartdk also used this

device qtiite often.

Manuel de Falla (1876-1946) was bom in Cddiz, Andalusia. The core of

his musical style is the Spanish dance, although he did not use existing folk

melodies in his compositions. Falla's piano compositions are quite few, and

his best-known work perhaps is the Fantasia Baetica (1919)—dedicated to

Arthur Rubinstein—^which is considered the composer's most demanding

piano solo work. Baetica was a province of the old Roman Empire, which

roughly coincides with present-day Andalusia. Obviously, the composer used

this title to recall his birthplace. Ten glissandi are foimd in the first section of

this work These glissandi are quite sinuous, which represents the influence

of the Andalusian g3^sy music. The notation for these glissandi is novel for

this time; the composer wrote the connection of ligatures between the upper

and lower notes to indicate the use of glissandi (Ex. 39). About forty years

later, there is a similar indication in Michael Tippett's Sonata Mo. 2.

Example 39: M. de Falla, Fantasia Baetica.

69

Besides, there are seventeen glissandi used in Nbches en los Jardines

de Espana (Nights in the Gardens of Spain), including twelve black-key

glissandi, which are also connected with the ligatures to indicate the use of

glissandi. The work, including three movements—En el Generalife Danza

lejana, and En los jardines de la Sierra de Cdrdoba—^is actually a work of

"sjnnphonic impressions for piano and orchestra," which "has no specific

program but contains some of the most poetic music ever written by FaUa."22

Interestingly, all of the glissandi used in the first movement are on the black-

keys, while examples in the third movement are all on the white-keys. En el

Generalife (In the Gardens of the Generalife) is a work which describes a

garden in the hills of Granada, with fountains and cypresses, and En los

jardines de la Sierra de Cdrdoba (In the Gardens of the Sierra de Cordoba) is

an energetic, wild gypsy dance. We have already observed the use of the

pentatonic scale to describe the image of "water" in many of Debussy's and

Ravel's examples, while in Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsodies^ white-key glissandi

are also used to enhance the atmosphere of the gypsy dance. Notably, Falla

indicated "ad lib. quasi cadenza"'m the glissandi, which enriches the device

beyond its fixed impression of a gimmick and becomes a more musical

device.

Bfla Bart6k (1881-1945), described as "the greatest of the piano

percussionists" by Harold C. Schonberg,^^ was a fine pianist as well as a

composer. His music is:

22ibid., 92.

23HaroId C Schonberg, The Great Pianists, 394.

70

characterized by biting dissonance, driving rhythms, explosive accents, and frequent staccato or martellato touches. But it is not without romantic warmtfi in its frequent use of melodic lines based on the Slavic folk idiom If ever a pianist needed full arm and bodily participation in his technique, it is in the music of Bartdk, with its quick wide skips, many large chordal and octave passages, and d^tach^ touches24

Bart6k's percussive view of the piano^s and his ingenious harmonic

settings inspired piano compositions in a different style, but just as important

as those of Debussy. Bartdk's best-known piano works are the series of

Mikrokosmos, 153 character pieces in six volumes composed between 1926

and 1937. These pedagogical series "comprised one of the most

comprehensive collections of contemporary techniques and idioms."^

Bart6k's later works all require elements of a virtuoso technique, such as

octave nms, percussive tone quality, tone clusters,27 rhythmic drive, and

glissandi.

Bart6k's use of the glissando is found in the Rhapsody, Op. 1 (1905),

Tanz-Suite (1923), the Sonata (1926), and three concertos. Rhapsody, a work

from the composer's early period, is a good demonsfration of the composer's

use of Hungarian melody. Originally, it was written for piano solo in 1904.

The composer himself transcribed it with an added introduction into a

^^Reginald R. Gerig, Famous Pianists and Their Technique, 483.

25HaroId C. Schonberg concluded: "Bartdk, after all, was a pianist of the old school, where tone was still the most important thing, and he never banged out his music as so many of his successors do." The Great Harusts, 344.

^^Maurice Hinson, Guide to The Pianist's Repertoire, 62.

^^"His use of them was intensified after his 1923 meeting with the American composer Henry Cowell." Halsey Stevens, The Life and Music ofBda Bartdk, 132.

71

version for piano and orchestra.28 The worl^ as well as incorporating a

wealth of material related to Gypsy folklore, demands a technique of Lisztian

virtuoso level. In the piano solo version, eight glissandi are found, which are

all together in the middle of the work. These glissandi are all between two Es,

except the last one ending on a G-sharp (Ex. 40).^^ This is a new treatment in

the early twentieth century—a white-key glissando ending on a black note—

which suggests the sudden change of the tonality. Later, Bart6k used this

"exchange" technique again in his Piano Concerto No. 2.

Example 40: B. Bartdk, Rhapsody Op. 1. Riten molto

UP

Tanz-Suite was written—originally for orchestra—for the celebration

of the imion of Buda and Pest in 1923. The piano transcription was by the

composer himself. This suite includes six movements, and the uses of

glissandi are found in the first (two glissandi) and third (one glissando)

movements.30 In particular, Bart6k tised an ascending glissando in the

opening, which is the only example found used in this place (Ex. 41). In this

2®rhe work actually appeares in three versions: 1. one movement for piano solo (without the Cast second section); 2. two-movement for piano solo, which was marked as the "premidre-version" by the composer; 3. two-movements for piano and orchestra with a longer slow movement than in the solo version. The composer marked "deuxi me-version" on it.

^^The version for the piano and orchestra uses two less glissandi, and the first two glissandi are one octave lower.

3®In the orchestral version, where the piano is part of the score, the use of the glissando is different; the opening one remains the same but is one note shorter; the second one (in the piano

72

Example 41: B. Bartdl^ Tanz-Suite, L

Moderato,J.92

Ai$-7 - " —'

f

glissando, the use of the damper pedal is unnecessary (compared to the

eighteenth-century examples by Domenico Scarlatti) because of the use of the

lowest register on the keyboard, which express as the percussive character of

the composer's musical style. Besides, like the indication of "poco allarg. "in

the Piano Concerto No. 1, the composer used the same indication in the

second glissando of this work.

Bart6k's Sonata is his longest and most extended piano solo work. In

this work, the percussive effects are ubiquitous. Halsey Stevens stated:

The piano is now treated percussively throughout; there are no really l5nic spots even in the sustained second movement, where the thematic material is as limited in compass as elsewhere in the Sonata. The folklike contours of Bartdk's melody are almost entirely sublimated in the first two movements of this work.^!

An example used in the first movement also presents a percussive style,

although its feature is rather square (Ex. 42). Despite the simpler feature, the

execution of ttiis glissando is rather acrobatic in intention: the initial note

(with the right hand) is lower than the left-hand figure; when the glissando is

ascending, the left hand moves to a very low register. Besides, as in the

version) is expanded to seventeen glissandi, including one example of the two-hand glissando; the one in the third movement becomes ascending while in the piano version, it is descending.

Halsey Stevens, The Life and Music of B4Ia Bartdk, 132.

73

Example42: B.Bart6k,Sonata,!.

examples in the Tanz-Stdte, the use of the damper pedal is also tmnecessary

here. The first movement, in classical sonata-allegro form, is often described

as "barbaric." The glissando is used at the end of this movement. Not many

glissandi are placed at the end of a work (or movementp We have already

observed one example from Qaude Debussy's Suite Bergamasque. Bartdk has

another example which is used in the second movement of his Piano

Concerto No. 1.

In 1926, Bart6k wrote four major piano works: the Sonata, the Piano

Concerto No. 1, Out of Doors, and Nine Little Piano Pieces. Besides the

glissando used in the Sonata, four glissandi are foimd in the Piano Concerto

No. 1, two in the first movement and two in the second movement In

Example 43, firom the first movement, this two meastire passage—the

Example 43: B. Bart6k, Piano Concerto No. 1,1.

Sostenato,«• loo

^^All examples in the end of a work/ movement are listed in Table 14 in this diapter.

74

second measure is simply an octave higher than the first measvire—Bartdk

gives, for the first time in this movement, a taste of his concept of this

"pianistic" feature. However, his treatment of the piano is exactly as a pitched

percussion instrument Glissandi used here as a virtuosic effect reinforce this

concept to a certain extent. Note the use of the smaller-notes for the

destination notes, which might imply the intention of omitting these final

notes. This "intention" becomes reality in Serge Prokofiev's Piano Concerto

No. 5 (1932) and in Frederic Rzewski's The People United Will Never Be

Defeated! (1975).

In the second movement of Bart6k's Piano Concerto No. 1, the piano is

even more like a percussion instrument; especially in the middle section, it

simply plays reiterated rhythmic figures on tone-clusters. There are no

strings, woodwinds, and brass, in the beginning and at the end of this

movement, but only the percussion instruments along with the piano. This

atmosphere is ended by a sudden change of tempo, as a glissando is used as a

fanfare and leads to the third movement (Ex. 44). (Note that the destination

Example 44: B. Bart6k, Piano Concerto No. 1, n.

is on the first beat of the following movement.) This example shows an

ascending glissando continued firom the left hand with the right hand while

the left hand descends. Significantly, the composer changed the tempo in this

glissando, "poco allarg. "is marked over the glissando, as David Fallows

«

75

stated: "An instruction to slow down the tempo and after to develop a fuller

and more majestic plajdng style."33 In this case, the hesitation only lasts two

measures, then the music goes to the next movement right away.

In an example from the first movement of Bartdk's Piano Concerto

No. 2, a descending black-key glissando is pre-figured from the previous tone-

dusters construced by a pentatonic scale, as if exhausted by the orgiastic climax

built up by consecutive scale passages and tone-clusters (Ex. 45). Different

from Debussy's or Ravel's examples, this black-key glissando ends on a white

note (F). Besides, "poco ritardando"is marked over this glissando.

Example 45: B. Bart6k, Piano Concerto No. 2,1.

The Piano Concerto No. 3 (1945), premiered by Gyorgy Sandor, is the

composer's last piece. Unlike the first two concertos, a glissando is used in

the finale, which is a rondo with two fugal episodes. In Example 46, the

descending octave runs occur for the third time, but this is the only time the

figure is preceded by a two-hand glissando. However, firom measure 62 to

measure 65 as the first section is concluded with the piano's descending

octave runs, the strings play an ascending glissando, which is—from c to b'

connected by cellos, violas, and second violins. This could be seen as a

rilard.

^^The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 1:265.

76

preparation, for the glissando in the piano.^^ Obviously, this ascending

glissando is a virtuoso effect and a backward motion to ornament the climax

produced by the longest descending octave runs, which are nine measures, as

opposed to first two, which are six measures. Note that the initial note in the

left hand, GGG, actually does not exist in most modem pianos (Ex. 46).

Perhaps only Bosendorfer's pianos can encompass this note.

