Industrial Process Equipment

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Industrial Process EquipmentTesting, Inspection & Commissioning

Contents:

I. HYDROSTATIC TESTING

II. PNEUMATIC TESTING

III. PRESSURE TESTS FOR VALVES

IV. LEAK TESTING FLUIDS AND PROCEDURES

V. LEAK TESTING WELDED REINFORCING PLATES

VI. THE DECIBEL

VII. NOISE MEASUREMENTS AND TESTS VIII. VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS AND TESTS

IX. PUMP PERFORMANCE AND TESTS

X. BEARING TEMPERATURE EVALUATION

XI. FAILURE DIAGNOSTIC DETECTION

XII. BASIC ELECTRICAL FORMULAE

XIII. BOLT TORQUE EVALUATION

XIV. COMMISSIONING PROCESSES


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I. HYDROSTATIC TESTING:

A hydrostatic pressure test is a way in which atmospheric tanks, pressure vessels, pipelines, gascylinders, boilers and valves are tested for strength and leaks through the weld or bolting and canbe inspected and repaired. The ASME VIII Div. 1, UG-99 - Standard Hydrostatic Testing defines theconditions to carry on the procedures.

The hydrostatic test Pressure Gage shall be equal at least one 1.5 times the Maximum AllowableWorking Pressure (MAWP), multiplied by the ratio of the stress value S (materials of which thevessel is constructed) at the Design Temperature for the materials of which the pressure vessel isconstructed.

Hydrostatic Testing Assembly

A hydrostatic test based on a calculated pressure may be used by agreement between the user andthe manufacturer . For the basis for calculating test pressures, see UA60(e) of the ASME Code . Thedescriptive paragraphs according to ASME B31.3 for Hydrostatic Test Pressure are:

Hydrostatic Leak Testing:

Paragraph 345.4.1 Test Fluid: The fluid shall be water unless there is the possibility of damage dueto freezing or to adverse effects of water on the piping or the process. In this case another suitablenontoxic liquid may be used. If the liquid is flammable, its flash point shall be at least 49C (120F) ,and consideration shall be given to the test environment.

Paragraph 345.4.2 PressureTest: The hydrostatic test pressure at any point in a metallic piping sys-tem shall be as follows:

(a) Not less than 1.5 times the design pressure;(b) For design temperature above the test temperature , the minimum test pressure shall be calculat-ed by the same equation as indicated below, except that the value of ST /S shall not exceed 6.5 :

P T = 1.5.P.S T S D


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Where:

P T = Minimum hydrostatic pressure test gaugeP = Internal design gage pressure (MAWP)S T = Stress value of material at test temperatureS D = Stress value of material at design temperature (See Table A-1- ASME B31.3 Material Stresses).

If the test pressure as above would produce a nominal pressure stress or longitudinal stress in ex-cess of the yield strength at test temperature, the pressure test may be reduced to the maximumpressure that will not exceed the yield strength at test temperature . The stress resulting from thehydrostatic test shall not exceed 90% of the yield stress of the material at the test temperature.

The hydrostatic pressure test shall be applied for a sufficient period of time to permit a thoroughexamination of all joints and connections. The test shall not be conducted until the vessel and liquidare at approximately the same temperature.

Defects detected during the Hydrostatic Testing or subsequent examination are completely removedand then inspected. The vessels requiring Stress Relieving after any welding repairs shall be stressrelieved conforms to UW40 of the ASME Code .

After welding repairs have been made, the vessel should be hydro tested again in the regular way,and if it passes the test, the Inspector and the Quality Engineer may accept it. If it does not pass thetest they can order supplementary repairs, or, if the vessel is not suitable for service, they may perma-nently reject it.

The fluid for the hydrostatic testing shall be water , unless there is a possibility of damage due tofreezing or to adverse effects of water on the piping or the process. In that case, another suitable non-toxic liquid may be used. So glycol/water is allowed.

II. PNEUMATIC TESTING:

Pneumatic testing for valves, pipelines and welded pressure vessels shall be permitted only forthose specially designed that cannot be safely filled with water , or for those which cannot be dried to be used in services where traces of the testing content cannot be tolerated.

There are two types of procedures for pneumatic testing, as shown below:

1) The pneumatic pressure test shall be at least equal to 1.25 times the Maximum AllowableWorking Pressure (MAWP) multiplied by the ratio of the stress value S at the test temperature.The Design Temperature is for materials which the equipment is constructed (see UG21 of ASME).

P T = 1.25.P.S T S D

Where:

P T = Minimum pneumatic pressure test gaugeP = Internal design gage pressure (MAWP)S T = Stress value of material at test temperatureS D = Stress value of material at design temperature (See Table A-1- ASME B31.3 Material Stresses).


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Pneumatic Test Sketch

2) According to UG-100 , the pneumatic test shall be at least equal to 1.1 times the MAWP multiplied by the lowest ratio for the materials of the stress value S , at the test temperature . The Design

Temperature may be used in lieu of the standard hydrostatic test prescribed in UG-99 for vesselsunder certain conditions:

For vessels that cannot safely be filled with water;

For vessels that cannot be dried and to be used in a service where traces of the testing con-tent cannot be tolerated and previously tested by hydrostatic pressure as required in UG-99 .

Then, the formula becomes:

P T = 1.1.P.S T S

D

As a general method, the pneumatic test pressure is 1.25 MAWP for materials ASME Section VIII -Division 1 and 1.1 MAWP for materials ASME Section VIII - Division 2 . The pneumatic test proce-dure for pressure vessels should be accomplished as follows:

The pressure on the vessel shall be gradually increased to not more than half the test pressure . After, the pressure will then be increased at steps of approximately 1/10 the test pressures until thetest pressure has been reached. In order to permit examination, the pressure will then be reduced tothe Maximum Allowable Working Pressure of the vessel.

