Infants Perception of Melodies

8/12/2019 Infants Perception of Melodies

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INFAN T BEHAVIOR AND DEVELOPME NT 8, 213-223 (1985)

Infants Perception of Melodies:Changes n a Single Tone*SANDRAE.TREHUB,LEIGH A. THORPE,AND BARBARA A. MORRONGIELLOUniversity of Toronto

Infants 6 to g months of age were exposed to repetitions of a 6-tone sequence ormelody, then tested for their detection of six transformations of that sequence,each of which incorporated a frequency change in one of the six positions. In Ex-periment 1, infants showed evidence of discriminating all changes. Moreover,they performed significantly better on changes that extended the frequencyrange of the original melody. When the task was made m ore difficult in Experi-men t 2, performance deteriorated but frequency changes in all positions werestill detectable.

infants auditory perception melodies

It has been established that infants can detect changes in the component fre-quencies and frequency relations of a multitone sequence or melody (Chang &Trehub, 1977a, b; Demany, 1982; Kinney & Kagan, 1976; McCall & Melson,1970; Trehub, Bull, & Thorpe, 1984). Trehub et al. (1984) suggest that, in lis-tening to a melody, infants encode global information about the melodic con-tour or direction of successive frequency changes. They encode such globalinformation as opposed to specific information about the absolute frequenciesof individual tones or the frequency ratios between adjacent tones. In addition,Trehub et al. (1984) suggest that infants also encode information about theoverall frequency range of a melody. Thus, infants respond to new melodies asfamiliar, if these melodies have the same contour and approximate frequencyrange as previously heard melodies and as novel, if there are differences ineither contour or range. This global processing strategy is similar to that usedby adults with melodies heard for the firs t time (Dowling, 1978, 1982; Dowling& Fujitani, 1971).The hypothesis that infants encode contour and range, although consis-tent with available evidence on infant melody discrimination, generates somepredictions that have not been tested to date. For example, if contour and rangeare the only relevant parameters, then changes in even a single component tonel This research was supported by grants from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Re-

search Council of Canada, Health and Welfare Canada, and the Univers ity o f Toronto to thesenior author. The authors extend thanks to K. J. Kim for technical assistance and to Donna Lax-dal and Paul Olko for assistance in testing infants. Requests for reprints should be sent to SandraE. Trehub, Centre for Research in Human Development, Erindale College. University of Toronto,Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, LSL 1C6.213


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214 TREH UB, THORP E, AND MORRONGIELLO

of a melody should be discriminable by infants, if these changes result in analteration of melodic contour or frequency range. Since all previous studieshave incorporated changes in several, if not all, tones, it is possible that suchredundant cues could facilitate or perhaps underlie the discrimination observed.Research with adults has indicated that they can simultaneously hold inmemory 4 to 7 tones of an unfamiliar melody (Berg, cited in Williams, 1981;Pollock, 1952) and that their retention of the initial and final tones is superiorto the middle tones (Fran&, cited in Bentley, 1966; Ortmann, 1926; Williams,1975). Bentley (1966) contends, however, that for children and adults, the finalnote is easiest to remember and the initial note, most difficult. Perhaps differ-ences in tonal configuration, sequence length, and magnitude of pitch changecontributed to these disparities. It has also been found that melodies are re-membered best when they conform to accepted music conventions such astonality (Day, 1981; Long, 1977). When adults have been required to makesame/different judgments of melodies with a single note changed by one ortwo semitones, performance is superior for 7-note compared to g-note melo-dies, for melodic compared to unmelodic melodies, and for musicallyexperienced compared to inexperienced listeners (Day, 1981).Zenatti (1969) investigated childrens perception of 3-note melodies witha single note changed. Children 5 years of age could not accomplish the task ofidentifying the changed note, but by 8, they became more proficient, particu-larly with tonal melodies. Bentley (1966) used a similar task with 5-note melo-dies for children 7 to 14 years of age. The younger children performed poorlybut an increase in accuracy of roughly 8 per year was observed, with perfor-mance of the lCyear-olds being approximately equivalent to that of adults. Itis quite likely, however, that the very difficult task of identifying the positionof the changed note, as opposed to detecting its presence, accounted for thevery poor performance observed with young children.The objective of the present investigation was to determine whether a fre -quency change in a single component tone of a brief tonal melody is discrimin-able to infants. Accordingly, we familiarized infants with 6-tone melodies inthe key of C major and subsequently evaluated their discrimination of sixaltered melodies, each of which incorporated a frequency change in one of thesix possible positions. The magnitude of change was 10 semitones, except whenthis resulted in a note outside the key of C major, in which case a g-semitonechange was used. The direction of frequency change (up or down) was selectedso as to produce an alteration in melodic contour. In some cases, this resultedin a corresponding change in frequency range; in other cases, it did not. Thispermitted the evaluation of discrimination on the basis of the single cue ofcontour violation and on the basis of the joint cues of contour and range.Method EXPERIMENT 1