Example 46: B. Bart6k, Piano Concerto No. 3, IE.

a-

Heitor Vnia-Lobos, George Gershwin, and Aaron Copland

The use of glissandi in America, besides the application of folk music—

such examples are ubiquitous—^represents rather advanced contemporary

techniques. In Brazil, Heitor Villa-Lobos contributed nimierous glissandi;

and in the USA, George Gershwin's examples are derived from jazz, while

Aaron Copland's examples are witliin the modem vocabulary.

While Bartdk utilized Hungarian folk elements as one of his

compositional sources, a composer six years younger, melded his Brazilian

^Later, after the piano's two-hand glissando, the first violins and double basses also join the execution of a glissando, while the range at this time is from GG to a .

77

pedigree with western influence to compose his music; Heitor Villa-Lobos

(1887-1959), was bom in Rio de Janeiro. At the age of twenty-six, he became a

student at the Instituto Nadonal da Musica in Rio de Janeiro, and married

pianist Ludlia Guimaraes. VUla-Lobos's original instruments were guitar

and cello, but he became familiar with piano composition through his wife's

efforts. In 1918, he was beMended by pianist Arthur Rubinstein, It was

Rubinstein who encoxiraged the yoimg Villa-Lobos to spend time in the years

between 1923 and 1930 in Paris. Later the composer's frequent use of French

translation for the Portuguese tities and indication of dynamics and tempos

in French are aU attributed to this experience. This influence also affected his

musical style. Maurice Hinson had a very pertinent comment:

This great Brazilian artist began composing in a post-Romantic style, moved to Impressionism and folklore, later experimented with Qassidsm, and finally synthesized all these elements.^

His examples of glissandi are fotmd in many places, such as the Piano

Concerto No. 4 (1952), Mdmo Precoce (1929), Rudepoema (1926), Dansa Do

Indio Branco (from Suite Cido Brasileiro [1936]), Rhodante and Em um Bergo

Encantado (from Simples Coletinea [1919]), Moreninha (from the first series

of Prdle Do Bib4 [1921]) and Alegria na Horta (from Suite Floral Op. 97 [1919]).

Because Brazilian folk elements were often employed in Villa-Lobos's

musical style, the glissando's brilliant sonority, visual exdtement, and

scintillating effects, are well utilized for this purpose. Interestingly, most of

Villa-Lobos's examples are ascending. This also may be the result of the

influence of Brazilian folk music.

^Maurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Ordiestra, 298.

78

Compared to the examples of other composers, Villa-Lobos's use of

glissandi was generally less virtuosic. However, some of them require a

special execution. A black-key gHssando, used at the end of Rhodante (Circle

Dance), is played with the right hand above a sustained initial note (F-

sharp)—splayed with the left hand with a fermata indication—^which serves as

a leading tone to the end on G (Ex. 47).

Example 47: H. Villa-Lobos, Simples Coletanea, Rhodante,

There are four glissandi used in Dansa Do hidio Branco (Dance of the

White Indian), one of which is a two-hand glissando (Ex. 48). This example

Example 48: H. Villa-Lobos, Dansa Do bidio Branco from Suite Ciclo Brasileiro.

ff PP

recalls an example from Liszt's Concerto in A Major (Ex. 18). Both examples

feature a shorter glissando in the left hand, although one example is

ascending, the other is descending. The novel difference is that Villa-Lobos's

example is not in octaves but in ninths, while we have already observed that

Liszt's two-hand glissandi are all in octaves. This ninth-glissando,

functioning as a backward motion, virtuosic effect, and programmatic

expression, is coherent to tfie tonality constructed by the frequent use of the

seconds, which is the main harmonic structure of the work. However,

besides the recognizable first interval (al and b^) at the start of the glissandi, it

is hard to tell the difference with the two-hand glissando in octaves. In

addition, the preceding passage of this glissando occurs earlier in the work,

which IS followed by a single-notes ascending glissando three times, and each

time the range is wider until it reaches g4 in the "Presto" section (Ex. 49).

These three glissandi all function as a backward motion.

Example 49: H. Villa-Lobos, Dansa Do India Branco from Suite Gclo Brasileiro.

Presto

llllllllifrfillliiiilimill!!!!

Other examples are found in the second movement, Em urn Bergo

Encantado (In an Enchanted Cradle), of the series Simples Coletanea. This

movement shows the composer's impressionistic style and is rather

improvisatory writing, which leads to the interesting meters of 15/8 and 18/8.

Two descending ghssandi, in measures 5 and 9, are also inherent in this kind

of wnting. They are both ornamental in function.

Alegria na Horta is credited as highly inventive and tonally intriguing

idea by Eero Tarasti.^^ In 1937, Villa-Lobos even transcribed it into an

orchestral version in the first suite of Desobrimento do Brasil (Discovery of

Brazil). The glissando used in the work functions as a programmatic

expression (the title meaning "Fetes in the Garden"), and from the preceding

passage, this glissando also can be seen as a backward motion.

Villa-Lobos, like Bartdk, also used the technique of changing tempo in

the glissando; an example is foimd in Moreninha (The Little Paper Doll),

where "veloce ad lib." is indicated (Ex. 50). The glissando follows an ostinato

Example 50: H. Villa-Lobos, Moreninha from Suite Prole Do Bebe.

motif passage in broken thirds which rolls through the entire piece, and

precedes a descending scale in seventh chords. The function of backward

motion is used again, and it actually is a typical way for the composer to

utilize the glissando.

Rudepoema (Rough Poem) is Villa-Lobos's most extended piano solo

work as well as a significant masterpiece in the entire piano repertoire.

fri the music of the Western Hemisphere it can be most readily compared to the Concord sonata of Charles Ives; pianistically speaking

^Eero Tarasti, Heitor VUla-Lobos: The Life and Works 1887-1959,254.

it is as revolutionary as Stravinsky's piano arrangements of his Petrushka. Esthetically, it is Villa-Lobos's strongest contribution to Brazilian modernism, equal to Portinari's frescos or Mario de Andrade's novel Macuna&na.^

The work, written during the composer's period in Paris and finished

in 1926, was dedicated to Arthur Rubinstein. There are twenty-four sections

within this work.38 Virtuoso passages are foimd throughout, including some

rather unusual "glissandi" in the sixteenth section, "Mains, mais tres

rythm^, "which are the shortest glissandi; only two notes (by octaves) for each

glissando (Ex. 51).39 These figures obviously represent the composer

absorbing the technique of guitar plajdng. However, three "normal" glissandi

are used in the seventeenth section, "Un peu modir€ etgrandeoso." This is a

Example 51: H. Villa-Lobos, Rudepoema.

quite brilliant section, and these glissandi reinforce the fanfare. They all

function as a backward motion with a virtuosic effect.

37lbid., 259.

^^here is a detailed analysis of eadi section in Eero Tarasti's book. Ibid., 259-267.

^^ven the SchleiUsi' has three notes. These "two notes" glissandi are not counted as "glisseindi" in this study.

Mdmoprdcoce (Precocious Momus, the king of the Carnival) is typical

Brazilian festival music, which produces novel and tmconventional sounds.

The work, alternating naivete in themes and rhjrthms with complicated

vvriting,40 jg actually based upon the composer's earlier piano series "Camaval

das aciaggas,"which later was orchestrated by the composer himself. The

Momopr^coce is genuinely Brazilian carnival:

. . . t h e f r o l i c k i n g b a n d o f m a s k e d c h i l d r e n i n c l u d e s p o o r frapeirozinhos or ragpickers as well as the offspring of aristocracy—"all

together in order to celebrate freely and as muA as they possibly can."' ^

An ascending white-key gUssando—as a backward motion—is preceded by a

fingered descending passage (Ex. 52). It gives a scintillating impulse for the

following jest-like passage.

Example 52: H. Villa-Lobos, Momo Precoce.

Villa-Lobos's Piano Concerto No. 4 was premiered by Bernardo Segall

under the composer himself conducting the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra.

The work includes four movements, and two ascending glissandi—

ornamental in function—are used in the third movement; this movement is

a "typical late-Villa-Lobosian Scherzo, a kind of 'joy' of music making as such

^^aurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Orchestra, 299.

^^Eero Tarasti, Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Life and Works, 1887-1959,337.

without any prolonged development and letting all orchestral caprices and

melodico-rhythmic whims flourish."^ Like many of the composer's

examples, these glissandi also reinforce the jojrful atmosphere.

To summarize Villa-Lobos's use of glissandi in Table 8, we see that

only one black-key glissando is used in his piano works, there are no other

Table 8: Summary of H. Villa-Lobos's Examples. Year Title Ss of

Glissandi T5T3e included® Range

1918 Em tun Bergo Encantado 2 V

1919 Rhodante 3 A A 2-3 1919 Alegria na Horta 1 A

1921 Moreninha 1 A

1926 Rudepoema 3 A V 3 1929 Mdmopricoce 1 A

1936 Dansa Do India Branco 5 A? 2-4 1952 Concerto Mo. 4,3rd mvt 2 A l i - 2

key for these sjmibos is found in Appendix A.

fancy double-note or octave-glissandi, and only one example is with both

hands. Among the composer's eighteen glissandi, only five of them are

descending. Unlike the virtuoso composer's examples, the range of Villa-

Lobos's glissando is relatively narrow. The functions of these glissandi

mostly are as programmatic expressions and backward motion, and few are

ornaments and virtuosic effects.

42lbid., 349.

84

George Gershwin (1898-1937) was bom in Brooklyn, New York, and

died in Hollj^ood, California. About his mtisic, Matirice Hinson had the

following comment:

He was a bom lyricist; and his complex rhythms, changing meters, and original modulations indelibly stamp his music. Compared to his achievements, his technical flaws in construction and orchestration pale to insignificance. In his short life Gershwin not only made American popular music respectable but also influenced such composers as Ravel, Copland, Weill, Krenek, and Walton.^

Gershwin's uses of glissandi are found in the Rhapsody in Blue (1924)

and the Concerto in F(1925). Both works are full of American popular flavor.

The Rhapsody in Blue, as its title implied, was a blues impression work,

written for piano solo as well as for piano and orchestra—orchestrated by

Ferde Grof^. This work was finished within a very short time and became

one of the best-known American style pieces of the twentieth century. The

Concerto in Fwas a commission by Walter Damrosch, a conductor of the

New York Symphony Society, and premiered at Carnegie Hall in 1925. The

Concerto is actually a fantasy for the piano and orchestra. The composer

orchestrated it himself. Interestingly, there are no jazz instruments, (for

instance, saxophone) used to convey the jazzy atmosphere, which is rather

felicitously represented by the music itself.

The glissando in both versions of the Rhapsody in Blue is exactly the

same: a white-key glissando in the left hand with the emphasized C-sharp in

different registers in the right hand (Ex. 53). This kind of combination works

quite well for the purpose of virtuosic gesture. This jaunty ascending

glissando can be seen as an extension of the opening phrase—an ascending

^^Maurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Orchestra, 108.

