Information Systems

Data, information and knowledge Data are individual facts which, by themselves,

are not very meaningful e.g. the account was debited by $50

Information is the organisation of one or more pieces of data to answer a complex question e.g. a debit of $50put the account into the red

Knowledge is the use of information to establish useful patterns

e.g. e.g. don’t draw a cheque for more than you have in don’t draw a cheque for more than you have in your accountyour account

Evolution of IS

IS evolution in most organisations has been: IS evolution in most organisations has been:

from automation to augmentation andfrom automation to augmentation and

from bottom to top from bottom to top

from simple to complexfrom simple to complex

from local to globalfrom local to global

from individual to collaborativefrom individual to collaborative

specialisationspecialisation

From automation to augmentation I Many computer applications automate the Many computer applications automate the

handling of routine transactions these are calledhandling of routine transactions these are called

Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) TPS generate huge amounts of data Usually, TPS allow users or managers to query the

system, finding useful information who made the sale at 1.47 on register 3 how many fridges did we sell today

TPS are one of the simplest types of IS IS that collect data from manufacturing or

scientific testing are often quite simple as well

From automation to augmentation II

Originally most organisations wanted to use IS to Originally most organisations wanted to use IS to improve worker efficiency e.g. office automationimprove worker efficiency e.g. office automation The benefits have NOT exceeded the costsThe benefits have NOT exceeded the costs

Many of the benefits of IS have been intangibleMany of the benefits of IS have been intangible higher quality, more professional, worker higher quality, more professional, worker

satisfactionsatisfaction

Many tasks, such as planning and decision Many tasks, such as planning and decision making were not amenable to automation so later making were not amenable to automation so later IS were intend to help or augment planners and IS were intend to help or augment planners and decision makers rather than to take over their roledecision makers rather than to take over their role

From bottom to top

The flow of IS through many organisations was The flow of IS through many organisations was from line workers to managers to executivesfrom line workers to managers to executives

The large number of line workers suggested The large number of line workers suggested potentially large benefits from automationpotentially large benefits from automation

The data collected by TPS etc was needed by The data collected by TPS etc was needed by managers but in a refined form. managers but in a refined form.

This led to Management Information Systems MIS This led to Management Information Systems MIS and Decision Support systems (DSS) for and Decision Support systems (DSS) for modelling decisions and Executive Information modelling decisions and Executive Information Systems (EIS). Systems (EIS).

From simple to complex

The tasks carried out by line workers are often The tasks carried out by line workers are often quite routine while those of managers are more quite routine while those of managers are more complex. The tasks carried out by executives can complex. The tasks carried out by executives can be highly complex and virtually uniquebe highly complex and virtually unique

To support these tasks, individual IS often became To support these tasks, individual IS often became highly specialised - suiting only a few usershighly specialised - suiting only a few users

More complex IS often needed new technologies More complex IS often needed new technologies to be effective e.g. OLAP, visualisation tools. to be effective e.g. OLAP, visualisation tools. Some made use of Expert Systems and many are Some made use of Expert Systems and many are now using intelligent agents to carry out very now using intelligent agents to carry out very complex analyses in conjunction with userscomplex analyses in conjunction with users

From local to global

As IS developed, so did the Internet, becoming As IS developed, so did the Internet, becoming the World Wide Web.the World Wide Web.

The Web offered organisations a “standard The Web offered organisations a “standard interface - the browser - which could be used to interface - the browser - which could be used to provide TPS, MIS, EIS etc to all sorts of users at provide TPS, MIS, EIS etc to all sorts of users at virtually any locationvirtually any location

Many organisations are currently struggling with Many organisations are currently struggling with the process of migrating applications to the Webthe process of migrating applications to the Web

From individual to collaborative More complex IS using the Web allowed more More complex IS using the Web allowed more

than one person to share an application and the than one person to share an application and the data files. This gave rise to the idea of Computer data files. This gave rise to the idea of Computer Supported Supported CollaborativeCollaborative Work (CSCW) Work (CSCW)

CSCW systems often use a “blackboard CSCW systems often use a “blackboard architecture” to allow users to share ideasarchitecture” to allow users to share ideas

This is particularly useful for tasks like This is particularly useful for tasks like collaborative design e.g. engineering equipment, collaborative design e.g. engineering equipment, but also for any other collaborative taskbut also for any other collaborative task

