Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910...

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Influenza transmission Wendy Barclay [email protected]

Transcript of Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910...

Page 1: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Influenza transmission

Wendy [email protected]

Page 2: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

• Modes of transmission of influenza viruses in humans • Consequences for infection control policy in outbreaks/pandemics• Survival of viruses in the environment • Environmental factors that affect transmission (e.g. humidity, temp)• Animal models of transmission• Molecular determinants of transmission• As a risk assessment tool for pandemic potential of novel viruses• Human challenge model of transmission• Pharmaceutical and non‐pharmaceutical interventions of 

transmission

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Influenza transmission

Escape Survive Enter and Invade

Page 4: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Modes of transmission of influenza

Direct contact

Contaminated fomites

Aerosols and respiratory droplets

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Survival of viruses in the environment

• Infectivity is more likely to survive in cold temperatures.

• Environmental pH• Surfaces vary for virus adsorption and survival• Surface decontamination with washing up liquid

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Survival of influenza on household surfaces

Greatorex et al.  PLoSOne2011

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Virus in the air

• Large droplets >5m travel short distances

• Small droplets <5m  and aerosols 1mtravel more than 6 feet

• Implications for guidelines on bed spacing in wards

Page 8: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Seasonality of  influenza

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Figure 6. Variation of Transmission Efficiency with Relative Humidity: A Model

Lowen AC, Mubareka S, Steel J, Palese P (2007) Influenza Virus Transmission Is Dependent on Relative Humidity and Temperature. PLoS Pathog3(10): e151. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.0030151http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.ppat.0030151

Page 10: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

The contribution of  environmental factors to influenza seasonailty

• Absolute humidity and temperature (Lowen and Palese PLoS Path. 2007 in the guinea pig model)

• Vapor pressure: the amount of moisture in the air (Shaman and Kohn PNAS. 2009) affects virus survival

• Humidification of indoor spaces might decrease transmission?

Page 11: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Other ideas about influenza seasonality

• Host susceptibility due to fluctuation in immunity, melatonin and vitamin D

• Host behaviour, crowding indoors during inclement weather

• If low vapor pressure, short days and low temperature are all that is required, influenza should be very rare in subtropical regions!

• Other factors must contribute may in different ways in different regions.

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Animal models to study influenza transmission

• The day of infection, dose and exposure  route and period are all defined.

• The previous exposure is known (naive animals). 

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Animal models for influenza virus transmission

Many reagents  Infected by inoculationΧMouse adapted virusΧ Different cellular receptors to humansΧ Don’t sneezeΧ Virus does not readily transmitΧ Lower respiratory tract infection

Unadapted human viruses Infected by inoculation Reagents availableΧModel not well characterisedΧ Cellular receptors not characterisedΧ Lower respiratory tract infectionΧ Not been used in transmission study

Can be naturally infectedUnadapted human viruses Virus does transmitΧ New model, not well characterisedΧ Receptors on cells not characterisedΧ No symptomsΧ Lower respiratory tract infection

Mouse Cotton rat Guinea pig

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Mouse experiments –Period of optimal transmission

Experimental design: • 2 donor mice co‐housed with groups of 2 sentinel mice every 24 hrs• 80 sentinel mice exposed/time period

Schulman & Kilbourne, 1963 J Exp Med

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Transmission did not correlate with viral titre

Titres given as Log10EID50 mean of 5 mice

Schulman & Kilbourne, 1963 J Exp Med

Page 16: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Guinea pig transmission model

• Allows greater numbers than ferrets, and more easily controlled environment

• Assessment of transmissibility of NAI resistant virus (Bouvier and Palese J Virol. 2008), effects of environment (Lowen and Palese. 2007) and genetic determinants.

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Animal models for human influenza virus transmission: The Ferret

Ferret model is well established. Ferrets are naturally susceptible to 

human influenza viruses. Same cellular receptors as humans. Upper respiratory tract infection, just 

like humans.  The clinical signs of infection closely 

resembles those seen in humans.  Ferrets sneeze and produce nasal 

discharge.

Χ Very few reagents.

Χ Expensive.

Page 18: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Influenza virus transmission between ferrets

Direct Contact

Donor

Respiratory Droplet Exposed

18

Page 19: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Aerosol cage set‐ups and airflow around the cages

Van Hoeven et al, PNAS 2009 Munster et al, Science 2009

Page 20: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Transmission of pandemic H1N1 2009 influenza in the ferret

Contact

Donor

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Page 21: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Viral determinants of transmission

• Virus must replicate to sufficient titres in the respiratory tract

• Virus must bind to receptors that are abundant in the respiratory tract

• Virus must survive in the environment (including respiratory tract)

• Virus release and morphology 

Sorrell et al. Current Opinion in Virology. 2011

Page 22: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

The first human influenza pandemic of the 21st century was not H5N1 bird flu

Page 23: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

H5N1 does not transmit between people. 

Page 24: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

The respiratory environment

Page 25: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Avian and human influenza viruses bind to different types of sialic acid receptors.

Cell Cell

Avian influenza virus

α‐2,3 α‐2,6

Human influenza virus

Avian HAHuman HA

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Sialic acid distribution varies through the human respiratory tract.

Shinya et al. Nature. 2006.

Upper respiratory tract

Lung

Nasal mucosa paranasal sinus bronchus

2,6 SA

2,3 SA

Page 27: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA absolutely required for transmission

Human H3 L SCTG AGC 6/6

Avian H3 Q GCAG GGC 0/6

226 228 Transmission rate

Tumpey et al. Science 2007Pappas et al. Plos One 2010Roberts et al.J Gen Virol 2011Imai and Kawaoka Current Opinion in Virology 2012

Human H1 D G

Avian H1 E D

190 225

Page 28: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

H5N1 ferret transmission controversy.