Example 53: G, Gershwin, Rhapsody in Blue.

LM.

glissamdo brillanfe col

B-flat scale by the clarinet. The composer indicated it as a "brilliant

glissando;" the added C-sharp notes in the other hand enhance the effect and

the figtire becomes more playful. This design indeed recalls the example

from Saint-Saois's Piano Concerto No. 5 (Ex. 21).

The glissando foimd in the first movement of the Concerto in F, like

the previous example, is followed by a whole note with a fermata marked.

The difference is that this gUssando is not in a brilliant effect but rather

concealed and slower (Ex. 54). which is after orchestra's introduction and

Example 54: G. Gershwin, Concerto in iv I.

rLA \j I

Poco meno mo^o (J = um)

S.JL

f

leads into the piano solo section 'Toco meno mosso." A diminuendo in the

glissando gives it a jazzy flavor. There is another glissando found in the third

movement, which is quite brief and ornamental in function.

86

Aaron Copland (1900-1990), an American composer, studied

composition with Mile. Nadia Botilanger^ in Riance and piano with Ricardo

Vifies.^ He was one of the foremost performers of contemporary music of

the day. Since most pianist composers did most of their creedic work in the

first half of the twentieth century (see Table 9), Copland's writing style

becomes very important as stemming from an earlier pianistic strain.

Table 9: Pianist-Composers' Dates of Death aroimd the First Half of the Twentieth Century.

Alexander Scriabin Moscow, A! 7711915 Maurice Ravel Paris, 12/28/1937

Claude Debussy Paris, 3/25/1918 SerRd Rachmaninoff Beverly Hills, 3/28/1943

Camille Saint-Saens Algiers, 12/16/1921 B^a Bartdk New York, 9/26/1945

Ferrucdo Busoni Berlin, 7/27/1924 Manuel de Falla Alta Grada, Argentina, 11/14/1946

Gabriel Faur6 Paris, 11/4/1924 Serge Prokofiev Moscow, 3/5 /1953

Copland's music is characterized in some aspects: the French

"contemporary galant;"sax early preoccupation with polyrhythmic music and

jazz elements; a powerful dissonant, percussive, and abstract phase; a more

popular, accessible idiom; and a number of serial attempts.^ Harold

Schonberg had the following comment:

^MUe. Nadia Boulanger was a student of Gabriel Faur . Her other famous students include Roy Harris, Walter Piston, Elliott Gurter, and Dinu Lipatti. She advised Copland to compose the Organ Symphony, and she played the organ part with the New York Symphony Orchestra, under Walter Damrosch's conducting in 1925. Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, 8th edition, 222-3.

^^Ricardo ViAes, a Spanish pianist, was an enthusiastic propagandist of Spanish and French music. Ibid., 1967.

^ee F. E. Kirby, A Short History of Keyboard Music 449, and Maurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Orchestra: An Annotated Guide, 70.

87

The Bart6k-Prokofieff-Stravinsky style, with the addition of the contributions of the German twdve-tone and then serial composers, lead into a good deal of today's piano writing, as exemplified in America by such composers as Aaron Copland and Elliott Carter.' ^

Of his considerable output for the piano, the principal works are The

Cat and the Mousey PassacagUa, Piano Variations, Piano Sonata, Piano

Fantasy, and Piano Concerto. Among them, glissandi are foxmd in the Piano

Concerto (1926) and Piano Fantasy (1957). The Piano Concerto reflects the

composer's efforts to utilize a jazz vocabulary and his preoccupation with

thematic variation. And the Piano Fantasy, the composer's longest piano

work, resembles Lisztian writing in many respects.

The Piano Concerto is in the form of two movements without

interruption. An electrifying ascending glissando preceding the final chord is

used at the end of the work (Ex. 55). This glissando functions as a virtuosic

effect and creates a rather effective ending. Since the overall writing of the

concerto is highly dissonant, the glissando ornaments this tone quality.

Example 55: A. Copland, Piano Concerto.

The Piano Fantasy is a somewhat improvisatory work, involving a free

dodecaphonic series and diatonic major-and-minor scales. In Example 56, an

ascending glissando, foreshadowed firom its preceding fingered-scales,

combines with accented bell-tones and ends on the top note c^. The composer

^^Harold C. Schonberg, The Great Pianists, 394.

Example 56: A. Copland, Piano Fantasy.

tarryiMf fonttri.

M

used a quite flexible tempo indication for these two glissandi: "slow"

and "hurrying forward." The following passage is lacking the decorative

glissando, but otherwise identical. Figure 6 shows that the glissando actually

parallels the row, F-D-B-G#-E-C#-A#-F#-D#-C, produced with the left hand.

Figure 6: The Glissando on a Row in Copland's Piano Fantasy. 8va

E C# A# F# D# B#=C

Igor Stravinsky Serge ProkoBev, and Dmitri Shostakovich

With Ravel, Igor Stravinslqr (1882-1971) was considered the initiator of

the neo-classic movement after World War I. One of the most long-lived

89

composers, Stravinsky also adopted many musical styles, including folk

elements, jazz, neo-romantidsm, and serial methods. David Burge stated:

He looked to the music of the past for formal models and even for stylistic characteristics, though his musical personality was so strong that he was able to transform whatever model he chose into his own specific and incomparable style, full of wit and vigor. One could say that he used the music of the past as Bartdk used folk music: assimilating, synthesizing, and transmuting it to his own purposes. More than anyone he was responsible for the establishment of the neoclassic movement in the 1920s, not a "school" per se but rather a point of view that found unacceptable the blurred pastels of impressionism and the anguished gloom of expressionism.^

Although a concert pianist himself, Stravinsky did not contribute

much to the piano repertoire. His uses of glissandi are found in his

transcriptions of the set Trois Mouvements de Pitroucbka, which was

trariscribed from the first, second, and fourth scenes of the composer's famous

ballet P^brouchka (1911), and finished in the same year of Le sacre du

printemps (The Rite of Spring) in 1912. Unlike the other transcriptions from

Stravinsky's ballet, which were made as a convenience for rehearsals, these

three character pieces, Danse russe Chez P trouchka, and La semaine grasse,

are concert works full of pianistic and virtuosic writing. Glissandi are found

in Danse russe (one glissando) and La semaine grasse (sixteen glissandi,

including two octave-glissandi). These octave-glissandi were written forty

years after Brahms's Ungarische Tanze No. 8 (1872). The graphic indication is

applied to them, and the composer implidtiy realized the difficulty of the

octave-glissandi by indicating "8va ad libitum "for the performers (Ex. 57).

Along with these octave-glissandi, the others in single-notes all represent the

composer's virtuosity.

^David Burge, Twentieth-Century Piano Music, 85.

Example 57: I. StravinsJqr, Trois Mouvements de Pdtrouchka TTT,

Serge Prokofiev (1891-1953) was a student of Annette Essipova (the

exponent of the Leschetitzky method) at St. Petersburg ConservatoryHis

piano works are "among the greatest and most significant of the twentieth

century with their driving sarcastic rhythms, and both percussive and

intensively lyrical qualities, helped to formulate decisively the complete

piano technique."50

Prokofiev, among twentieth-century composers, is the most prolific in

the use of glissandi—just as Liszt was in the nineteenth century—and

examples are foimd even in his very early works, such as Diabolical

Suggestion, Op. 4, No. 4 (1912), Toccata, Op. 11 (1912), Prelude, from Ten

Pieces, Op. 12, No. 7 (1913), and Sarcasms, Op. 17, No. 4 (1914). Glissandi are

used in all of his five concertos, but> surprisingly, only two glissandi are

foimd among his nine piano sonatas; both are in the first movement of his

49rheodor Leschetizl (1^0-1915), a student of Carl Czemy and also a student of pmlMophy at Vienna University, joined the feculty of the St Petersburg Conservatory in 1862. as famous students were Ignace Paderewski, Artur Sdmabel, Isabelle Vengerova, and Annette ^sipova. Leschetizky's method is expounded in Groundwork of the Leschetizky Method hv Malwine Bree.

Reginald R. Gerig, Famous Pianists and Their Tedmique, 308-309.

91

Sonata No. 6, Op. 82 (1940). Other example is found in the March and Scherzo

transcribed from the composer's opera Love for Three Oranges (1922).

Among the composer's numerous examples, glissandi without marked

destination are also foimd in his Piano Concerto No. 5, Op. 55 (Ex. 58). This is

a very unusual notation, which is only fotmd in recent composers' works.

See examples from Frederic Rzewski's The People United Will Never Be

Defeated! (Ex. 83).

Example 58: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5,11.

I^Hodermto feea aoooatnato J -10*

In the Piano Concerto No. 5 (1932), eight glissandi are found in the first,

second, and fifth movements. Besides three glissandi without marked

destination in the second movement, there are another two used in the

second movement. These glissandi, similar to the example in Copland's

Piano Fantasy (Ex. 56), are anticipated by their preceding fingered scales, and

are categorized in function as backward motion (Ex. 59). In the fifth

movement, two white-key glissandi are executed with the right hand, while

the left hand plays on the black keys. The effect is quite similar to the black-

and-white glissandi, nevertheless, the black keys must be emphasized in the

manner of a melody and the glissando is used as a virtuosic effect. Indeed,

those glissandi without marked destination also represent this idea, which is

fotmd again in Olivier Messiaen's work. Noticeably, this kind of execution in

92

Example 59: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5, E.

Example 60, the figure actually recalls the example of the "chromatic

glissando" which was a spectacular creation by pianist Carl Tausig in his

unpublished wori^ Gespensterschiff. Here is the story:

During the summer [1859] Carl Tausig and the Bohemian Smetana also stayed with Liszt for a short time. Bofii brought works of their own with them: Tausig, among other things, the Gespensterschiff^ a piece, not then published, containing an incredible passage which put even Liszt in difficulties. It was an ascending chromatic glissando ending shrilly on a top black note! After a few vain attempts, Liszt eventu^y said to Tausig; 'Tunge, wie machst du das?" Tausig sat down, performed a glissando on the white keys with the middle finger of his right hand, while simultaneously making the fingers of his left hand fly so skilfully over the black keys that a chromatic scale could clearly be heard streaking like lightning up the entire length of the keyboard, ending on high witti a shrill 'Tjip."^!

Example 60: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5, L

Adrian Williams, Portrait of Liszt By Himself and His Contemporaries 357-8.

The Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 10 (1912), is a work from the composer's

early period. This work "gives us a good idea of the strengths of Prokofiev's

own performing style, 'combining the massive texture of chords and octaves

with very difficult "acrobatic" leaps and pearly, 6tude-Iike runs."'52 Six

glissandi are found in this concerto, they are all between E and B (Ex. 61). In

Example 61: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 1,1.

mmrm s s m * •

r >•

this section, the music obviously emphasizes in these two notes, while the

glissando, as a filler, enriches the harmony and creates a tonal qualify similar

to those in Bart6k's Rhapsody,

The Piano Concerto No. 2, Op. 16 (1913), has the largest number of

glissandi among Prokofiev's works, which is fourteen in total: one in the first

movement, eleven in the third movement, and two in the end of the fourth

movement. In the third movement, white-key and black-key gUssandi are

alternately executed with the right hand while the left hand plays descending

broken chords based on major and minor modes (Ex. 62). They are the

composer's only examples on the black-keys. The composer suggested

fingered alternatives for them owing to the difficulty: like the examples in

Liszt's Die SchJittschuhlaufer, for these shorter ranged glissandi, it is harder

52David Gutman, ProkoEev, 42.

94

to control the speed; fingered it becomes a better solution, while it should still

sound like a glissando.

Example 62: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 2, IE.

To explore sharp, percussive capabilities of the piano,^^ Prokofiev, in

the first movement of his Piano Concerto No. 3, Op. 26 (1921), used the

glissando in a very high register to create a thrilling sotmd (Ex. 63). Although

Example 63: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 3,1.

these white-key glissandi are between two black keys, they are not used for the

purpose of modulation but actually are ornamental and virtuosic in function.

In Example 64, from the third movement, there is a device of quasi-glissandi

in almost unplayable parallel seconds, usually played as glissandi. Similar

53"Debussy wanted to suggest a piano without hanuners. Prokofiev, Bartdk, Stravinsky and Hindemith had the opposite view. Nonsense, they said in effect The piano is a percussive instrument, and there's no use trjring to disguise the 6act. So let's face up to it and treat the piano as a percussive instrument." Harold C. Schonberg, The Great Pianists, 390.

Example 64: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 3, HI.

passages are found in the second movement of Bartdk's Piano Concerto No. 2

(1932), although those passages are played with the fingers (Ex. 65).

Example 65: B. Bartdk, Piano Concerto No. 2, H.

The Piano Concerto No. 4, Op. 53 (1931) was written for pianist Paul

Wittgenstein, as was Ravel's Concerto for Left Hand. Nevertheless, the

pianist did not like it and refused to play it.54 Prokofiev was intending to re­

write it for two hands, but the premiere of the work, in 1956 with the soloist

Siegfried Rapp, was rather successful. This concerto is revealed as a precise

score moderate in scope though affording flashes of virtuosic technique

within its light and entertaining firamework. Ravel used gliss^ndf in his

Concerto for Left Hand, and so did Prokofiev in the Piano Concerto No. 4;

while examples in the former are quite expansive, in the latter the example is

rather simple (Ex. 66). This glissando, used at the end of the third movement,

encompasses only two octaves, and functions as an ornament. Comparing

^Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musidans, 8th edition, 2064.

96

Example 66: S. Prokofiev, Rano Concerto No. 4, HI.

jQT CD* fcrto

this glissando with those used in tfie composer's Piano Concerto No. 1 (Ex.

61), once again, the glissando is used between two emphasized notes. This

suggests that one of the composer's predilections of using the glissando was as

a "fiUer."

The Piano Sonata No. 6, one of the composer's masterpieces for piano

from his "Soviet Period," shows the composer's return to neo-Romantidsm

and even expressionism from the evident influence of Stravinsky and Les

SixP^ This work—premiered by the composer—^was finished during World

War n and contains some turbulent figures, such as the use of rapid leaps,

awkward changes of hand position, "col pugno" (with the fist), and glissandi.

Two glissandi, with accented interval, identical in every respects, are foimd in

the first movement.

Prokofiev also contributed an example with changing of tempo: in

Sarcasms, Op. 17, No. 4, where a glissando incorporates the use of the una

corda and ritardando (Ex. 67). Compared to its parallel passage—a fingered

ascending scale within one octave in measure 35—tiiis glissando is similarly

melodic in function. Besides, this phrase is derived from the opening theme

(in measure two) and occurs a number of times, becoming a glissando

extending to three octaves at the close of the movement.

^^Stephen C E. Fiess, The Piano Works of Serge ProkoBev, 149 and 189.

Example 67: S. Prokofiev, Sarasmes, Op. 17, No. 4.

a-

corda

Toccata demands tremendous endurance and rhjrthmic drive. This

work shows the composer's musical styles of expressionism, primitivism,

and mechanistic aesthetics.^® An ascending white-key glissando is foxmd at

the end of the work (Ex. 68)P Like all of the percussive implications, the use

Example 68: Prokofiev, Toccata, Op. 11.

of the damper pedal must be very careful with the execution of this

glissando—^frequently changing the pedal or without the use of it in some

pianos or music halls—since the melody is in a very low register with a high

dynamic level. The range of this glissando is the composer's widest one, in

five octaves. To execute this glissando, the right hand must move from its

56rbid., 3.

examples in the end of a work/movement are listed in Table 14.

98

highest position to a very low position, and immediately reaches the

gUssando's destination in two beats in a fast tempo (Allegro marcato). This

supplies a rather exciting splash for a bravura ending. The function of this

glissando obviously is a virtuosic effect Besides, since its destination and its

preceding passage are in the same register, it also can be seen as a backward

motion.

In Diabolical Suggestion, the use of strong accents and sforzandi are

magnificent. "The technical difficulties of this piece include trills performed

by rapid alternation of hands, scale and arpeggio figures, staccato chords and

thirds, rapid leaps, hand-crossing, and glissandi."58 The function of these two

glissandi is transmitting the sonorities firom G^M to CM (Ex. 69).

Example 69: S. Prokofiev, Suggestion Diabolique, Op. 4, No. 4.

The Prelude (fi'om Ten Pieces Op. 12) was originally written for solo

harp and transcribed for solo piano by the composer himself. The work is in

an A-B-A form. In the "B" section, eight identical glissandi supply the charm

of bell tones in a touch of graceful delicacy (Ex. 70). The composer indicated

"delicatissimo"m these glissandi to suggest a very elegant quality of soimd.

Like examples from the composer's Piano Concerto No. 1 (Ex. 61) and Piano

^®Stephen C. E. Fiess, The Piano Works of Serge ProkoBev, 104

Concerto No. 4 (Ex. 66), these glissandi are all between two Es and function as

a "fiUer."

Example 70: S. Prokofiev, Ten Pieces, Prelude, Op. 12, No. 7. detfeatissimo

Table 10 shows that Prokofiev's examples are mostly ascending, and

black-key glissandi are only found in the Piano Concerto No. 2. Compared to

Table 10: Summary of S. Prokofiev's Examples Year Title #sof GI. Type included 1912 Piano Concerto No. 1,1st mvt. 6 A 1912 Suggestion Diabolique. 2 A 1912 Toccata. 1 A 1913 Prelude, Op. 12, No. 7. 8 A 1913 Piano Concerto No. 2,1st, 3rd, 4th mvt. 14 A V • 1914 Sarcasmes, Op. 17. 1 A 1921 Piano Concerto No. 3,1st, 3rd mvt 5 A V 1922 March and Scherzo Erom the Love for

Three Oranges. 1 A

1931 Piano Concerto No. 4,3rd mvt 1 V 1932 Piano Concerto No. 5,1st, 2nd, 5th mvt. 8 A V 1940 Sonata No. 6. 2 A

® A key for these symbos is found in Appendix A.

the examples of the nineteenth-century's most prolific composer (Franz

Liszt), many of whose examples are two-hand glissandi, none of them are

fotmd in Prokofiev's works. Besides, Prokofiev hardly used numerous

glissandi in a single work or a single movement.

100

Dmitri Shostakovich (1906-1975) was primarily a symphonist He and

Dmitri Kabalevslqr are credited as the ones who rivaled Prokofiev's

achievements among the Russian composers.^^ Shostakovich began piano

lessons at the age of nine and later attended the St. Petersburg Conservatoire.

But he abandoned pursuing the career of piano virtuoso after he was awarded

a Certificate of Merit in the First International Chopin Piano Competition in

1927.60 Shostakovich's output for the piano includes two piano concertos,

two piano sonatas, two sets of Preludes,^! and Ten Aphorisms. Perhaps

because of the composer's strong orchestra and chamber orientations, his

piano music reflects an orchestral style.

His uses of the glissando are foimd in the Piano Sonata No. 1 (1926)

and the Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 35 (1933). The Piano Sonata No. 1 is a work

of the composer's early period, and shows the influence of Prokofiev. It

shows highly dissonant and full of energetic and brilliant virtuosity. The

Piano Concerto No. 1, for piano, trumpet, and strings, represents the

composer's neo-classic style, which is 'lean and acerbic and has some musical

irony tinged with Slavic melancholy

The Piano Sonata No. 1 is a one-movement work cast in three sections:

Allegro, Lento, and Allegro. Glissandi are found in the first section, which

are melodic in function. Among these six glissandi, there is a very tmusual

^^avid Burge, Twentieth-Century Piano Music, 103.

^^onald Stevenson, The Piano Music, from Shostakovich: the Man and His Music, 81-103.

^^The first set is entitled 'Twenty-Four Preludes for Piano, Op. 34^" and the second set is "Twenty-Four Preludes and Fugues for Piano, Op. 87."

^^Maurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Orchestra: An Annotated Guide, 269.

101

design, that is, the composer added a black note in the middle of a white-key

glissando. In addition. Example 71 shows the composer's treatment of the

Example 71: D. Shostakovich, Piano Sonata No. 1, Op. 12.

glissando as a modulation tool; he even used the octave-glissando in this way

(Ex. 72). Ronald Stevenson said:

Shostakovich's Sonata, this concept [ConstructivismI would read something like this: the piano is a music-machine made by carpenters and engineers; let us celebrate it as a machine. It is the Hammerklavier. A proto-revolutionary composer, Beethoven, so designated his Sonata op. 106. Let us make it the "hammer and sickle" music-machine! Let us glory in poimding chords and slashing glissandi!

Example 72: D. Shostakovich, Piano Sonata No. 1, Op. 12.

Two identical glissandi are fotmd in the fourth movement of the the

Piano Concerto No. 1. The composer used a black note eis tfie destination of a

white-key glissando, but this is not a case of a modulation tool since the

tonality does not change (Ex. 73). Actually, these two glissandi are quite

fP Cfffwr*

^%onald Stevenson, The Piano Music, from Shostakovich: the Man and His Music, 89.

102

similar to the example from Prokofiev's Piano Concerto, No. 3 (Ex. 63), and

function as the same as a virtuosic effect

Example 73: D. Shostakovich, Piano Concerto No. I, Op. 35, IV.

gf txMt tmdff

Paul Hindemithr Michael Tippett, Olivier Messiaen, and Benjamin Britten

Among the European composers, glissandi were foimd in works by

Paxil Hindemith (German), Michael Tippett (English), Olivier Messiaen

(French), and Benjamin Britten (English). Britten contributed many glissandi

in a single work, to a degree perhaps exceeded only by Liszt's works.