The tank supports and saddles, connecting piping, and insulation if provided shall be examined to de-termine if they are satisfactory and that no leaks are evident. The pneumatic test is inherently verydangerous and more hazardous than a hydrostatic test , and suitable precautions shall be takento protect personnel and adjacent property.

III. PRESSURE TESTS FOR VALVES:

The API 598, API 6D, IS0 14313 and other standards covers inspection, examination, supplementaryexaminations and pressure test requirements for resilient-seated, nonmetallic-seated (e.g., ceramic)and metal-to-metal-seated valves of the gate, globe, plug, ball, check, and butter y types.


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Shell Test (Hydrostatic Body Test):

Every valve shall be subjected to a hydrostatic test of the body shell at 1.5 times the maximum per-missible working pressure at 100 F (38 C). The test shall show no leakage, no wetting of the externalsurfaces, and no permanent distortion under the full test pressure, as specified in Table 1 .

The valve shall be set in the partially open position for this test, and completely filled with the test fluid. Any entrapped air should be vented from both ends and the body cavity. The valve shall then bebrought to the required test pressure. All external surfaces should be dried and the pressure held forat least the minimum test duration.

There shall be no visible leakage during the test duration. The stem seals should be capable of retain-ing pressure at least 100 F (38 C) without leakage. If leakage is found, corrective action may be tak-en to eliminate the leakage and the test repeated, specified below and in Table 2 .

a) Backseat Stem Test: (Hydrostatic Seat Test):

When applicable (with exception of bellows seal valves), every valve shall be subjected to a hydrostat-ic test of the backseat stem at 1.1 times the maximum permissible working pressure at 100 F (38C), done by opening the valve to the fullest, loosening the packing gland and pressurizing the shell. All external surfaces should be dried and the pressure held for at least the minimum test duration, asspecified in Table 1 .


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If unacceptable leakage is found, corrective action may be taken to eliminate the leakage and the testrepeated. If the valve is disassembled to eliminate the leakage, all previous testing must be repeatedupon re-assembly. There shall be no visible leakage during the test duration specified in Table 2 .

b) High-pressure Closure Test (Hydrostatic Seat Test):

Every valve shall be subjected to a hydrostatic seat test to 1.1 times the maximum permissible work-ing pressure at 100 F (38 C). The test shall show no leakage through the disc , behind the seatrings or past the shaft seals. The allowable leakage of test fluid for the seat seal, shall be according tothose listed in Table 3 .

If unacceptable leakage is found, corrective action may be taken to eliminate the leakage and theseat test repeated. If the valve is disassembled to eliminate the leakage, all previous testing must berepeated upon re-assembly.

c) Pneumatic Seat Test - Low-pressure Closure Test:

Every valve shall be subjected to an air seat test at a minimum pressure from 4 to 7 bar (60-100psig) according to test duration specified in Table 2 . The test shall show no leakage through the disc,behind the seat rings or past the shaft seals. The allowable leakage of test fluid from the seat sealshall be according to those listed in Table 3 .

Check for leakage using either a soap film solution or an inverted U tube with its outlet submergedunder water. If the seat pressure is held successfully then the other seat shall be tested in the samemanner where applicable.

If unacceptable leakage is found, corrective action may be taken to eliminate the leakage and theseat test repeated. If the valve is disassembled to eliminate the leakage, all previous testing must berepeated upon re-assembly.

d) Fluid for Testing:

Hydrostatic tests shall be carried out with water at ambient temperatures, within the range of 41F(5C) and 122F (50C) and shall contain water-soluble oil or rust inhibitors . Potable water usedfor pressure test of austenitic stainless steel valves shall have a chloride content less than 30 ppm and for carbon steel valves shall be less than 200 ppm .


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a) For the liquid test, 1 millilitre is considered equivalent to 16 drops;b) For the liquid test, 0 drops means no visible leakage per minimum duration of the test.c) For the gas test, 0 bubbles means less than 1 bubble per minimum duration of the test.d) For valves greater than or equal to 14 (NPS 14), the maximum permissible leakage rate shall

be 2 drops per minute per inch NPS size.e) For valves greater than or equal to 14 (NPS 14), the maximum permissible leakage rate shall

be 4 bubbles per minute per inch NPS size.

Soft-seated valves and lubricated plug valves shall not exceed leakage in IS0 5208 Rate A . Formetal-seated valves the leakage rate shall not exceed (or not more than two times) the IS0 5208Rate D, unless otherwise specified.


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e) Test Certification:

All tests should be always specified by the Purchaser. The manufacturer should issue a test certifi-cate according to API 598 confirming that the valves have been tested in accordance with the re-quirements.

f) Valve Hydrostatic Test - ASME B16.34 Requirements:

Hydrostatic shell test at a pressure no less than 1.5 times the MAWP at 100 F, rounded off to nexthigher 25 psi increment . The test made with water must contain a corrosion inhibitor , with kero-sene or with other suitable fluid with a viscosity not greater than that of water, at a temperature notabove 125 F. Visually detectable leakage through pressure boundary walls shall not be acceptable.

Valve sizeinches

Test time(seconds)

2 and smaller 15

2.5 to 8 60

10 and larger 180

g) Valve Closure Tests:

Each valve designed for shut-off or isolation service , such as a stop valve and each valve designedfor limiting flow reversal, such as a check valve, shall be given a hydrostatic closure test . The testpressure shall be not less than 110% at 100 F rating. Except that, a pneumatic closure test at apressure not less than 80 psi may be substituted for valve sizes and pressure classes shown below.

Valve Size Pressure

Class 4 All 12 400

Note: The closure test shall follow the shell test except for valves 4 in. and smaller up to Class1500. The closure test may precede the shell test . When a pneumatic closure test is used, not lessthan duration shown below.