Specialisation

As IS have evolved, developers have found new As IS have evolved, developers have found new places, new niche markets that could be servedplaces, new niche markets that could be served

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) allow Geographical Information Systems (GIS) allow users to carry out complex analyses of data that users to carry out complex analyses of data that has a strong geographical component - mappedhas a strong geographical component - mapped

Many early IS simply stored and retrieved Many early IS simply stored and retrieved information. These Information Retrieval Systems information. These Information Retrieval Systems were often found in libraries were often found in libraries

These have become more specialised such as These have become more specialised such as Medical Information Systems, Legal databases, Medical Information Systems, Legal databases, graphical databases e.g. video librariesgraphical databases e.g. video libraries

Knowledge systems

Technologies, like expert systems and agents do Technologies, like expert systems and agents do more than capture data which they present as more than capture data which they present as meaningful informationmeaningful information

They try to capture what people “know”They try to capture what people “know” how to organise a shipping schedulehow to organise a shipping schedule when to invest in the local share marketwhen to invest in the local share market why a specific medication suits a specific why a specific medication suits a specific

disease disease

These systems capture knowledge and provide These systems capture knowledge and provide “intelligent” assistance to users. They are often “intelligent” assistance to users. They are often called knowledge based systemscalled knowledge based systems

Knowledge management

It is important to capture knowledge in an It is important to capture knowledge in an organisation because organisation because it is very valuableit is very valuable it can be lost otherwiseit can be lost otherwise it makes it easier to find and applyit makes it easier to find and apply it can be applied by lower level employeesit can be applied by lower level employees

home loan applicationshome loan applicationspipeline maintenancepipeline maintenance

Knowledge portals

As more and more organisational data is placed As more and more organisational data is placed on the Web and Intranets, it is becoming more on the Web and Intranets, it is becoming more and more difficult to retrieve that information and more difficult to retrieve that information

Knowledge based systems can be built which:Knowledge based systems can be built which: know what information is relevant to a task, know what information is relevant to a task, who should have access to it and who should have access to it and where that information is keptwhere that information is kept

Web based systems which provide this type of Web based systems which provide this type of assistance are known as knowledge portalsassistance are known as knowledge portals

Diversification All of the trends we have seen, occurred in parallel All of the trends we have seen, occurred in parallel

more intelligent systems for more complex more intelligent systems for more complex tasks by more peopletasks by more people

This has led to the specialisation of IS to many This has led to the specialisation of IS to many tasks. This, in turn, means that specialised IS are tasks. This, in turn, means that specialised IS are found found everywhereeverywhere

airline booking systemsairline booking systems stock exchange systemsstock exchange systems banking and insurance systemsbanking and insurance systems hospital administrationhospital administration defence systemsdefence systems

Analysis and indexing Search, retrieval, linking, navigation Scalability, efficiency, and effectiveness

How “good” is an IS

Despite all the care taken to build them, many IS fail

They may They may not provide the functions that were requirednot provide the functions that were required be too slowbe too slow be too hard to learn and too hard to usebe too hard to learn and too hard to use

To evaluate an IS we use software metrics To evaluate an IS we use software metrics things that we know we can measure to see if the IS things that we know we can measure to see if the IS

is up to standardis up to standard

Speed - throughput IS work in two basic modes - IS work in two basic modes -

batch processing and interactively. batch processing and interactively.

Batch processing was the predominant method, Batch processing was the predominant method, historically, and is still used today.historically, and is still used today.

e.g. on Thursday night, the payroll systeme.g. on Thursday night, the payroll system calculates everyone’s pay and calculates everyone’s pay and deposits it to their bank account or deposits it to their bank account or prints a chequeprints a cheque

In batch mode we are concerned with how many In batch mode we are concerned with how many transactions the IS can process in a given time - this transactions the IS can process in a given time - this is called the is called the throughputthroughput

Speed - response time In interactive mode, a user enters data and the IS In interactive mode, a user enters data and the IS

processes it immediately. The user, particularly when processes it immediately. The user, particularly when working with a customer, expects the system to carry working with a customer, expects the system to carry out EACH transaction quickly. out EACH transaction quickly.

The time it takes to finish a transaction (or part of a The time it takes to finish a transaction (or part of a transaction) is called the response time.transaction) is called the response time.