Messiaen's examples are much less virtuosic but expressive, while Tippett's

example, perhaps owing to his "American-character," is of the "fanfare"

effect. Hindemith produced an unusual form of black-and-white glissandi.

Paul Hindemith (1895-1963), a theorist, teacher, and performer, as well

as one of the foremost composers of his time, composed prolifically for every

instrument His use of glissandi is found in the Suite 1922, a product of his

early years. This suite perhaps is not among the composer's better works

from that time, as his approach to ragtime and other popular dances of the

day is heavy-handed. 1922 means "post-war Germany, defeat, inflation,

bitterness, and a huge national production of forced gaiety. The young

103

Hindemith's mood at the time was ironic, if not actually sarcastic."^^ The

work includes five movements: Marsch, Shimmyr Nachtstuck, Boston, and

Ragtime, which are the parodies of early twentieth-century dance styles

within the old dance form.

An example of two-hand glissandi is found in the second movement

"Shimmy." The Shimmy was not treated "as a trival, vulgar night-dub dance

but as something grotesque and monstrous. Jazz elements, though plentiful,

are hidden in a thick texture of dissonance and a ponderous rhythm.'' The

use of glissandi is rather significant; in contrast to the other two-hand

glissandi found in this study, Hindemith's example is played simultaneously

in contrary directions and combines both white-key (descending with the

right hand) and black-key (ascending with the left hand) glissando (Ex. 74). In

Example 74: P. Hindemith, 1922 Suite fur Klavier, H.

the previous century, only Franz Liszt contributed three two-hand glissandi

in contrary directions in his Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10, though they are

both on the white-keys and in outward directions. Hindemith used the

indications—^Untertalten, Obertalten—^for the use of the white-key and black-

key glissandi. Compared to its parallel phrase (in measure three), the right

(Usicrtafca) 'axniftn

^^Program notes on slipcase of DOT, DLP3111,1958.

65lbid.

104

hand is on. octave-E with the left hand on octave-D-sharp, which pre-figures

the tonality of this black-and-white glissando.

Michael Tippett (1905- ), bom in London, is a British composer but has

made the USA the stage for much of his life's activity.^ About the American

character of his music, Aaron Copland had the following statement

It is no problem at all for an American to like and empathize with Michael Tippett. In fact^ his name invariably brings to mind the as yet unexplored relationship of British and American music of this century. ... [W]hen I came to know Tippett's music better, I appreciated his darker, more philosophic side. But still the impression remained; his directness of expression, his clear-cut themes, and above all, the rh)^thmic life of his scores pointed to a natural affinity with characteristic aspects of American composition.

Tippett did not write copiously for the piano. Glissandi are fotmd in

the Piano Sonata No. 2, which is a one-movement work, first performed by

Margaret Kitchin in the Edinburgh Festival in 1962. This work, including

motifs from the second act of the composer's opera King Priam, is "mainly

lyrical, thoroughly worked out, but little development to speak of."®^

Glissandi used here—combined with accented bell-tones—are a rather

^Michael Tippett visited the School o£ Music and Dance of the University of Arizona in the winter of 1996. About the composer's encounter with Arizona, Meirion Bowen had the following description; "Undoubtedly the real watershed in Tippett's life and work in the middle Sixties was his 'discovery' of America. He went there for the first time in 1965 as a guest composer at the music festival in Aspen, Colorado. Immediately, he fell in love with the canyons, mesas and deserts of Arizona, New Mexico and Utah." Michael Tippett, 33.

^ lan Kemp, ed. Michael Uppett A Symposium on his 60th Birthday, 53.

68ibid., 206-7.

^^aurice Hinson, Guide to The Pianist's Repertoire, 648.

105

virtuosic effect. Tippett indicated "dopo la 2nda battuta " (after the second

beat) for the place to start the glissando (Ex. 75). The indication of other

Example 75: M. Tippet, Piano Sonata No. 2.

[dSin)pO€ac pact

glissandi in the work is unusual: without the diagonal line between the

upper and lower notes but connecting the ligatures of the two outer groups

notes, which is similar to de Falla's indication in Fantasia Bastica (Ex. 39).

Moreover, some of them—they are all white-key glissandi—are between a

tonality produced by the black-keys. However, these glissandi do not function

as modulation tools but as embellishments, and this section (from measure

174 to measure 206) is enclosed by continuous ascending and descending

glissandi.

Olivier Messiaen (1908-1992) has had a significant influence on

modem music. Karlheinz Stockhausen and Pierre Boulez are among his

most famous students. In 1966, Messiaen was appointed professor of

composition at the Paris Conservatoire. An international piano competition

bearing his name was established in 1967 as part of the Royan Festival. In

1971 he won the Erasmus prize.^o

The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musidans, "Messiaen, Olivier, "12:204-205.

106

Messiaen's examples of glissandi are found in the fifth movement of

the Preludes (1929) and tie de Feu 1 (from Quatre etudes de rythme [1949]).

The Preludes^ including eight pieces, represent the music of the composer's

first period. Andr^ Boucourechliev said: "In his first period, Messiaen's

personal style and principal discoveries in rhjrthm, harmony and tone-colour

are eilready evident. The style is rich, even baroque, and is perfectly adapted to

the forces it employs."^ The series Vingt regards surVenfant J^sus is the

most famous work in this period, while the Preludes recall the styles of

impressionism and neo-romantidsm. The works of the composer's second

period are radically opposed to these "baroque" characteristics, and the Quatre

etudes de rythme are characteristic of this period. Messiaen considered

himself a "rhythmidan" as well as a composer, and the dominance of rhythm

in his work reflects this; and Quatre etudes de rythme show "a sudden paring

down in the composer's pianistic writing; it is as if all the spedal features of

his style were laid bare. Manipulations of rhythms become extremely dear,

and the contrasts of registers and densities are brutal, so as to be as obvious as

possible."^

The harmonic structure of the Prelude: Les sons impalpables du reve

(The Imperceptible Sotmds of the Dream) is built on the octatonic scale. The

work is in a rondo form: A-B-A-C-A-B-A-Coda. A glissando is used just

before the end: a brief crescendo to / in an ascending white-key glissando,

which is followed by a soft dosing (Ex. 76). The music momentarily enters a

T^Ibid., 12:206.

^Andr6 Boucourechliev divided Messiaen's works into four periods: 1. up to the Turangalila-symphonie (1946-8), 2. Cant yodjayi to the Livre d'orgue (1951), 3. R^veil des oiseaux to Sept haikal(1962), and 4. Couleurs de la dt cileste onwards. Ibid.

107

Example 76: O. Messiaen, Fre/ude. sons impalpables du reve.

mysterious atmosphere and seems to hesitate on an "A," and suddenly the

glissando occurs and leads to a very surprising ending. This glissandi

represents the composer's impressionistic technique with a programmatic

intent.

The rhythm of the opening of he de Feu 1 recalls Bartdk's With Drums

and Pipes from Out of Doors. There are two glissandi foimd in he de Feu 1.

The composer marked "gliss. touches blanches" to indicate the use of the

white-key glissando. Here, similarly to an example from Prokofiev's Piano

Concerto No. 5 (Ex. 77), in he de Feu 1, white-key glissandi are executed with

Example 77: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5, V.

the right hand, while the left hand plays a pentatonic scale on the black-keys

in an identical register creating a typically exotic effect (Ex. 78). Actually, it

108

would sound like a black-and-white glissando, but as the composer did not

use the glissando on the black-keys, perhaps this pentatonic scale should be

brought out more than the white-key glissando and treated as a melody.

These two glissandi are identical and create a virtuosic effect.

Example 78: O. Messiaen's he deFeu 1.

Benjamin Britten (1913-1976) is considered one of the greatest English

composers since Henry Purcell. First piano lessons from his mother were at

the age of five, and formal piano lessons were with Harold Samuel in 1928

and Arthur Benjamin during his studies at the Royal College of Music from

1938. Later, the composer became a marvelous pianist of the day. However,

his piano output is not large. Glissandi appear in his three piano concertante

works: Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 13 (1938), Diversion on a Theme for Left

Hand and Orchestra, Op. 21 (1940), and Scottish Ballad, Op. 26 (1941)7

Significantly, they are rather numerous in each work. Twenty-fotir glissandi

are found in the Piano Concerto No. 1, and twenty glissandi in Scottish

Ballad. This frequency of use is only second to that of Liszt. In addition, there

are four glissandi fotmd in Diversion, including one on the black-keys.

The Piano Concerto No. 1 was premiered at a BBC Promenade Concert

with the composer himself as the soloist and the BBC Sjonphony Orchestra,

^^Scottish Ballad was written Cor two pianos and orchestra. Its discussion will not be included in this study.

conducted by Henry Wood in 1938. The work, including four movements

Toccata, Waltz, faipromptu, March '*— is a work of the composer's early

period. Twenty glissandi are found in the 'Toccata" and four glissandi in the

March, all of them are on the white-keys. These two movements show the

composer's typically briUiant writing style, the "Toccata" bears a percussive

character and "betrays the influence of Bartdk and Shostakovich."75 In the

' Toccata," glissandi are all placed in the extended cadenza. Mostly they are

continuously ascending and descending within the same register: a^ to a^ or

a4. Although in Example 79 we see that the intervals on the black-keys are

between the white-key glissandi, this can not interpret these examples

functioning as a modulation tool but actually as a melody.

Example 79: B. Britten, Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 13.

Diversion was dedicated to pianist Paul Wittgenstein. The work is a

theme and ten variations with a tarantella finale, which "display various

kinds of left-hand technique. No attempt is made to imitate two-handed

piano playing. An elaborate and taxing workout for the one hand alone, with

^his revised version dated in 1945. The third movement in the original version is Reatative and Aria".

^Sjohn Evans, The Concertos from The Batten Companion, 415.

76See Ravel's Concerto (or Left Hand and Prokofiev's Piano Concerto No. 4.

110

trills in the Recitative, widespread arpeggi in the Nocturne, agility over the

keyboard in the Badinerie and Toccata, and repeated notes in the final

Tarantella.77 Four glissandi are foxmd in Variation 1 "Recitative," Variation 7

"Badinerie," and Variation 9 "Toccata." Coinddentally, gUssandi all occur in

the sections mentioned from the above statement These glissandi, all

melodic in function, represent a very dear melody line and simple harmony

(Ex. 80). The glissando's essence is strongly brought out in this work, which

also coinddes with another of Maurice Hinson's comments about Britten's

music: "his style is characterized by thin textures which add darity and zest to

his writing."78

Example 80: B. Britten, Diversion on a Theme for Left Hand and Orchestra Op. 21.

veioee

/tv

George Crumb

George Crumb (b. 1929) was bom in West Virginia and educated at

Mason College, the University of Illinois, and the University of NCchigan. He

was a member of the faculty of the University of Colorado from 1959 until

1964. In 1964, he served as a "Composer-in-Residence" at the Buffalo Center

for the Creative and Performing Arts through the recdpt of a Rockefeller

^Maurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Orchestra: An Annotated Guide, 49.