Page 29: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

The Kawaoka paper

pH1N1 2009

H5N1 2004

7:1 reassortant HA library N224K Q226L

Page 30: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Mutations in receptor binding site AND in HA stalk region are required for H5  transmission in ferrets

Imai et al. Nature 2012

Page 31: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

HA stability

Page 32: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

The Fouchier approach

H5N1Indonesia 2006

H5N1RG Q226L G228SPB2 E627K

Page 33: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Passage in ferrets

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A common set of mutations to confer transmissibility

Minimum set of mutationsQ226L G228SPB2 E627K

PlusH103Y T156A in HAH99Y I368V in PB1R99K S345N in NP in F5 virus

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4 or 5 changes to natural H5N1 for transmission

C A Russell et al. Science 2012

543

10  nt away

H103YT315I

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The importance of HA and PB2

• For H5N1 virus, H9N2 virus and 1918 virus experimental models have shown that residues in HA and in PB2 are key for transmissibility

Herfst et al. Science 2012Imai et al. Nature 2012Wan and Perez, Sorell et al. PNAS 2009Van Hoeven et al. PNAS. 2009

Page 37: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Influenza Pandemics in the 20th Century:Reassortants also required HA mutations

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H3N2

Avian circulatingviruses

Page 38: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

A role for neuraminidase in transmissionHA NA

SA

Cell Cell

HA:NA balance

Page 39: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Reassortment between swine viruses from different continents led to a new human influenza

Page 40: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

HA:NA balance is critical for transmissibility

• pH1N1 2009 emerged from swine after acquiring novel NA and M genes by reassortment

• HA:NA balance confers RD transmission of pH1N1  (Yen et al. PNAS 2011)

Page 41: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Human viruses must adapt to the innate barriers in the human nose

Page 42: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Stalk

Enzyme Head

Neuraminidase adaptation to poultry by shortening the stalk length

Page 43: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

M gene and transmission

• M and NA were the two new genes acquired by the precursor of the 2009 H1N1 pandemic that seem to have  led to human transmission.

• M and NA contribute to aerosol release, morphology and transmission (Lakdawala et al. PLoSPath 2011)

• pH1N1 2009 M is critical for transmissibility in guinea pigs (Bouvier and Palese. J Virol 2011)

Page 44: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

The host range barrier: which animal viruses can contribute to the next pandemic?

Page 45: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Risk assessment for pandemic potential of new viruses

• H3N2 viruses in North American pigs have reassorted with pH1N1 2009 viruses and acquired novel M gene.

• These reassortants are transmissible in ferrets.• The small size of the susceptible population may be all that limits this pandemic.

Page 46: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Risk assessing emergence of  antiviral resistance

Kiso et al. PLoSPath 2010.

Page 47: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Seibert, C. W. et al. 2010. J. Virol. 84(21):11219-11226

FIG. 3. Wild-type and oseltamivir-resistant pandemic H1N1 viruses are transmitted efficiently by aerosol contact in the guinea pig model

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Competitive fitness of transmission

Duan et al. PLoS Path 2010

Page 49: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

The reliability of the ferret model?

• Ferrets are easily infectable and often show mild symptoms (caveat infection dose and route)

• Several viruses that infect and transmit between ferrets do not infect people or cause human disease (classical swine flu; H2, H7;H9)

• Ferret sialic acid containing glycans are similar but not identical to human ones

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Human transmission challenge studies

Killingley et al JID  2012:205

• 60 volunteers screened

• 24 eligible

• 9 donors

• 15 recipients

• 30 hrs interaction

• 7/8 donors infected• 5 donors symptomatic

•1 donor had fever

• 10/12 recipients reported symptoms

• 3/12 confirmed influenza

• 25% transmission

Page 51: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Non‐pharmaceutical interventions

Page 52: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Simulating aerosol transmission

Noti et al. CID. 2012

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Face mask protecting from inhaled virus

Noti et al. CID. 2012

Fit tested N95 99% protectiveNon fit tested mask = surgical mask reduced 2/3 virus

Page 54: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Pharmaceutical interventions

• Immunization reduced transmission in the guinea pig model (Lowenet al. J Virol 2009)

• Vaccination policy to immunize children

• Prophylactic use of antivirals to interrupt transmission 

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Infection control policy

R0 depends on• Size of susceptible population• Length of time for which infected is contagious

• Inherent transmissibility of virus

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The relationship between symptoms and contagiousness.

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Transmission is not dependent on symptoms

• Infectious virus detected in air exhaled in normal tidal breathing

• Guinea pigs have no respiratory symptoms but transmit efficiently

• pH1N12009 pandemic had a large proportion of asymptomatic individuals, and R0=1.4 but spread quickly

• Viral shedding precedes clinical illness by one day in humans

Patrozou and Mermel. Public Health Reports 2009

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Screening at airports to contain a pandemic?

Page 59: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

How does transmission occur?

• Estimated infectious dose 1‐10 infectious particles (by aerosol delivery Alford et al 1963)

Page 60: Influenza transmission - unisi.it · Amino acids in the receptor binding site of HA ... 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 H1N1 H2N2 H3N2 Avian circulating viruses.

Transmission proportional to the minimum infectious dose

Inoculated donor

Transmission to sentinel

Wild type virus

Receptor mutant virus

~ 5 viruses

~ 180 viruses

Escape Survive Enter and Invade

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Understanding transmission in the future

• Super shedders• Competition experiments• Lung on a chip• Chains of transmission, lengths of contagiousness

• Effect of prior exposure• Non‐pharmaceutical interventions; First Defense.