Valve sizeinches

Gas Test duration(Seconds)

2 15

2 1/2 to 8 30

10 to 18 60

20 120

h) Seat Leakage Classification:

There are actually six different seat leakage classifications as defined by ANSI/FCI 70-22006 (European equivalent standard IEC 60534-4 ).


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Class I:

Identical to Class II, III, and IV in construction and design, but no shop test is made, also known asdust tight and can refer to metal or resilient seated valves.

Class II:

For double port or balanced single port valves with a metal piston ring seal and metal to metal seats.

0.5% leakage of full open valve capacity. Service dP or 50 psid (3.4 bar differential), whichever is lower at 50 to 125 F. Test medium air at 45 to 60 psig is the test fluid.

Class III:

0.1% leakage of full open valve capacity. Service dP or 50 psid ( 3.4 bar differential ), whichever is lower at 50 to 125 F.

Test medium air at 45 to 60 psig is the test fluid. For the same types of valves as in Class II.

Typical constructions:

Balanced, double port, soft seats, low seat load Balanced, single port, single graphite piston ring, lapped metal seats, medium seat load

Class IV:

0.01% leakage of full open valve capacity.

Service dP or 50 psid (3.4 bar differential) , whichever is lower at 50 to 125o

F. Test medium air at 45 to 60 psig is the test fluid.


Class IV is also known as metal to metal Balanced, single port, Teflon piston ring, lapped metal seats, medium seat load Balanced, single port, multiple graphite piston rings, lapped metal seats Unbalanced, single port, lapped metal seats, medium seat load

Class V:

Leakage is limited to 5 x 10 ml per minute per inch of orifice diameter per psi differential. The test fluid is water at 100 psig or operating pressure. Service dP at 50 to 125 oF. For the same types of valves as Class IV.


Unbalanced, single port, lapped metal seats, high seat load


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Balanced, single port, Teflon piston rings, soft seats, low seat load Unbalanced, single port, soft metal seats, high seat load

Class VI:

Commonly known as a soft seat classification, where the seat or shut-off disc or both are made fromsome material such as Teflon. Intended for resilient seating valves.

The test fluid is air or nitrogen . Pressure is the lesser of 50 psig or operating pressure. Leakage depends on valve size, from 0.15 to 6.75 ml per minute, sizes from 1 to 8 inches .

i) Most Common Leakage Tests:

The most common used tests are:

CLASS IV: is also known as metal to metal. Leakage rate with a metal plug and metal seat .

CLASS VI: is known as soft seat. Plug or seat made from material such as Teflon or similar.

j) Table for Valve Leakage Classification and Test Procedures:

LeakageClass

Designation

MaximumLeakage

AllowableTest Medium Test Pressure

Testing ProceduresRating

I x x x No test required

II0.5% of rated

capacity

Air or water

at 50 - 125o

F(10 - 52 oC)

45 - 60 psig ormaximum oper-

ating differentialwhichever is

lower

45 - 60 psig or maximum

operating differentialwhichever is lower

III0.1% of rated

capacity As above As above As above

IV0.01% of rated

capacity As above As above As above

V

0.0005 ml perminute of waterper inch of port

diameter per psidifferential

Water at 50to125 oF (10

to 52oC)

Maximum ser-vice pressuredrop across

valve plug not toexceed ANSIbody rating

Maximum service pres-sure drop across valve

plug not to exceed ANSIbody rating

VI

Not to exceedamounts shown

in the tableabove

Air or nitro-gen at 50 to

125 o F (10 to52 oC)

50 psig or maxrated differentialpressure across

valve plugwhichever is

lower

Actuator should be ad- justed to operating condi-

tions specified with fullnormal closing thrust ap-plied to valve plug seat


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k) Valve Bubble Shut-Off Test Procedure:

Port Diameter Bubbles perminute

ml perminute inches Millimeters

1 25 1 0.15

1 1/2 38 2 0.30

2 51 3 0.45

2 1/2 64 4 0.60

3 76 6 0.90

4 102 11 1.70

6 152 27 4.00

8 203 45 6.75

10 254 63 9

12 305 81 11.5

Gate Valve & Screw Down Non-Return Globe Valve : The pressure shall be applied succes-sively to each side of the closed valve with the other side open to the atmosphere to check forleakage at the atmospheric side of the closure.

Globe Valve : The pressure shall be applied in one direction with the pressure applied underthe disc (upstream side) of the closed valve with the other side open to the atmosphere tocheck for leakage at the atmospheric side of the closure.

Check Valve : The pressure shall be applied in one direction with the pressure applied behindthe disc (downstream side) of the closed valve with the other side open to the atmosphere tocheck for leakage at the atmospheric side of the closure.

l) Valve Flow Coefficients:

The Flow Coefficient Cv (or Kv) , literally means coefficient of velocity used to compare flows of val-ves. The higher the Cv, the greater the flow. When the valve is opened, most of the time, a valveshould be selected with low head loss in order to save energy. Use the following equations:

Volumetric flow rate units:

Mass flow rate units:

Other formulas considering Cv are:


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Where:

Q = Flow rate in gallons per minute (GPM); P = Pressure drop across the valve psi - (62.4 = fluid conversion factor); = Density of fluids in lb/ft - (according to temperature).

Obs.:

Kv is the Flow Coefficient in metric units. It is defined as the flow rate in cubic meters per hour [m/h] of water at a temperature of 16 C with a pressure drop across the valve of 1 bar.

Cv is the Flow Coefficient in imperial units. It is defined as the flow rate in US gallons per minute[gpm] of water at a temperature of 60 F with a pressure drop across the valve of 1 psi .