E.g. the user enters a customer account number and E.g. the user enters a customer account number and presses Enter. The IS finds the customers record and presses Enter. The IS finds the customers record and displays the person’s name and details in 1.3 seconds. displays the person’s name and details in 1.3 seconds. This is the response time.This is the response time.

Many users mean a good throughput is needed, too Many users mean a good throughput is needed, too

Ease of use and navigation

It is difficult to measure ease of useIt is difficult to measure ease of use standard tasks could be timed - benchmarkingstandard tasks could be timed - benchmarking user perception questionnaires can be useduser perception questionnaires can be used

One of the factors affecting ease of use is One of the factors affecting ease of use is navigation. An IS has good navigation when a navigation. An IS has good navigation when a user finds it easy to user finds it easy to carry out the steps in a common task or carry out the steps in a common task or move from one task to another move from one task to another

This is particularly important in Web based This is particularly important in Web based applications and Web sites, where navigation can applications and Web sites, where navigation can be very flexiblebe very flexible

Information retrieval (IR) and search engines

IR systems, like library catalogues, are often used IR systems, like library catalogues, are often used for non-specific searching i.e finding items with a for non-specific searching i.e finding items with a common feature rather than just a specific itemcommon feature rather than just a specific item

A system which finds ALL of the items that are A system which finds ALL of the items that are related to a query has good related to a query has good recallrecall

A system which finds only the MOST relevant A system which finds only the MOST relevant items to a particular query has good items to a particular query has good precisionprecision

These metrics are not widely used in the general These metrics are not widely used in the general IS literature BUT they are quite significant in the IS literature BUT they are quite significant in the field of search engines - particularly Web enginesfield of search engines - particularly Web engines

Information capture and representation I

TPS capture data when line workers enter itTPS capture data when line workers enter it

Higher level systems, like MIS & EIS, can also Higher level systems, like MIS & EIS, can also use data entry operators but it is more efficient to use data entry operators but it is more efficient to share the data between TPS, MIS, EIS etc.share the data between TPS, MIS, EIS etc.

But some MIS/EIS need data from 2 or more TPSBut some MIS/EIS need data from 2 or more TPS This poses some problems - incompatibility of OS This poses some problems - incompatibility of OS

databases, data formats e.g. filed lengths names etcdatabases, data formats e.g. filed lengths names etc This led to the development of databases & EDWThis led to the development of databases & EDW

Information capture and representation II

Some data, like geographical data on maps, are Some data, like geographical data on maps, are more “generic”, so specialists produce this data more “generic”, so specialists produce this data and sell it to IS developers/users e.g. GIS usersand sell it to IS developers/users e.g. GIS users

Other data, like sound graphic and and video data Other data, like sound graphic and and video data cannot be represented the same as text so they cannot be represented the same as text so they need special tools to capture the data and to store need special tools to capture the data and to store it e.g. mp3, wav, jpg, mpg etc. it e.g. mp3, wav, jpg, mpg etc.

Databases needed to be enhanced to store these Databases needed to be enhanced to store these other data formats e.g real estate databasesother data formats e.g real estate databases

Many highly specialised databases e.g. scientific Many highly specialised databases e.g. scientific and statistical dataand statistical data

Information capture and representation III The recent development of Business Intelligence The recent development of Business Intelligence

has led to a need for totally new types of databases has led to a need for totally new types of databases

Multi-dimensional databases (MDDBs) do not Multi-dimensional databases (MDDBs) do not store “records” like relational databases. Instead store “records” like relational databases. Instead they store hypercubes of numerical data that can they store hypercubes of numerical data that can be quickly searched by OLAP and data mining be quickly searched by OLAP and data mining systemssystems

These systems tell managers about unexpected These systems tell managers about unexpected values, problem trends and identify previously values, problem trends and identify previously unknown relationships in a company’s dataunknown relationships in a company’s data

Information privacy, integrity, security and preservation

IS make information widely available to people, IS make information widely available to people, and that is good, but it raises questions about and that is good, but it raises questions about who has access to who has access to mymy information - privacy information - privacy is the information about me correct- integrityis the information about me correct- integrity can the info be lost or tampered with - securitycan the info be lost or tampered with - security who should keep info about me, for how long, who should keep info about me, for how long,

is it properly stored or can it be lostis it properly stored or can it be lost

You will look at these social issues in much You will look at these social issues in much more depth latermore depth later