78Maurice Hinson, Guide to The Pianist's Repertoire, 118.

Ill

grant Beginning in 1965, Crumb has taught at the University of

Pennsylvania. Pianist David Burge knows Crumb's music very well since he

also taught at the University of Colorado in 1962—75. He wrote the following

remarks about the composer

Crumb found particular reference to life's mysteries in the sounds of Debussy's music, the autobiographical confessions of the songs and sjonphonies of Mahler, as well as the poems of Rilke. He also fotmd them in the magically evocative images of Garcia Lorca, a Spanish poet whose language he did not speak but whose incisive linguistic concepts and sonorities were in tune with his own inner visions. Equally important, he learned about musical form from the classic^ masters and Bartdk, admired the transparent lyridsm of Dallapiccola, and was profoimdly affected by the ecstasies of carefully prepared, hyperromantic climaxes in the music of Alban Berg.^^

Crumb's mature piano solo works include Five Pieces for Piano, A

Littie Suite for Christmas, A.D. 1979, Gnomic Variations, Processional, and

first two sets of the Makrokosmos. In these works, the composer's use of

glissandi on the strings is ubiquitous. Other extended techniques, including

muting, plucking, strumming, vocalizing, special timbre effects made by

adding various materials on the strings, and ingenious notations, have

become the composer's tj^ical musical characteristics.

Unlike Crumb's frequent uses of glissandi on the strings, his examples

on the keys are found only in the Makrokosmos I (1972) and II (1973), which

are written for amplified piano. The composer himself noted that this title

reflects his admiration for B^a Bart6k (Mikrokosmos) and Qaude Debussy

^^avid Burge, Twentieth-Century Piano Music, 211.

^^Which was regarded by the composer as his first "representative" work.

^^Makrokosnios HI (1974) is for two cimplified pianos and percussion (2 players). Makrokosmos IV 0-979) is for an amplified piano, 4 hands.

112

(24 Preludes), while its "spiritual impulse" is akin to Fr616ic Chopin and

early Robert Schumann.®^ Along with the second set, there are 24 "fantasy-

pieces," whose themes are derived from astrological signs.

Five glissandi are used in the Aries of Spring-Fire (from Makrokosmos

I), and all of them are placed between tone-clusters at the climax of the work

(Ex. 81). Like many of Debussy's examples, these glissandi are also

impressionistic in function, suggesting the image of the "fire."

Example 81: G. Crumb, Spring-Fire (Aries) from Makrokosmos L

In Tora! Tora! Tora! (from Makrokosmos II), there are seven examples

of black-and-white glissandi, which are also impressionistic in function (Ex.

82). Unlike many other black-and-white glissandi, the examples here produce

the effect of "noise."

Example 82: G. Crumb, Tora! Tora! Tora! (Cadenza Apocalittica) from Makrokosmos II.

^^Don Gillespie, ed. George Crumb: ProSIe of a Composer, 109.

113

Of the examples in twentieth-century piano works, besides the normal

glissando, four other types are illustrated in Table 11.

Table 11: Examples in the Twentieth Century in Four Groups Beised on Its Type.

Type Title Year #s ofGli-ssandi® 1. Black-key

glissandi Ravel, Jeux d 'eaux. Ravel, Uns barque surVoc^aru Ravel, Otidine.

1901 1905 1908

1 2 2 •3

Debussy, Feux d'artiBce. 1913 4

Prokofiev, Piano Concsrto No. Z HI. 1913 4 15 4 A

E)ebussy, Etude, Pourles huit doigts. 1915

4 15 4 A

Falla, l oches en los Jardines de Espana, I. 1915 12 17 1 Villa-Lobos, Rhodante. 1919

12 17 1

Hindemith, Shimmy. Bart6k, Piano Con<xrto No. 2,1. Britten, Diversion.

1922 1932 1940

1 1 1

Ginastera, Piano Concerto No. 1, IV. 1961 2

Crumb, Tora! Tora! Tora! 1973 0 7

2. Double-note-elissandi

Ravel, Alborado del gradoso. 1905 4

3. Octave-glissandi

I. Stravinsky, Trois Mouvements de P trouchka.

Shostakovich, Sonata No. 1.

1921

1926

2 17 3 6

4. Two-hand glissandi

Debussy, Fewc d'artiBce.

Hindemith, Shimmy.

1913

1922

1 7 1 7

Bartdk, Piano Concerto No. I, U. 1926 1

Ravel, Concerto in G Mafor, I. 1932 D 1 8 1 Villa-Lobos, Dansa Do Indio Branco. 1936

D 1 8 1

Bart6k, Piano Concerto No. 3, m. 1945 1

Ginastera, Piano Concerto No. 1, IV. 1%1 1

Crumb, Tora! Tora! Tora! 1973 7

^In entries that appear as fractions: total glissandi found is the denominator, while the number of them which fit in the specified category appears as the nimierator. In the case of two-hand glissandi, the numerator indicates the ntunl of "examples," not the number of "glissandi." For other details which refer to the counting, see the footnote 1 in Chapter 4.

114

1. When compared to Table 5, it is interesting to note that examples of

octave-glissando used in the twentieth century were foimd only in the works

of Shostakovich and Stravinsky, and double-note glissandi—^first found in

Liszt's works—were used again only by Ravel. In contrast, the black-key

glissando had been used rather lavishly. Besides, many composers used two-

hand glissandi, but only Hindemith's example is in contrary directions—

following Liszt's example in his Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10.

2. The black-key glissando outlines the pentatonic scale, but later it

becomes less crucial in this harmonic consideration, and resembles nearly the

concept of tone-dusters or just a "noise." There are four combinations in the

black-and-white glissando: (a) both descending, (b) both ascending, (c) in

contrary directions—^inwards, (d) in contrary directions—outwards. Only the

combination (d) has not been foimd yet Moreover, if these glissandi are

applied to both hands, there is more variety: (i) white-key in the right hand,

(ii) white-key in the left hand. Summing up these possibilities, examples of

the black-and-white glissando foimd are collected in Table 12.

Table 12: Examples of the Black-and-White Glissando.

Year Composer, Htle # of gl. Range Execution

1913 Debussy, Feux d'artiBce. 1 5

1922 Hindemith, Shimmy. 1 4 1

1961 Ginastera, Piano Concerto No. 1,4th mvt. 1 5 k

1973 Crumb, Tora! Tora! Total 7 1 OS

® A key for these symbos is found in Appendix A.

3, The first example indicated the changing of tempo in the glissando

was foimd in Liszt's Die Schlittsdmhlaufer. There are more examples by

115

twentieth-century composers, such as Bartdk, Villa-Lobos, Prokofiev, and

Copland. Examples with tempo indications are collected in Table 13.

Table 13: Glissandi with Tempo Dedications in The Twentieth-Century Works. 1915 Falla, Moches en los fardines de EspaHa, HI. gliss. ad lib. quasi cadenza. 1926 Bartdk, First Piano Concerto. gliss. poco allarg. 1932 Barti3k, Second Piano Concerto. gUss. poco ritard. 1945 BartiSk, Tanz-Suite. gliss. poco allarg. 1919 Villa-Lobos, Rhodante. glissando veloce. 1921 Villa-Lobos, MorenJnha. gliss. veloce ad lib. 1926 Villa-Lobos, Rudepoema. gliss. veloce. 1914 Prokofiev, Sarcasmes, Op. 17, No. 4. (glis. ad libitum) ritard. 1957 Copland, Piano Fantasy. gliss. (slow), gliss. hurrying forward.

4. The use of a glissando immediately before the end of a work (or

movement) is a new treatment by twentieth-century composers. Table 14

illustrates examples in this category, while there is an example used at the

opening of a work, that is Bart6k's Tanz-Suite.

T^le^4j_^MagksUsedK^^Be| re^^^^ofE^^Piere/^b^^^^ 1890 Debussy, Menuet from Suite

Bergamasque. 1926 Bartdk, Sonata, I.

1912 Prokofiev, Toccata, Op. 11. 1926 Bartdk, Piano Concerto No. 1, II.® 1913 Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 2, IV.® 1926 Copland, Piano Concerto. 1919 Villa-Lobos, Rhodante. 1929 Messiaen, Les sons impalpagles du rive. 1921 Stravinsky, Trois Mouvements de

P trouchka. 1931 Ravel, Concerto for Left Hand.

^Indicated slightly differently.

5. The graphic notation of the glissando is a universal treatment

among twentieth-century composers. Among the selected composers in this

study, only Villa-Lobos and Shostakovich did not use the graphic indication

for their glissandi. Examples from these two composers are either in a short

116

range or the usage of glissandi is still melodic in function. Like many other

indications for ornaments, when the execution of the ornament makes it

imnecessary to indicate every single note, the graphic symbol is flie best

solution. The symbols for the use of tremolos and trills represent pertinent

examples of this. Other indications for the use of glissandi along with the

graphic indication are collected in Table 15.

Table 15: Special Indication with the Use of Glissandi.

1919 Falla, Fantasia Bastica. Connection of ligatures between upper and lower notes.

1922 Hindemith, Shimmy. Untertalten, Obertalten.

1949 Messiaen, he de Feu 1. gliss. touches blanches.

1961 Ginastera, Concerto No. 1. gliss. (teclas negras).

1962 Tippett, Sonata No. 2. Cormection of ligatures between upper and lower notes.

6. Most glissandi used in the twentieth century fulfill the function of

virtuosic effects or programmatic expression. Some are used as a modulation

tool or embellishment while the use of the glissando as a melodic gesture

occurs infrequently in modem piano works. This can also be seen as the use

of graphic indication becomes common for modem composers, since melodic

function would not be served by this kind of indication.® The use of the

glissando as an impressiorust device can be traced from Saint-Saens's

Aquarium (Ex. 22) and was inherited largely by the impressionist composers;

while in works incorporating the national style, the glissando usually

represents programmatic intent. The use of the glissando as a modulation

tool is rather novel in twentieth-century compositions, although in the

^^Benjamin Britten's examples are the exceptions, since the amount of glissandi is quite large, and the graphic notation is rather consistent.

117

previous chapter, there are two examples; Balakirev (Ex. 25) and Grieg (Ex.