Kv = 0.865CvCv = 1,156Kv

Flow Coefficient Table . Select the valve size using the appropriate manufacturers and the calculatedCv value , considering 100% travel:

Obs.: See, as shown below, other Flow Coefficients may indicate different numbers, at 100% travel:


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IV. LEAK TESTING - FLUIDS AND PROCEDURES:

The choice of liquid or gas depends on the test purpose and the leakage that can be tolerated. Leak-

ing air or gas can be detected by the sound of the escaping gas, by use of a soap film that formsbubbles , or by immersion in a liquid in which the escaping gas forms bubbles.

For hydrostatic or gas tests, a pressure gage attached, indicates leaks by the drop in pressure afterthe tests begin. Dyes introduced in liquids and tracers introduced into gases can also indicate leakage.Weld defects that cause leakage are not always detected by the usual NDT methods.

A tight crack or fissure may not appear on a radiograph , yet will form a leak path. A production op-eration, such as forming or a proof test, may make leaks develop in an otherwise acceptable weld joint. A leak test is usually done after the vessel is completed and all the weld joints can be inspected,there will be no more fabricating operations and the inspection should be taken with the empty vessel.

The most common types of leak testings are described below:

1. The pressure-rise test method, is a vessel attached to a vacuum pump evacuating to a pres-sure of 0.5 psi absolute. The connections to the vacuum pump are sealed off and the internal pres-sure of the part is measured.

The pressure is measured again after 5 minutes . If the pressure in the evacuated space remainsconstant, the welds are free of leaks. If there is a pressure rise, at least one leak is present, then thehelium-leak test below must be used.


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2. The helium-leak test, is more precise than the pressure-rise method and is used to find the ex-act location of these leaks. Helium-leak testing is not used to inspect large items. This inspectionmethod requires the use of a helium mass spectrometer to detect the presence of helium gas.

The mass spectrometer is connected to the pumping system between the vacuum pump and thevessel being inspected. Then the vessel is evacuated by a vacuum pump to a pressure of less than50 microns of mercury. The mass spectrometer can detect helium directed at the atmosphere.

If there is a small jet of helium gas is aside the weld joint exposed, there is a leak . Some of thehelium is sucked through the evacuated space and the mass spectrometer immediately indicatesthe presence of helium.

When no leak is present, no indication of gas helium will appear on the mass spectrometer. Theexact location of leaks, shows the jet of helium on the surface of the weld joint. If there is an indica-tion of leak, it is at the point where the helium jet is hitting the surface of the weld joint.

3. Ultrasonic translator detector, uses the ultrasonic sounds of gas molecules escaping from avessel under pressure or vacuum. The sound created is in the frequency range of 35,000 and45,000 Hz , which is above the range of human hearing is, therefore, classified as ultrasonic. Theshort wave length of the frequencies permits the use of highly directional microphones.

Any piping or vessel pressurized or evacuated to a pressure of 3 psi can be inspected. The op-erator simply listens to the translated ultrasonic sounds while moving a hand-held probe along theweld (as a flashlight). The detectors are simple and require minimum operator training.

4. The air-soap solution test , can be conducted on a vessel during or after assembly. The vesselis subjected to an internal gas pressure not exceeding the design pressure. A soap or equivalentsolution is applied so that connections and welded joints can be examined for leaks.

5. Air-ammonia test, involves introducing air into the vessel until a percent of the design pressureis needed. Anhydrous ammonia is then introduced into the vessel until 55% of the design pressureis reached. Air is then reintroduced until the design pressure is reached.

Each joint is carefully examined by using a probe or a swab wetted with 10N solution of muriaticacid (HCL), a sulphur candle, or sulphur dioxide. A wisp of white smoke indicates a leak.

6. Hydrostatic tests, use distilled or demineralized water having a pH of 6 to 8 and an impuritycontent not greater than 5 ppm is used. Traces of water should be removed from the inside beforethe final leak testing is begun.

7. Water submersion test, the vessel is completely submerged in clean water . The interior ispressurized with gas, but the design pressure must not be exceeded. The size and number of gasbubbles indicate the size of leaks.

8. Halide torch test , the vessel is pressurized with a mixture of 50% Freon and carbon dioxide or50% Freon and nitrogen is used. Each joint is carefully probed with a halide torch to detect leaks,which are indicated by a change in the color of the flame.


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VI. THE DECIBEL

The decibel (dB) is one tenth of a Bel, which is a unit of measure that was developed by engineers atBell Telephone Laboratories and named for Alexander Graham Bell . The dB is a logarithmic unit thatdescribes a ratio of two measurements. The basic equation that describes the difference in decibelsbetween two measurements is:

Where:

X = is the difference in some quantity expressed in decibels;X1 and X 2 = are two different measured values of X, and the log is to base 10.

a) Use of the dB in Sound Measurements:

The equation used to describe the difference in intensity between two ultrasonic or other sound meas-urements is:

Where:

I = difference in sound intensity expressed in decibels (dB);P 1 and P 2 = two different sound pressure measurements, log base 10.

Note: The factor of two difference between this basic equation for the dB and the one used when mak-ing sound measurements. This difference will be explained in the next section.

Sound intensity is defined as the sound power per unit area perpendicular to the wave. Units are typi-cally in watts/m 2 or watts/cm 2. For sound intensity, the dB equation becomes:

However, the power or intensity of sound is generally not measured directly. Since sound consists ofpressure waves, one of the easiest ways to quantify sound is to measure variations in pressure (i.e.the amplitude of the pressure wave ). When making ultrasound measurements, a transducer is used,which is basically a small microphone.

Transducers like most other microphones can produce a voltage that is approximately proportionally tothe sound pressure (P). The power carried by a traveling wave is proportional to the square of theamplitude. Therefore, the equation used to quantify a difference in sound intensity based on a meas-ured difference in sound pressure becomes:


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The factor of 2 is added to the equation because the logarithm of the square of a quantity is equal to 2times the logarithm of the quantity. Since transducers and microphones produce a voltage that is pro-portional to the sound pressure, the equation could also be written as:

Where:

I = change in sound intensity incident on the transducer,V1 and V 2 = are two different transducer output voltages.

b) Use of dB units:

Use of dB units allows ratios of various sizes to be described using easy to work with numbers. Forexample, consider the information in the table, to dB = 10 log .