Subjects. The subjects were 33 healthy, full-term infants from 6 to 8months of age. Infants were excluded from the sample if they failed to meet a


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INFANTS PERCEPTION OF MELODIES 215

predetermined training criterion that is described in Procedure (N= 3). All in-fants who met the training criterion subsequently completed the 36-trial testingsession. The final sample of 30 infants consisted of 15 males and 15 females,with a mean age of 7 months, 3 days. Each infant was tested with one of thethree standard melodies.

Apparatus and Stimuli. The experiment was controlled by a microcom-puter (Commodore PET, Model 2001), which operated the remaining electronicequipment through a custom-built interface. The stimuli were generated online by a synthesizer/function generator (Hewlett-Packard 3325A) and pre-sented via one channel of a stereo amplifier (Technics Model SU 7300) over asingle loudspeaker (Radio Speakers of Canada, Model C8C). The loudspeakerwas positioned above a four-chamber, smoked Plexiglas box that containedfour different mechanical toys. Stimulus intensity was controlled by the syn-thesizer and calibrated with an impulse precision sound level meter (Bruel andKjaer, Model 2204). Tone onset and offset were controlled through an elec-tronic switch (Med Associates ANL-913). Testing was carried out inside adouble-walled, sound-attenuating chamber (Industrial Acoustics Co.) measur-ing 2.8 x3.1 m.Three 6-tone sequences based on those used in earlier research with adults(Massaro, Kallman, & Kelly, 1980) and infants (Trehub et al., 1984) wereselected for the current experiment (see Table 1). Transformations of eachmelody were created by replacing a single tone o f the melody with a tone either10 semitones higher or lower. In the few cases in which a lo-semitone changefell outside the acceptable notes of the key of C major, the tone was changedby only 9 semitones; these exceptions are noted by an asterisk in Table 1. Thus,all of the notes of the transformed melodies remained in the key of the originalmelody. Such changes were made at each of the six positions of each sequence,making a total of six contrasting patterns for each standard or backgroundmelody. The direction of change (higher or lower) was selected so as to alterthe contour of the melody. All standard sequences and transformations areshown in musical notation in Fig. 1 and, in terms of their component frequen-cies, in Table 1.The component tones of each sequence were sinusoidal waveforms, 200ms in duration, with rise and fall times of 30 ms and intertone intervals of200 ms; thus each melody was 2.2 s in duration. The interval between melodypresentations was 1500 ms. Stimulus intensity, measured at the approximatelocation of the infants head, averaged 68 dB-C; ambient noise level, measuredat this location, was approximately 48 dB-C (18dB-A). The melodies werestructured with the tonic (the key note, middle C or 262 Hz, in this case) as theinitial tone; the final note was always the dominant of C major, which is aphrase ending consistent with standard rules of musical composition.