26).84

7. There is a similar circumstance in the works with many glissandi,

that is, they appear grouped closely together in the work. Such as Debussy's

Etude: Pour les huit doigts (6), Ravel's Concerto in G (8), Bartdk's Rhapsody

(8), Ginastera's Piano Concerto No. 1 (6), Prokofiev's Piano Concerto No. 2,

third movement (11), Prelude Op. 12, No. 7 (8), Tippett's Sonata No. 2 (7), and

Britten's Piano Concerto No. 1, first movement (20). Even examples

discussed in the previous chapter—^Scarlatti's and Liszt's—also reveal this

kind of treatment. This tells us that a single glissando usually introduces a

surprising effect, while multiple-glissandi reinforce the impression of the

device.

occurences of these functions can be seen in Appendix A.

118

CHAPTER4

Conclusions

The Use of the Glissando

Summing up the examples found in this study, the total number of

glissandi is 473, used in 90 works.^ The following table (Table 16) shows in

detail of the amount and characteristics of each kind of glissando.^

Table 16: The Ntmibers of Examples.

Total numbers found: 473 white-

key black-key ascending descending octave-

glissandi double-

note glissandi

two-hand glissandi

# % # % # % # % I f % # % # %

Concerto 164 16 128 52 7 0 19

Sonata 39 0 30 9 8 0 0

Etude 8 4 6 6 0 4 0

Misc. 224 18 193 49 11 15 19

Total 435 92.0 38 8.0 357 753 116 245 26 55 19 4.0 38 16.1

Octave-glissandi: Among 26 octave-glissandi, 21 of them were used

during the nineteenth century. The remaining five examples were produced

^Glissandi were counted according to this method: each octave-glissando and double-note glissando was counted as one glissando, while any example executed by both hands was counted as two glissandi, hence, "two glissandi are in a two-hand glissando," or "an example of the two-hand glissando has two glissandi in it" In this special case, the in Table 16 for two-hand glissandi is the number of "examples," not the number of "glissandi." That is, "38 examples are two-hand glissandi, whiA total is 76 glissandi." Therefore, the percentage of "76 divided by 473 (the total numbers of glissandi) is 16.1%."

^The numbers are based upon examples listed in Appendix A, but exclude Frederic Rzewski's since he is yoimger than George Crumb, who is the last composer discussed in this study.

119

by Stravinsky and Shostakovich. The twentieth-century virtuosos, such as

Bartdk and Prokofiev, avoided the use of the octave-glissando. Perhaps they

considered that the octave-glissando requires tremendous endurance and

drive but without enough benefit in return. Apparently, following the

Lisztian-tradition, the octave-glissando is not a practical device for them.

Double-note glissandi: Only 19 examples in four works are foimd; Liszt

contributed twelve of them. Ravel the other seven. Similar to the

disadvantages of the octave-glissandi, even Liszt himself gave an ossia

version for the double-note glissandi in his own work. Ravel's example dates

to 1905—about a half century later than Liszt's examples—and uses

continuously ascending and descending glissandi in a musical fashion which

may have inspired use in later piano compositions.

Two-hand glissandi: Among 38 examples of two-hand glissandi—Liszt

contributing 20—a half of them are foxmd in piano concertos. There are 10

examples of the black-and-white glissando (4.2%), seven of them were

produced by George Crumb. This kind of glissando is gradually becoming an

application of the tone-clusters sonority for present-day composers. Along

with glissandi on the strings, this kind of glissando will perhaps be used more

frequently later.

Black-key glissandi: Only 38 black-key glissandi are found (8.0%), none

of them in piano sonatas. And only 28 of them (5.9%) are executed alone,

since 10 of them are executed with white-key glissandi. Starting from the

very early years of the twentieth century—the first example found is Ravel's

Jewc d'eau, dated in 1901—this kind of glissando obviously has not been in

frequent use.

Directions: The glissando mostly followed the model of its ancestral

device, the slide, in directions: 755% are ascending, and only 245% of them

are descending, hi the case of two-hand glissandi, only five examples are

executed in contrary directions, which are in the works of Liszt, Bart6k, and

Hindemith.

Type of works: Piano concertos and similar types of works have a

significant amoxmt of glissandi: among 473 examples, they have about 40%,

and 32 concertante works are among 90 works in which glissandi are found.

The brilliant effect of this device is highly suited to the character of the

concertos. On the contrary, only three works are etudes, and they have only

2.5% in amount.

Figure 7: The Types of the Works in the Use of Glissandi.

Total: 90

Concerto: 32 38.1%

Misc.: 47 51.4%

Etude: 3 8.2% 2^^

2d Sonata

• Concerto

Summary of the Glissando's Historical Development

When the glissando has been written as a formal compositional device

in the eighteenth century, beginning with the works of Domenico Scarlatti, it

evolved from its ancestral device, the slide, and was ornamental and

occasionally melodic in function. Although Scarlatti's examples are

relatively simple, they anticipate examples in later piano compositions in

121

several aspects, such as "quasi-glissandi" and the destination note (or chord)

on (or off) the beat

In the early part of the nineteenth century, Ludwig van Beethoven,

Carl Maria von Weber, and Johann Nepomuk Hummel expanded the device

in octaves, which before the end of the century was adopted by several

composers, such as Bedrich Smetana, Johannes Brahms, and Mily Balcikirev.

Among twentieth-century composers, only Igor Stravinsky and Dmitri

Shostakovich utilized this kind of glissandi.

Frariz Liszt produced the largest quantity among all of the composers.

He created two-hand and double-note glissandi, and also bestowed a virtuosic

effect, which has become a quite popular treatment of the device since Liszt's

efforts. While the virtuosic effect is actually the glissando's natural essence,

examples are ubiquitous, developing with the improvement of the piano

itself and the larger and larger expectation from the performer and the

audience.

For nationalistic composers, the glissando is a fine device to express the

feeling of ethnic emotions, such as jojrful and energetic. When it is

accompanied with a virtuosic intention, an electrifying charm intoxicates

both the performer and the audience. Bedrich Smetana, Mily Balakirev,

Edvard Grieg, and Edward Elgar in the nineteenth century; and Manuel de

Falla, B^a Bartdk, Heitor Villa-Lobos, George Gershwin, and Aaron Copland

in the twentieth century, all have this kind of character in their glissando.

The impressionists, Qaude Debussy and Maurice Ravel, began to use

the black-key glissando, which is a fine application for impressionistic

purposes since its pentatonic orientation is easy to liken to images of nature:

122

water, wind, fireworks, and so forth. However, this impression gradually

faded out in the works of more recent composers, in whose works the concept

of tone-clusters or just a "noise" is revealed.

Harmonically, the use of glissandi are distinctively within their natural

consonance. Until the early part of the twentieth century, impressionists still

followed this principle in the use of the black-key glissando. As a percussive

character in the examples of B61a Bartdk and Serge Prokofiev, this principle

seems to be exploded, and the device appears with a greater flexiblity of

application.

Melodically, glissandi simply outline a scale. Examples appearing as an

alternative between a fingered scale and a glissando—especially if the figure is

in a short range—surface quite often, and even a comparison between the

original work and its transcription show the device's obvious application.

Examples from the works of Manuel de Falla and Benjamin Britten

demonstrate a extreme possibility of using glisssandi as a cadenza, which

enriches the meaning of this device and is a far cry firom its earlier reputation

as a gimmick.

The Future of the Glissando

The evolution of glissandi is still progressing in current piano

compositions. Today composers still use this "traditional" device in their

piano works, while around 1920s, glissandi on the strings were initiated by

Henry Cowell in his Aeolian Harp (1923), Piece for Piano with Strings (1924),

and The Banshee (1925). This later became one of the common devices for

123

avant garde composers.^ Interestingly, while "glissandi on the strings" were

derived from "glissandi on the keys," the applications of the former are

gradually being reclaimed for the use of the latter. Such techniques include

using different speeds, wiping the strings, use of various parts of fingers—

nails, finger-tips—^and playing on different parts of the strings.^ Some

composers have applied these ideas to the keyboard glissando; a fine example

is Frederic Rzewski's The People United Will Never Be Defeated!.

Frederic Rzewski was bom in Massachusetts in 1938 and studied at

Harvard and Princeton. He is a fine pianist as well as a composer; he

premiered Stockhausen's Klavierstuck X in 1962. The People United was

composed in 1975. The work, approximately one hour long, is a theme and

set of variations. In this work, the use of glissandi—^in Variations 10,12,34,

and 36—^is startling! Glissandi without destination marking (Ex. 83), glissandi

executed by palm, the use of a white-key glissando ending on black note,

accented on the starting notes, two-hand glissandi wiping inwards in contrary

directions, black-and-white glissando, various dynamic plans, etc. The

composer obviously absorbed the concept of glissandi on the strings and

%uch as John Cage 0)-1912), Milton Babbitt 0?. 1916), Pierre Boulez (b. 1925), Karlheinz Stockhausen (b. 1928) and George Crumb.

4john Cage indicated "GUSS. ON STRINGS (COVER PAPER)" and "GUSS. ON STRINGS (FINGER-TIPS)" in his Music of Change U, and"ABR-GUSS. ON STRINGS (FINGERNAIL)" in Music of Change III, and IV. In the Two Pastorales for Piano, the usage include "SWEEP STRING LENGTHWISE TOWARDS DAMPER (FROM BEYOND) (FINGERNAIL)," "SLOW GUSS. ON STRINGS," and "ACCEL. GUSS. ON UNTUNED STRINGS. THIS SIDE OF DAMPER, MIDDLE RANGE, WOOD STICK, BEGIN FAST, CONTINUE WITH RTTARD." George Crumb used "rapid glissando over strings (f.t.)" indication in his Gnomic-Variations. In Karlheinz Stockhausen's Klavierstucke Xn, the use of glissandi on the strings include "Fingemagel-Gliss Qber die Saiten streichen," "mit parallelen Fingerkuppen und FingemSgeln auf mehrere saiten glieichzeitig klopfen," and "mit Fingemdgeln auf Saiten hin und her reiben."

applied them on the keys with the techniques from the old format of

glissandi.

124

Example 83: F. Rzewski, The People United Will Never Be Defeated!

The People United offers a rather suggestive example for the future of

the glissando and indeed a good opportunity for modem-day composers to re­

evaluate using the device. Pianisf s sympathy with the aesthetics of modem

composers is declining; and fewer and fewer composers are keyboard

interpreters,^ and can develop tfie pianistic technique directly or feel the

device is still important and intriguing. From further studies of many other

traditional devices, one could expect that those devices will evolve new

forms to fuUfil both composers' aesthetics and awaken pianists' enthusiasms.

"With the single exception of Bartdk, no composer has contributed to the repertory to anything like the same extent as did Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven or Schubert." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, "Keyboard Music m. The Growth of Pianism," 10:33

125

APPENDIX A

Examples of Glissandi

ascending on the white keys. descending on the black ke3rs. ft two-hand glissandi (on the white keys, ascending).

black-and-white glissandi (RH on the black keys, descending).

in contrary directions (inwards, LH on the black keys). 3rd octave-glissando (ascording). V double-note glissandi (in 3rds, descending).