Ratio between Measurement 1 and 2 Equation dB1/2 dB = 10 log (1/2) -3 dB1 dB = 10 log (1) 0 dB2 dB = 10 log (2) 3 dB10 dB = 10 log (10) 10 dB100 dB = 10 log (100) 20 dB1,000 dB = 10 log (1000) 30 dB10,000 dB = 10 log (10000) 40 dB100,000 dB = 10 log (100000) 50 dB1,000,000 dB = 10 log (1000000) 60 dB10,000,000 dB = 10 log (10000000) 70 dB100,000,000 dB = 10 log (100000000) 80 dB1,000,000,000 dB = 10 log (1000000000) 90 dB

From this table it can be seen that ratios from one up to ten billion can be represented with a singleor double digit number. The focus of this discussion is on using the dB in measuring sound levels ,but it is also widely used when measuring power, pressure, voltage and a number of other things. Re-

vising table to reflect the relationship between the ratio of the measured sound pressure and thechange in intensity expressed in dB produces, to dB = 20 log :

Ratio between Measurement 1 and 2 Equation dB1/2 dB = 20 log (1/2) - 6 dB1 dB = 20 log (1) 0 dB2 dB = 20 log (2) 6 dB10 dB = 20 log (10) 20 dB100 dB = 20 log (100) 40 dB


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29/60



The table below contains the ISO1940/1-1986 balance quality grades for various groups of repre-sentative rigid rotors. The following equations and discussion of permissible imbalance is based onISO 1940/1, Mechanical vibrationBalance quality requirements of rigid rotors .


30/60



Notes:

1. For allocating the permissible residual unbalance to correction planes.

2. A crankshaft/drive is an assembly which, includes a crankshaft, flywheel, clutch, pulley, vibrationdamper, rotating portion of connecting rod, etc.

3. For the purposes of this part of ISO 1940, slow diesel engines are those with a piston velocity ofless than 9 m/s; fast diesel engines are those with a piston velocity of greater than 9 m/s.

4. In complete engines, the rotor mass comprises the sum of all masses belonging to the crank-shaft/drive described in note 3 above.

Machine Alignment:


31/60

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32/60

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33/60



Contrary to popular belief, both laser alignment and reverse dial indicator equipment offer equallevels of precision; however, laser alignment is considerably easier and quicker to learn and use. Therecommended specifications for precision alignment are provided in the table shown below:

Alignment Effects:

The forces of vibration from misalignment also cause gradual deterioration of seals, couplings, drivewindings, and other rotating elements where close tolerances exist. Based on data from a petrochemi-cal industry survey, precision alignment practices achieve:

Average bearing life increases by a factor of 8.0. Maintenance costs decrease by 7%. Machinery availability increases by 12%.

IX. PUMP PERFORMANCE AND TESTS:

A critical function of any pump manufacturer is the performance testing of their product to ensure that itmeets design specifications. Test facilities are designed to provide performance and NPSHR tests inaccordance with the latest edition of API 610 or the Hydraulic Institute.

Test Softwares allow all parameters to be monitored and controlled from a central control station,providing precise control to achieve and maintain specific operating conditions, so that data from pre-cision electronic sensors can be collected and recorded for use in verifying pump performance.

Variable Frequency Drive: is always utilized to maintain precise speed control on units to achieve acontrolled acceleration up to synchronous operating speed. Flow is commonly measured by calibratedmagnetic flow meters installed in metering runs, while calibrated electronic sensors measure pressureat compliant metering spools connected to the suction and discharge nozzles of the pump. NPSH test-ing is performed using vacuum suppression method.


34/60



Mechanical Seals:

Pumps provided with mechanical seals should be tested with its own seal and no leaks shall be al-lowed. In case a leak is confirmed during the test, the mechanical seal should be dismounted, ana-lysed about the wearing and replaced.

Drive Motor:

When it is possible, the pump should be tested with its own motor , since there is the possiblity to usethe same operation conditions, such as the same flow fluid and power consumption. It is also neces-sary to correct fluid viscosity, flow curves, manometric height and hydraulic efficiency using definedtables or a mathematical abacus.

Brake Horse Power (BHP) Evaluation:

The best way to define a pump efficiency is to measure the consumed power during its performancetest. The measured power should not exceed 4% the specified value, considering some limitations ofelectrical energy in the work site. The BHP can be evaluated by two (2) methods:

With a voltmeter and a wattmeter; Without instruments.

a) With a voltmeter and a wattmeter:

The Inspector shall read each flow point, the electric voltage and current using a voltmeter and awattmeter . Then, he should find in the calibrated motor performance curve, its efficiency and the pow-er factor in function of the measured current, using the following formula below:

P = BHP PowerV = Electric VoltageI = Electric Current

= Calibrated Motor Efficiency

Cos = Power Factor

Example:

During a pump performance test, the following electrical variables below were found, for power evalua-tion of an electric motor 20 HP, 440V / II poles (remember 20 HP = 14.9 kW):

V = 422 VI = 21 A

= 0.84

Cos = 0.89


35/60



P = 422 x 21 x 0.89 x 0.84 x 0.001732 =

P = 11.46 kW

Obs.: Then 11.46 kW is the correct power for this electric motor using the above electrical conditions.

b) Without instruments:

In case there is no possibility to have a voltmeter, wattmeter and the calibrated curve is not available,it is possible to estimate the consumed power associating the voltage, current and nominal motorpower. Due this calculation is not accurate, the power evaluation can be done using the formula below:

Where:

Vt = Estimated available tensionVn = Nominal electric motor tensionIt = Estimated available currentIn = Nominal electric motor currentPn = Nominal power

Example:

During a power evaluation with an electric motor 20 HP, 440V and 30A, in the operation point was veri-fied the following electric variables:

Vt = 422 VIt = 21 A

P = 422 x 21 x 20440 30

P = 13.42 HP

The hydraulic efficiency can also be calculated. The Brake Horsepower (BHP) is the actual horse-power delivered to the pump shaft, defined as follows:

BHP = Q x H x SG x P 3960

Where:

Q = Capacity in gallons per minuteH = Total Differential Head in absolute feetSG = Specific Gravity of the liquidP = Pump efficiency as a percentage


36/60

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38/60



X. BEARING TEMPERATURE EVALUATION:

We define temperature taken at the bearing cap surface . The normal procedure is that an operatingtemperature at the bearing cap can not exceed 175F (80 C) , as long as the temperature has leveledout and not still rising.

Temperatures up to 200F (90 C) can also be satisfactory , but further investigation is recommend-ed to determine the cause of the higher bearing operating temperature. In pumps for boiler feed appli-cations, handling hot water, above boiling point and other high temperature applications, the bearingtemperature may approach this higher limit from heat transfer along the shaft and still perform satis-factorily.

Special consideration of lubricants , water cooling or special bearing clearances may be required forpumping temperatures above 250F (120 C) on general-purpose bearings before heat treating fordimensional stability is recommended.

Excessive lubrication of bearings should be avoided as it may result in overheating and possiblebearing failure. Under normal applications, adequate lubrication is assured if the amount of grease ismaintained at 1/3 to the capacity of the bearing and adjacent space surrounding it. We recommendusing a premium lubricant equal to Number 2 (polyurea base).

These temperatures apply to grease-lubricated as well as oil-lubricated bearings. New bearingsoften require a break-in period of up to 100 hours . During this time, temperatures and noise levelscan be slightly elevated. However, these levels should decrease somewhat after this break-in period.

Siemens, Westinghouse, and GE elliptical friction bearings typically alarm up to a temperature at265F (130C), well privileged to work on such currently alarm. For cooling water pumps and opendrip proof motors bearing housings the range is commonly


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Pump Bearing Temperature:

The maximum operating temperature for a ball bearing in a pump is the result of a number of factors,not limited to, but including some or all of the following:

1) Operating speed;2) Shaft loading;3) Type of lubrication;4) Amount of lubricant in the bearing;5) Pump alignment;6) Pumping temperature;7) Ambient temperature;8) Bearing fits;9) Continuous or on-off service;10) Location of the pump duty point on the performance curve

XI. FAILURE DIAGNOSTIC DETECTION:

The advent of micro-processor based valve instruments in-service diagnostics capabilities has al-lowed companies to redesign their control valve maintenance work practices. More specifically, in-service diagnostics oversee:

1. Instrument Air Leakage : This diagnostic can detect both positive (supply) and negative (exhaust)air mass flow not only to detect leaks in the actuator or related tubing, but also much more difficultproblems. For example, in piston actuators, the air mass flow diagnostic can detect leaking pistonseals or damaged O-rings.

2. Supply Pressure : This in-service diagnostic will detect low and high supply pressure readings foradequate supply pressure to detect and quantify droop in the air supply during large travel excursions.

This is particularly helpful in identifying supply line restrictions.

3. Travel Deviation and Relay Adjustment : The travel deviation diagnostic is used to monitor actua-tor pressure and travel deviation from setpoint and identify a stuck control valve, active interlocks, lowsupply pressure or shifts in travel calibration.

4. Instrument Air Quality : The I/P and relay monitoring diagnostic can identify problems such asplugging in the I/P primary or in the I/P nozzle, instrument diaphragm failures, I/P instrument O-ringfailures, and I/P calibration shifts, as well, in identifying problems from contaminants in the air supplyand from temperature extremes.

Types of Protection:

The types of protection commonly used for instruments are:

1. Dust Ignition-proof: A type of protection that excludes ignitable amounts of dust will not allow arcs,sparks or heat otherwise generated or liberated inside the enclosure to cause ignition of exterior ac-cumulations or atmospheric suspensions of a specified dust.


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2. Explosion-proof: A type of protection that utilizes an enclosure that is capable of withstanding anexplosion of a gas or vapor within it and of preventing the ignition of an explosive gas or vapor thatmay surround it.

3. Intrinsically Safe: A type of protection in which the electrical equipment under normal or abnormalconditions is incapable of releasing sufficient electrical or thermal energy to cause ignition of a specifichazardous atmospheric mixture.

4. Non-Incendive: A type of protection in which the equipment is incapable, under normal conditions,of causing ignition of a specified flammable gas or vapor-in-air mixture due to arcing or thermal effect.

NEC Hazardous Location Classification:

Hazardous areas procedures are classified by class, division, and group . The method was intro-duced into the 1996 edition of the NEC as an alternate method, but it is not yet in use. The zonemethod is common in Europe and most other countries.

Class : defines the general nature of the hazardous material in the surrounding atmosphere.

Class I . Locations in which flammable gases or vapors are, or may be, present in the air in quantitiessufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.

Class II . Locations that are hazardous because of the presence of combustible dusts.

Class III . Locations in which easily ignitable fibers or flyings may be present but not likely to be in sus-pension in sufficient quantities to product ignitable mixtures.

Division : The Division defines the probability of hazardous material being present in an ignita-ble concentration in the surrounding atmosphere.

Division 1 : Locations in which the probability of the atmosphere being hazardous is high due to flam-mable material being present continuously, intermittently, or periodically.

Division 2 : Locations that are presumed to be hazardous only in an abnormal situation.