Procedure. During the session, the infant was seated on the parents lapin one corner of the booth facing the experimenter. To the infants left, at anangle of 45 O, were the loudspeaker and the toy display box. The experimenter


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INFANTS PERCEPTION OF MELODIES 217SEQUENCE:STANDARD:

TRAINING: m it- if+-POSITION 1:

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2: m is== p=-

=m p-q==

em f==qd5: +sEa fpdq p q

6: m I@= p==Figure 1. The 3 stimulus sequences and their transformations . The top row showsthe 3 standard melodies; the second row shows the contrasting stimuli used inthe training phase; the remaining six rows show the transformations of the firstthrough sixth positions, respectively. For sequences 2 and 3. the actual frequen-cies used were one octave lower than those depicted on the treble clef.

and the parent both wore headphones carrying music to mask the nature of thetrials presented to the infant. The experimenter initiated trials and recordedresponses using a small control box (two push buttons mounted on a Ham-mond chassis) interfaced to the computer.The infant was presented with a continuously repeating stimulus back-ground consisting of one of the three standard melodies. Presentations of thebackground melody were separated by 1500-ms silent intervals. When the in-fant was quiet and facing directly ahead, the experimenter initiated a trainingtrial, at which time a contrasting melody was substituted for the standardmelody. This contrasting melody was presented only once, at an intensity 5 dBhigher than the previously heard standard melody, after which the standardstimuli were presented repeatedly as before. During the training phase, thecontrasting melody consisted of a transformation of the standard in which theinitial and final tones were changed by 10 semitones (see Fig. 1 and Table 1). Ifthe infant made a head turn of 45 or greater toward the loudspeaker, the ex-perimenter recorded the turn. If this head turn occurred during the presenta-tion of the contrasting sequence or the 1500-ms interval that followed (i.e.,response interval of 3.7 s), one of the mechanical toys was automatically illu-minated and activated for 4 s. Head turns at other times were not reinforced.If the infant responded correctly on two consecutive trials, the intensity of thecontrasting melody was made equivalent to that of the standard melody. Sub-sequently, the infant was required to meet a training criterion of four consecu-tive correct responses. An infant who failed to turn to the contrasting melodyon the firs t two trials was presented with this melody 10 dB higher than thestandard on subsequent trials, until he or she responded correctly on two con-


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218 TREHUB, THORPE, AND MORRONGIELLO

secutive trials, at which time the intensity of the contrasting stimulus waslowered 5 dB, and so on. The session was abandoned if the training criterionwas not met within 20 trials.During the test phase, the standard or repeating background melody re-mained the same as in the training phase. The procedure for presentation oftrials and recording of responses also remained the same except for the additionof no-change trials. These no-change trials provided a measure of spontaneoushead turns or false-positive responses. Thus, in response to the experimentersrequest to deliver a trial, the computer delivered either a change trial (wi th con-trasting stimulus) or no-change trial (with the standard stimulus). The testphase consisted of a randomized ordering of 36 trials, with 3 repetitions ofeach position transformation (i.e., 18 change trials) and 18 no-change trials.

Results and DiscussionDuring the training phase, infants received an average of 4.5 presentations ofthe background melody prior to change and no-change trials; during the testphase, they received an average of 2.6 presentations. The data consisted of theproportion of turns on change trials and on no-change trials for each infant oneach transformation. Figure 2 displays the percentage of responses as a func-tion of position of the tone change for each of the three sequences. A two-factor analysis o f variance (sequence by type of trial) with repeated measureson one factor (type of trial) was performed on the proportion correct scores;sequence was a between-subjects factor and type of trial, a within-subjects fac-tor. (See Myers, DiCecco, White, and Borden, 1982, for a discussion of theapplication of ANOVA to data of this kind.) Note that seven types of trialswere presented, including no-change, first position change, second positionchange, and so on. The analysis revealed a significant effect for trial type,F(6,162) = 18.7O,p< .OOl, and a significant effect for sequence, F(2,27) = 3.55,p< .05. Table 2 gives the ANOVA table associated with this analysis.Newman-Keuls tests on the means for different types of trials revealedsignificant differences between no-change trials and change trials for eachtransformation (p< .Ol for all comparisons). These results indicate that in-fants could discriminate a change in a single tone anywhere within the B-tonesequence. Comparisons of the various position transformations yielded no sig-nificant effects.In a post-hoc analysis of the influence of frequency range, the transfor-mations were divided into two groups: those in which the new tone was outsidethe frequency range of the original melody, and those in which the new tonewas within that range. Eleven positions had transformations that extended thefrequency range, and seven positions had transformations that conserved therange. A one-way analysis of variance performed on data from these twogroups of transformations revealed that infants were significantly better atdetecting transformations that extended the range compared to those that con-