Composer Composition Year

c

I E 3 Z

c o

Q AS "S

3 1 & Range

inoct.

g E J 1 E cu

>>

1 2

S •a U (Q J U CQ ce

a. X CSJ x: E E 5 r a.

i o. E

MilyBalakirev

Islamey

Samuel Barber Piano Concerto, Op.

38

Bda Bartdk Rhapsody, Op. 1

(Kano solo version)

Tanz-Suite, I, m

Sonata, Istmvt

Piano Concerto No. 1 1st 2nd mvt.

PianoCmcatoNo.2 Istmyt.

Piano Concerto Mo. 3 3rd mvt.

1869 A. rev. 1 A oct 3 • • • 1902

1962 2-^

1905 8 A 2 • •

1923 3 A V 2-3 •

1926 1 . A 4

1926 5 A V A V 2&5i •

1932 1 . W 3 •

1945 2 A k 5 • • •

126

Composer Composition

§

S 1 5 O

Q •8

i \ "i

Year i Z 1=

Range in oct

•g "S

I u w 3 r

o 2 •s (B

(B oa

I c

3

"8

o.

"S S g !>

a. E

JFiiano QmicattmC : M^i>Op.ISr Istmvt

Prano Sonata, Op. 53 3rd mvt.

Johannes Brahms Paganini Variations

Bk.I,Var.l3. Ongarisch Tanze

No. 8

Benjamin Britten Piano Concerto No. 1,

Op. 13,1st; 4th mvt

Diversion on a Theme for Left Hand and Orchestra, Op. 21

Aaron Copland Piano Concerto

Piano Fantasy

George Crumb . Sprbig-Fire iam.

MakrtdhosmosI Tora! Tora! Tora!

(Cadenza Apocalittica) from Makrokosmos J7

1801

)

•

•

•

1805 5 A V A net oct V 2 •

1866 4 V x- l i • •

1872 2 A V 2(RH)

• •

1938 rev. 1945 1940 rev. 1951

24

4

A V

A V

2-4

2-6

•

•

1926 1 ~ A 4 • •

1957 2 A 4 • •

1972 5 : ,-A • V

1973 14 A A

V • 5i .6

•

•

127

Composer Compositiotv Year

E 3 Z

e 0 1 o •p

>\

•o 3 1

Range in oct.

>s "g *s

o. X m u :s (O E

Qaude Debussy Suite Bagainasqae

Menuet Pour le Piano,

Prelude Prelude

Feuxd'artiBce Etude

Pour les huit doigts

Edward Elgar Allegro CConcert

Solo), Op. 46

Manuel de Falla Nights in die

Gardens of Spain

Fantasia Bastica

George Gershwin Rhapsody inblue Concerto in F

1st, 3rd mvt.

Alberto Ginastera 12 AmaicaaPtdudes

No. 3 Cre<JeDaace No. 9 Tribute to Aaron Copland

Piano Concerto No. 1 4thmyt.

Edvard Gxieg Hailing .

(Norweffscher Tanz),0 .7l'

18W r -A 4

•

1901 5 A 3 -4 •

1913 7 AT AT J 2-6

1915 6 T • 1-2 •

1901

1915

1919

17

10

A V AT A V

2-3

2 -4

A-'

1924 1 A 4 •

1925 2 A 2 •

1944 1 1 •

1944 2 A 2 •

1961 6 AT ^A 1 2 •

1901

128

Composer Composition Year

S s z

0 1 o

>. SI u

S •a 3 i

e

1 1

_o "S :s

1 p-e 0

J "S <Q «

Range 1

•8 0 3 t

3

"8 inoct. 1 2 > «s CO

i I £

1 a. E

Paul Hindemitli Sli£ma (6com:Suiie

-1922") 192Z

Johaim Nepomuk Hummd Piano Concerto m A

inznoi>Op.85 1821

• A X

3I

Dmitri Kabalevsky Piano Concerto No. Z

Op. 23, Istmvt.

Franz Liszt

1935

Hano Concerto No. 2 1839 rev. 1849

8 AV 4 • • •

M^yar DaJok— ungarische National-Maodien No. 9

A M^yar DaJok— ungarische National-Maodien No. 9 1840 3 A 3rd

A 6th

3 •

1849 Totentanz 1853

1859 30 AV 2-4 • •

Illustration No. 2 aus dea r;1850 57 ft 1 - 5 Prophet (von Meyerbee r;1850 57 A ft 1 - 5 •

Die SchlittschuhlSufer r;1850

.'A • Lachasse 1851 4 . A 6th 3 • • Hugarian Rhapsody

No. 10 1853 28 A V A

V • •

No, 14 1853 3 AV A • • 1851

3rd V No. 15 rev.

1871 5 V 3rd

V 2 •

Mephisto Waltz N0.I

1860 2 -A ft 4

•

Paraphrase of the Waltz from Gounod's Faust 1868 7 A 2-2| •

129

Composer Qjmposition

1 S o i

J 5

1 o •8 *8

TJ 3

1

1 V*w

OI

C o o s 1 C

CL X bJ

ts g

Year E 3 Z

•g

1 H

Range

inoct. 1 'v 2

8 3 t >

c (8

U (S CD

•5 3

"S 1 B.

Q. £

Olivier Messiaen Fedudei Lessaosr

impalpa^esdu rfve

tie de Feu 1 from Quatre Etudes de rythme

Serge Prokofiev Piano Concerto No. 1,

Op. 10,1st mvt Piano Concerto No. 2,

Op. 16 1st, 3rd, 4th mvt.

Piano Concerto No. 3, Op. 26 1st &. 3rd mvL

Piano Concerto No. 4, Op. 53, 3rd mvt

Piano Concerto No. S, Op. 55 1st, 2nd, 5th mvt

Suggestion Diaboliquer Op. 4, No. 4

ToccatSrOpAl Ten Pieces, Op. 12,

No. 7 Prelude Sarcasmes Op. 17

No.4 March and Scherzo

6rom the Love for Three Oranges

Sonata No.. Op. 82. 1st mvt.

19» 1 A 4 •

1949 2 A 2 •

1912 6 A 2 -4 •

1913 rev. 1923

14 A V

•

1 1

• •

1921 5 AV 2-3 • •

1931 1 V 2 •

1932 8 A V 1-4 •

1912 2 A 4 • •

1912 I A 5 • •

1913 8 A 2 •

1914 1 - A 3 •

1922 1 A 2 •

194D 2 A ' 2 •

130

Composer Composition

c c

i.

§

c c

i.

J 5

5 •2 UJ

e _o

0 Z

1 e 0

X U w s (9 e

Year 1 s

Z

1 >V

1 } Range inoct 1

>v

"S 2

B 3 r >

"S («

ca

s 3

1 2

c

1 fi. Cl e

Sergei Rachmaninoff Rano (joncai6'No,3

0p.30r3idin«t Rhapsody on a Theme

by Paganini, Op. 43

Maurice Ravel Jewcd'eau

Miroirs Una barque sur I'oc^an

Alboradodel

gradoso Gaspard de la Nuit,

Ondine LesEtitn/BeasdelaBtBe

deJaBeteftamAlbum de sixMcneaax dtdsi!

Concerto for Left Hand

Piano Concerto in C Major, Istmvt.

Hano Concerto, Op. 30

1909

1934

1901

1905

1905

1908

1912

1931

1932

)ako\ 1882

Frederic Rzewski ThePeopleUtdtedVm I

Never be DeSBtted^Vtii 3575 la 12; 34 36

1

1 • :A - - -

2 • •

2 A k 4 • • •

1 • 5

2 AT

4 A V A 3rd V

A 4th V

2-4 •

3 A A 3&7 •

1 A 4 •

5 A 2i-7 • • • •

8 AV & 3- 5 •

5 A 2-6 • •

22 AV

AV ¥ 1+ • •

•

•

131

Cbm{X)ser Composition Year

o

£ 3 Z

o •o

•8 3 1

c •c

e 3

1

1 £ BJ §

% a (S (S Range

1 1 § •K

$ 9 •g in oct c2 > (S CB

Q. X Cti 15 E

I I"

Caxnille Saint-Safins JNanoCaacertoNo^S

3rdin.vt. Aquahtan from Le Camaval des animaux

Domenico Scarlatti 5Qnae^IC379

Sonata, K. 468 Sonata K. 487

Piano Sonata No. 1, Op. 12

Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 35,4th mvt.

Bedrich Smetana Ballade inE minor Polka in A minor

Igor Stravinslqr TroisNbmvementsde

P&roudika, :l8t3rtmvt

.19a

Soulima Stravinsky Weddin/tBdlsboniliie

JhreeBauyTaies Sliul, OadeteHa :

Michael Tippett SonataNo.2

1896 1 r. • •

-A •_ • •

4 A 2 •

12 A 1 •

4 A •

V

1 A 2 •

1926 6 AV 2 • •

1933 2 A 3 •

1858 2 A A oct 3 • •

1877 1 A 2 • •

1962

17

1

8

A oct ll.5

4-5

132

Composer Composition

§

S 1

3

0 s •8 "2 •0

i Year

i S Z

Q 1: H

Range inoct

•8

e o "S

•S

a

&-c o s IS

3 •g

o. >: CIl u s IS

E 1 r

Heitor Villa-Lobos

EmumBago Encantado

Rhodante AI n'anaHorta

firom Suite Flotair Op.97

Moreziinha from Suite Prdle Do B4b4

Rudepoema

Mdmopr^coce Dansa Do Ihdio

Branco firom Suite Gdo Brasileiro

Piano Concerto No. 4 3rd mvt

Carl Maria von Weber Piano Concerto No. 1,

Op. 11, finale

Concertsuck, Op. 79

- ' - - - . . r.'

1918 2 --v •

1919 3 A A

1919 1 - A

1921 1 A

1926 3 A V

1929 1 A

1936 5 A V

1952 2 A

9

l | -3

2-3

3I 3

4

2-4

li-2

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

1810 2 A A

3 •

1821 4 A A Oct 35-4 •

Weber-Tausig Au&trdenmgxam

Tarn

18605 A act 4fc3|

APPENDIX B

The Final Spin—^25,000 B. C.

for piano solo

134

THE FINAL SPIN - 25,000 B.C.

Shuennchin Lin

j.» 7 *^ / [1 /v \ / r \ u

/L ta.

j.» 7 *^ / [1 /v \ / r \ u

RH i 1 LHRH f '

•;/ \ / \ n- -

a tempo

VI " II f 1 —

I5va

0 = ®

135

136

RH

lot fiw

o=<»

pp

r

o-« ff" ISva

/T.

JSvm

zei

138

0 = «

I— I —I itfaioim !n.

P

wiping gliss. on Iho blaek-k»y.

t5vm

RH M

blaek-and-wMit gll$s. **oculad by on» hmtd (Me%ndfng).

139

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