Group: The Group defines the hazardous material in the surrounding atmosphere. The specifichazardous materials within each group and their automatic ignition temperatures can be found in Arti-cle 500 of the NEC and in NFPA 497M. Groups A, B, C and D apply to Class I, and Groups E, F and Gapply to Class II locations. The following definitions are from NEC:

Group A : Atmospheres containing acetylene.

Group B : Atmospheres containing hydrogen, fuel and combustible process gases containing morethan 30 percent hydrogen by volume, or gases or vapors of equivalent hazard such as butadiene, eth-ylene oxide, propylene oxide, and acrolein.

Group C : Atmospheres such as ethyl ether, ethylene, or gases or vapors of equivalent hazard.

Group D : Atmospheres as acetone, ammonia, benzene, butane, cyclopropane, ethanol, gasoline,hexane, methanol, methane, natural gas, naphtha, propane, or gases or vapors of equivalent hazard.


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Group E : Atmospheres containing combustible metal dusts, including aluminum, magnesium, andtheir commercial alloy, or other combustible dusts whose particle size, abrasiveness, and conductivitypresent similar hazards in the use of electrical equipment.

Group F : Atmospheres containing combustible carbonaceous dusts, including carbon black, charcoal,coal, or dusts that have been sensitized by other materials so that they present an explosion hazard.

Group G : Atmospheres containing combustible dusts not included in Group E or F, including flour,grain, wood, plastic, and chemicals.

The NEC states that any equipment that does not exceed a maximum surface temperature of 100 C(212 F) is not required to be marked with the temperature code. Therefore, when a temperature codeis not specified , it is assumed to be T5 .

NEMA Hazardous Locations:

Two of four enclosure ratings for classified locations are described as follows in NEMA 250:

Type 7: (Class I, Division 1, Group A, B, C or D, Indoor hazardous location, Enclosure): For indooruse in locations classified as Class I, Division 1, Groups A, B, C or D as defined in the NEC and shallbe marked to show class, division, and group. Capable of withstanding the pressures resulting from aninternal explosion of specified gases.

Type 9: (Class II, Division 1, Groups E, F or G, Indoor hazardous location, Enclosure): Intended foruse in indoor locations classified as Class II, Division 1, Groups E, F and G as defined in the NEC andshall be marked to show class, division, and group. Enclosures shall be capable of preventing the en-trance of dust.

NEMA Enclosure Ratings:

Enclosures may be tested to determine their ability to prevent the ingress of liquids and dusts. In theUnited States, equipment is tested to NEMA 250. Some of the more common enclosure ratings de-fined in NEMA 250 are as follows.

Type 3R: (Rain-proof, Ice-resistance, Outdoor enclosure): Intended for outdoor use primarily to pro-vide a degree of protection against rain, sleet, and damage from external ice formation.

Type 3S: (Dust-tight, Rain-tight, Ice-proof, Outdoor enclosure): Intended for outdoor use primarily toprovide a degree of protection against rain, sleet, windblown dust, and to provide for operation of ex-ternal mechanisms when ice ladened.

Type 4: (Water-tight, Dust-tight, Ice-resistant, Indoor or outdoor enclosure): Intended for indoor oroutdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against windblown dust and rain, splashingwater, hose-directed water, and damage from external ice formation.

Type 4X: (Water-tight, Dust-tight, Corrosion resistant, Indoor or outdoor enclosure): Intended for in-door or outdoor use primarily to provide a degree of protection against corrosion, windblown dust andrain, splashing water, and hose-directed water, and damage from external ice formation.


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Bolt tension : F = 9,000/8 = 1125 lb.

According to the tabel below (and Table 8 of ASME B16.5), for a 4 class 150 lb flange. Using the ex-ternal diameter of the 5/8 bolt is we find an area of 0.5168, which corresponds to:

Bolt root area : 5/8 11 threads/inch = 0.202 in.

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1 1 8 0.9188 0.8512 0.8647 0.551

Given the installation tension of 1125 lb per bolt , over an area of 0.202 in , the tensile stress appliedto the bolt during preload to compress the joint is:

Bolt tensile stress: = F/A bolt = 1125/0.202 = 5569 psi.

The ASTM A193 Gr.B7 bolt at ambient temperature, its allowable stress is S = 23,000 psi. The boltyield and ultimate strength is Sy = 95,000 psi. Using the minor root diameter of bolt 5/8 , the pre-

load stress of 5569 psi is well within the material allowable stress. Other calculation to minimumbolt torque Tmin ., needed to achieve a preload is:

Tmin = K.Fi.d , where:

Tmin = minimum bolt torque, in-lb,K = nut factor (lubricated bolts = 0.10 ~ 0.20); hot dip galvanized bolts = 0.25); (plain bolts = 0.20).Fi = (1125 lb recommended preload), lb,d = nominal bolt diameter, in.

Using the table below : Clampload is calculated at 75% of the proofload and is only a estimatednumber, to be tensioned to a different value.