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100

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1 2 . 3 4 5 a NO-CHANGEPOSITIO N OF TONE CHANGE

Figure 2. Percentage of responses OS o function of position of the changed tonefor each sequence in Experiment 1. Asterisks indicate tronsformations that resultin sequences with an extended frequency ronge relative to the standard.

TABLE 2ANOVA Table far Experiment 1

Source SS df MS FToto l 21.0022 209Between subjects 2.9750Sequence 0.6193Between error 2.3557Within subiects 18.9072Trials 7.3663Trial X sequence 0.9063Within error 10.6346

292 0.3097 3.55

27 0.0072180

6 1.2277 10.70**12 0.0755 1.50162 0.0656

PC.05** pc.001

served the range, F(1,178) = 8.27, p< .005. This suggests that infants makeuse of frequency range cues to detect melodic changes, not only in the case ofmultiple-tone changes (Trehub et al., 1984) but also for changes in a singletone. When such range cues are not available, infants can still detect changesin a single position, either on the basis of altered contour or on the basis ofmemory for absolute frequency.A Newman-Keuls comparison of means for stimulus sequence showedthat the significant F ratio for sequence found in the main ANOVA was due tosignificantly lower performance on sequence 1 than on the other two sequences.This difference is likely due to the fact that only two of the transformations ofsequence 1 extended the frequency range of the melody, compared to four orfive for the other two sequences.


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220 TREH UB, THORPE, AND MORRONGIELLOEXPERIMENT 2

Trehub et al. (1984) found that certain melodic changes (i.e., transpositions,contour-preserving transformations) were discriminable when the experimentaltask was relatively easy, as in Experiment 1, but not when the task was increasedin difficulty by the presentation of a brief distractor sequence between melodies.Infants were able to use information about absolute frequency with the easiertask but were apparently unable to do so with the more difficult task.The purpose of the present experiment was to determine whether infantscould discriminate the single tone changes of Experiment 1 under conditions ofincreased difficulty. Accordingly, we added the 3-tone distractor. sequenceused by Trehub et al. (1984, Experiment 2) between repetitions of the standardmelody and between the standard and transformed melody. In addition, wesought to obtain clearer evidence of serial position effects. The evidence fromExperiment 1 was inconclusive and possibly an artifact of the experimentaldesign, in which the 3.7-s response interval began with the first tone of thealtered sequence, regardless of the specific locus of change within the sequence.This resulted in the effective response interval (i.e., time available for respond-ing following the actual occurrence of the changed tone) decreasing progressivelyfor changes in the first through sixth position. This systematic change in re-sponse time might have obscured changes in performance as a function of theserial position of the changed tone.In order to facilitate comparisons of performance across positions, wealtered the response interval so that it began with the changed tone and wastherefore effectively equivalent across positions. This change was possible inthe context of the longer onset-to-onset time in Experiment 2 relative to Ex-periment 1.

MethodSubjects. The subjects were 33 full-term infants between 6 and 8 monthsof age. Three infants failed to meet the training criterion. The final sample of30 infants consisted of 20 males and 10 females, with a mean age of 7 months,1 day.Apparatus and Stimuli. The equipment was the same as that of Experi-ment 1. The 3 standard and 18 transformed melodies from Experiment 1 wereused (see Table 1). A distractor sequence consisting of three 262-Hz tones wasinterposed between repetitions of the background melody and between thebackground and test melody. The tones of the distractor sequences were 200

ms in duration, with rise and fall times of 30 ms and 200-ms intertone inter-vals. A 900-ms silent interval followed the target sequence, and a 950-ms silentinterval followed the distractor; thus the time from the beginning of one 6-tonemelody to the beginning of the subsequent 6-tone melody was about 5.1 s.


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Procedure. The training and test procedures were similar to Experiment1. Initially, the infant was trained with the stimuli of Experiment 1 (i.e., nodistractor sequence) to a criterion of two consecutive correct head turns withthe intensity of the altered melody 5 dB above the standard. The distractor se-quence was then introduced, and the intensity of the altered melody was madeequal to that of the background melody. If the infant made two consecutiveerrors, the intensity of the contrasting melody was increased 5 dB but the dis-tractor continued to be present. As before, infants were required to meet atraining criterion of four consecutive correct responses at equal intensity. Theresponse interval was changed to 3 s, and the response window began with thechanged note.Results and DiscussionDuring the training phase, infants received an average of 2.8 presentations ofthe background melody prior to change and no-change trials; during the testphase, they received an average of 1.7 presentations. Head turns on changeand no-change trials are shown in Fig. 3. An analysis of variance performedon the proportion correct data yielded a significant difference for trial type,F(6,162) = 13.34, p < JO1 (see Table 3). Newman-Keuls tests were used to com-pare the mean performance levels of the seven types of trials (no-change, firs tposition change, second position change, and so on). Mean proportion ofturns for each of the six transformations differed significantly from the no-change trials (p< .Ol for all comparisons), indicating that infants could dis-criminate all of the transformations. Furthermore, the Newman-Keuls tests

1 2 4 6 I NO-CHANG

POSITION OF TONE CHANGEFigure3. Percentage of responses as a function of position of the changed tonefor each sequence in Experiment 2. Asterisks indicate transformations that resultin sequences with an extended frequency range relative to the standard.


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222 TREHUB. THOR PE, AND MORRONGIELLO

TABLE 3ANOVA Table far Experiment 2

Source ss df MS FTotal 19.2344 209Between subjects 2.1927 29Sequence 0.0283 2 0.0142 0.18Betwee n error 2.1644 27 0.0802Within subjects 17.0417 180Trials 5.2343 6 0.8724 13.34Trial X sequence 1.2160 12 0.1013 1.55Within error 10.5914 162 0.0654* pc.001

revealed significantly poorer performance on the firs t position change com-pared to changes in the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth positions (p< .05 forcomparisons with the third and fourth positions, p c .Ol for comparisons withthe fifth and sixth positions). Differences between the first and second positiontransformations approached the critical value for adjacent means at p = .05.Poor performance on firs t position changes relative to changes in otherpositions is consistent with Bentleys (1966) findings but is at odds with otherreports of first position facilitation (Ortmann, 1926; Williams, 1975). It re-mains to be determined, however, whether position effects would be evidentwith the easier task of Experiment 1, even with an altered response interval. Inany case, an effective test of position effects would require numerous testmelodies with varied tonal configurations.The rates of responding on change trials in Experiments 1 and 2 appearedto be comparable (see Figs. 2 and 3), in contrast to the incidence of false alarms(i.e., turning on no-change trials). A two-factor analysis of variance revealedsignificantly more false alarms in Experiment 2 compared to Experiment 1,F(1,154) = 26.96, p< .OOOl, suggesting that the increase in task demands re-sulted in a reduction in performance effic iency. No effects of sequence and nointeraction between sequence and experiment were found, indicating that falsealarm rates were constant across sequences within each experimental task.As in Experiment 1, performance was compared on transformations thatextended the frequency range of the melody and those that conserved therange. The differences were not significant, indicating that frequency rangecues did not play a comparable role in the present experiment. Moreover, therewere no differences in performance as a function of sequence in the mainANOVA. It would appear, then, that the elimination of frequency range as afunctional discriminative cue was responsible for the absence of differencesbetween sequences in the present experiment. The implication is that informa-tion about absolute frequency decays, either as a result of the longer time in-terval between melodies or the specific interference occasioned by the distractorsequence. Under conditions that do not permit the retention of specific fre-quency information, infants nevertheless retain global information about