T = K.D.P , where:

T = Torque,K = torque coefficient (see table),D = nominal diameter (inches),P = bolt clamp load, lb (see table)


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Calculation using the bolt stress area, according to ASTM 574:

Using this formula a 5/8 11 threads/inch, the stress area is = 0.226 in 2

Where:

D = Nominal diameter, in.;n = Number of threads per inch;


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Common Bolt Materials Torque:

ASTM A307

Bolt Size Tightening Torque (ft-lb)

Waxed Galv Plain1 4 2 4 4

5 16 4 9 7

3 8 7 16 13

7 16 10 26 21

1 2 16 40 32

9 16 23 58 46

5 8 32 79 64

3 4 56 141 113

7 8 83 208 166

1 125 313 250

11 8 177 443 354

11 4 250 625 500

13 8 327 819 655

11 2 435 1088 870

13 4 748 1870 1496

2 1125 2813 2250

21 4 1645 4113 3291

21 2 2250 5625 4500

23 4 3050 7626 6101

3 4030 10074 8060

31 4 5192 12980 10384

31 2 6560 16400 13120

33 4 8151 20377 16301

4 9972 24930 19944

SAE GRADE 2

Bolt Size Tightening Torque (ft-lb)

Waxed Galv Plain1 4 3 7 5

5 16 6 14 11

3 8 10 25 20

7 16 16 40 32

1 2 24 61 49

9 16 35 88 70

5 8 48 121 97

3 4 86 216 173

7 8 83 208 166

1 125 313 250

11 8 177 443 354

11 4 250 625 500

13 8 327 819 655

11 2 435 1088 870

ASTM A325

Bolt SizeTightening Torque Range (ft-lb)(Min - Max)

Waxed Plain

1 2 50 - 58 100 - 117

5 8 99 - 120 198 - 240

3 4 175 - 213 350 - 425

7 8 284 - 343 569 - 685

1 425 - 508 850 - 1017

11 8 525 - 625 1050 - 1256

11 4 740 - 885 1479 - 1771

13 8 974 - 1169 1948 - 2338

11 2 1288 - 1550 2575 - 3100


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XIV. COMMISSIONING PROCESSES:

Commissioning is a systematic process of ensuring that all equipment systems perform interac-tively according to the contract documents, the design intent and the owners operational needs. Thisis achieved ideally by beginning in the pre-design phase with design intent development and docu-mentation, and continuing through design, construction and the warranty period with actual verificationthrough review, testing and documentation of performance.

The commissioning process integrates the traditionally separate functions of design peer review ,equipment startup, control system calibration, testing, adjusting and balancing, equipment documenta-tion and facility staff training, and adds the activities of documented functional testing and verification.

Commissioning is occasionally confused with testing , adjusting and balancing (TAB) . Testing, adjusting and balancing measures building air and fluid flows , but commissioning encompasses amuch broader scope of work. Building commissioning typically involves four distinct phases in whichspecific tasks are performed by the various team members throughout the construction process.

The four phases are pre-design, design, construction, and warranty. As part of the constructionphase, commissioning involves functional testing to determine how well mechanical and electrical sys-tems meet the operational goals established during the design process. Although commissioning canbegin during the construction phase, owners receive the most cost-effective benefits when the processbegins during the pre-design phase at the time the project team is assembled.

A properly commissioned facility can result in fewer change orders during the construction process,fewer call-backs, long-term tenant satisfaction, lower energy bills, avoided equipment replacement costs , and an improved profit margin for building owners once the building is occupied. Commis-sioning also assures that the buildings operational staff is properly trained and that the operations andmaintenance manuals are compiled correctly at project turn-over.

Benefits of Commissioning:

Until recently, the most frequently mentioned benefit of commissioning was its energy related value.Building commissioning ensures that the energy savings expected from the design intent are imple-mented correctly. While these benefits are significant, they are far outweighed by the non-energy-related benefits of commissioning. These include:

Proper and efficient equipment operation Improved coordination between design, construction and occupancy Improved indoor air quality, occupant comfort, and productivity Decreased potential for liability related to indoor air quality, or other HVAC problems

Reduced operation and maintenance costs

Existing Building Commissioning:

Commissioning also can be applied to existing buildings to restore them to optimal performance.Retrocommissioning is a systematic, documented process that identifies low-cost O&M (Operation &Maintenance) improvements in an existing building and brings it up to the design intentions of its cur-rent usage. In many cases as a building is used over time, equipment efficiency and tenant build-outsor renovations change how the building functions.


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Retrocommissioning identifies and solves comfort and operational problems, explores the full potentialof the facilities energy management system, and ensures that the equipment performs properly afterspace changes have been made. Continuous commissioning is similar to retrocommissioning and be-gins by identifying and fixing HVAC and comfort problems in the building.

In continuous commissioning, when the commissioning is complete, the team continues to work to-gether to monitor and analyze building performance data provided by permanently installed meteringequipment. This process works to ensure that the savings achieved from the commissioning continueto persist over time.

The Commissioning Team:

The commissioning team does not manage the design and construction of the project, but mayinclude facility staff for possibly testing or diagnostic the utility process equipment. Its purpose is topromote communication among team members and the early identification and resolution of problems.

Any project involving commissioning should begin with a commissioning scoping meeting , which allteam members are required to attend. At this meeting, the roles of each team member are outlinedand the commissioning process and schedule are described. Commissioning team members mostoften include the building owner or project manager, commissioning provider, design professionals,installing contractors and manufacturers representatives.

Professional Qualifications:

Direct responsibility for project management of at least two commercial construction or installationprojects with mechanical costs greater than or equal to current project costs; Experience in design installation and/or troubleshooting of direct digital controls and energy man-agement systems, if applicable. Demonstrated familiarity with metering and monitoring procedures.

Knowledge and familiarity with air/water testing and balancing. Experience in planning and delivering O&M training. Building contracting background and complete understanding of all the building systems, includingbuilding envelope, structural, and fire/life safety components.

Testing Specialists:

If the complexity of the project requires special testing , the specialists performing these tests shouldalso be involved in commissioning. Test results and recommendations from these specialists shouldbe submitted to the commissioning provider for review. They may also be required to review documen-tation relating to the systems they test and to train operators on the proper use of this equipment.

Design Phase:

The optimum time to hold the commissioning scoping meeting is during the design phase. At thismeeting, the commissioning provider outlines the roles and responsibilities of the project team mem-bers with respect to commissioning and reviews the commissioning plan outline and schedule. Teammembers provide comment on the plan and schedule, and the commissioning provider uses thesesuggestions to complete the final commissioning plan.


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Industrial Process Equipment

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