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INFANTS PERCEPTION OF MELODIES 223melodic contour that permits them to detect relatively small changes in melodicpatterns.The present findings add to the growing list of melody perception skillsshown by infants. Not only can infants detect changes in melodic contour re-sulting from changes in four component tones of a 6-tone melody (Trehub etal., 19841, they can also detect changes in contour resulting from a change in asingle tone. These findings cannot be based on infants memory for absolutefrequencies alone, because infants, under comparable test conditions, are un-able to detect frequency changes with three or more tones changed, when suchchanges do not alter the melodic contour (Trehub et al., 1984, Experiment 2 .

REFERENCESBentley, A. (1966). Music ability in children and its measurement. London: Harrap.Chang, H. W., & Trehub, S. E. (1977a). Auditory processing of relational information by younginfants. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 24, 324-331.Chang, H. W., & Trehub, S. E. (1977b). Infants perception o f temporal grouping in auditory

patterns. Child Development, 48, 1666-1670.Day , R. (1981). Music abi lity and patterns of cognition. In Documentary report ofthe Ann ArborSymposium: National symposium on the application s of psychology to the teaching andlearning of music, Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.Demany, L. (1982). Auditory stream segregation in infancy. Infant Behavior and Development, 5.261-276.

Dowling, W. J. (1978). Scale and contour: Two components of a theory of memory for melodies.Psycho logical Review, 85, 341-354.Dowling, W. J. (1982). Melodic information processing and its development. In D. Deutsch (Ed.),The psychology of music. New York: Academic.Dowling, W. J., & Fujitani, D. S. (1971). Contour, interval, and pitch recognition in memory formelodies. Journal of the Acou stical Society of America, 49, 524-53 1.Kinney, D. K., & Kagan, J. (1976). Infant attention to auditory discrepancy. Child Development,47, 155-164.

Long, P. A. (1977). Relationship between pitch memory in short melodies and selected factors.Journal of Research in Music Education, 25. 272-282.Massaro, D. W., Kallman, H., & Kelly, J. (1980). The role of tone height, melodic contour, andtone chroma in melody recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learn-ing and Memory, 6, 77-80. \McCall, R. B., & Melson, W. H. (1970). Amount of short term familiarization and the responseoauditory discrepancies. Child Development, 41. 861-869.Myers, J., DiCecco, J., White, J., & Borden, V. (1982). Repeated measurements on dichotomousvariables: Q and F tests. Psycho logical Bulletin. 92, 517-525.Ortmann, 0. (1926). On the melodic re lativity o f tones. Psycho logical Monographs, 35, l-47.Pollack, I . (1952). The information of elementary auditory displays. Journal of the Acou sticalSociety of America, 24, 745-749.Trehub, S. E., Bull, D., &Thorpe, L. (1984). Infants perception of melodies: The role of melodiccontour. Child Development, 55, 821-830.Williams, D. B. (1975). Short-term retention of pitch sequence. Journal of Research in MusicEducation, 23, 53-66.Williams, D. B. (1981). Music information processing and memory. In Documen tary report of fheAnn Arbor Symposium: National symposium on the application s of psychology to theteaching and learning of music, Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.Zenatti, A. (1969). Le dbeloppement genndtique de la perception musicale [The genetic develop-ment of musical perception.] Monographies Francaises de Psychologie, 17, 39-48.

9 Novemb er 1983; Revised 5 Decem ber 1984 n

Infants Perception of Melodies

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