Individual Assignment - Prof Moqib (Leadership)
Transcript of Individual Assignment - Prof Moqib (Leadership)
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Issue : The Teachers Workload Dealing with Poor Leadership in School Organization
Situation : Sungai Limau Primary School
School Background
The Sungai Limau Primary School are located at District of Kuala Muda/Yan. In here,there
are 457 pupils. For administrative section,teachers and supportive staff have 40 people.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Vicissitudes and advanced failure of a school depends heavily on commitment and
enthusiasm of the headmaster and the teachers in carrying out their duties in school. This is
because all the action and task and activities that occur on school triggered by the headmaster
and it is driven by the teacher. Teachers cannot afford engaging in any activity or program
alone without the participation of the teachers. Commitment teachers of the tasks entrusted to
them is to start with comfort and enjoyment of their work. All their actions are due to several
factors makes the existence of an atmosphere and environment they work in schools,
including style leadership of school managers (head teachers).
The school is an institution of formal education structure organization, led by the
headmaster as the key leadership in the school. As a leader, this individual will determine the
rise and fall of a school thus play a very important role in determining the direction of the
success of the school. Leadership in tandem with information technology, smart schools,
school effective, the target of 60% science students and efforts to make Malaysia a centre
world-class educational excellence. Educational leadership is very important to lead
organizational goals. Image is determined by the image of school education and image of
leadership. According Bardford (1981), a less capable leader will lead to job dissatisfaction
among teachers. Leaders determine the degree of influence effectiveness of the plan, decision
and action strategies. Actions of a leader is not It only affects the organization he leads even
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in terms of job satisfaction staff especially teachers under his control should also be
emphasized because it involves a person's credibility. The teaching profession is a profession
that requires commitment and determination high in order to produce human capital that is
useful to society and the nation. Performed by the process of educating teachers is a
continuous process undertaken in all ages begins at primary, secondary and tertiary levels.
Institutions education at all levels play a role in each stage in order to produce quality of
human capital based on the National Education Philosophy.
Based on the background of the above problems and realize the fact that the question
leadership and job satisfaction is an important issue and should be viewed from the concept
responsibility that has major implications on the success of the organization, thus affect the
future of the country. Hence this research is to examine the level of job satisfaction among
teachers associated with the headmaster's leadership style in schools in Educational of
District Office, Kuala Muda Yan .Although there are many factors that determine the comfort
and satisfaction of teachers in school, however, this study only focuses on the headmistress's
leadership style. This study was done to see the level of job satisfaction is closely related to
the style factor Headmaster leadership and how leadership style favoured by teachers for
create job satisfaction in school.
THE JOB SATISFACTION ARE RELATED TO THE WORKLOAD OF TEACHERS
Assume the role of a teacher is not as simple as throw the word guru itself. If look
at the National Education Philosophy (1989), there is a phrase which sets education as an
ongoing effort to produce a balanced and harmonious in terms of intellectual, spiritual,
physical and emotional. If we were to work for the realization of this the National Education
Philosophy is severe. It is difficult for the human form and mould a variety of spiritual
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backgrounds toward a common goal. Therefore teachers should be competent in human tasks,
able to deal with the problem of students and constantly change with time (Fitri, 2006).
The teaching profession is a demanding career fields. Teachers are considered experts
in the field (Abdul Rahin et al.2000) job teachers do not just go to class teaching and marking
exams, but more extensive than that. Teaching profession is a profession that demands
seriousness disseminate knowledge in order to build a highly civilized society. Such large
impact on the teaching profession nation-building. So mainly the responsibility of a teacher
then so greater the burden should rest with the teacher.
Workload can be defined as a trust entrusted to the teacher whether it is done in the
classroom or outside the classroom and aims to complete the work associated with the school
(Shukri, 1998). This workload is measured by looking at the tasks allotted time in a week.
Looking at the definition of this workload can be concluded that the tasks assigned to the
teacher is able to pressure especially if the task is given in excess. Task charged to the teacher
must take into account the priority of the teacher's responsibility. Along with the
development of education, teacher experience increases. However, the teacher's ability to
cope with a given workload depends on the individual. Too large workload will interfere with
emotions and in turn affects the quality of the teaching (Fitri, 2006).
Various measures have been taken to overcome this problem. This is to ensure that
the focus of the teacher to educate not disturbed. No doubt teachers also need to be
responsible for a variety of data on students, but teachers also need to know his student data
to help teachers adapt teaching methods, but so do other than educate teachers should be
given to thrift with the primary responsibility of a teacher.
The teacher is not subject to teach only. Teaching is a fraction of the tasks to be
performed by the teacher. According to Shukri (1998), in addition to teaching, teachers role is
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to plan, organize, manage and evaluate. Based Handbook of teachers and staff (2011), the
teacher can be divided into ten sections, namely:
i. Teaching
ii. Administrative classroom
iii. Internal examination
iv. External examination
v. Disciplinary care
vi. School administration
vii. Activities, extra-curricular activities
viii. Semi-professional tasks
ix. Non-professional tasks
x. Other tasks
2.1 Duties of Teaching
Teaching requires teachers to teach certain subjects according to teacher
qualifications. However, teachers also need to master the skills needed to teach the subject
and be able to describe the contents of the syllabus and the Syllabus. In addition, teachers
also need to provide a complete lesson record book with a lesson plan for one year / one term
/ week / day and implement lessons based on the plans ahead. Teachers also need to provide
training to students as well as check book training before being shown to the administrator.
If teachers can detect flaws in studies among students, it is the responsibility of the teacher to
conduct coaching classes in addition to providing test to detect the weaknesses of their pupils.
Tests and records must be recorded in the record books teach.
As a teacher who teaches the subject, teachers need to become an expert in the subject
committee and attend and participate in meetings and activities undertaken by the committee.
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If the Ministry of Education, the State Education Department or the District Education Office
to organize a briefing or meeting, the teacher concerned should attend and spread the
information obtained to the teachers who teach the same subject. Place unlimited teach in the
class, but for certain subjects such as Life Skills requires students moving and learning in a
specially prepared room. Individual teacher to be responsible for the safety of students as
well as the cleanliness and safety equipment used.
2.2 Administration Classrooms
In administering the classroom, some of the tasks to be performed by the teacher. This
includes carrying out various collection of the fees charged by the school. In addition,
teachers also need to ensure that relationships with parents continue to do all correspondence
if necessary. Teachers also need to keep a list of other classes keep students 'personal
information such as students' personal files, books consolidated progress reporting books and
extra-curricular provision and certification letter. In addition, teachers also need to be
controlling and supervising the classroom situation.
2.3 Internal Examination
The duties include the provision of internal examination questions. These questions
need to be provided in accordance with the examination calendar provided by the school.
Time of examination, the teacher should monitor the ongoing examination that there was no
fraud and the results more transparent.
After completing the exam, the teacher should check the answer scripts of students'
answers to be scored and conducted grading. After that, the results of the analysis will be
conducted to look at the overall student performance.
2.4 External Examination
External examination means examination conducted and administered by parties other
than the school and the examination usually conducted simultaneously throughout the
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country and involve all students in certain years such as the Primary School Assessment Test
(UPSR). Therefore, the teacher simply involves the collection related fees, fill out the entry
form and exam invigilator should be directed.
2.5 Care Discipline
Scopes of work in the care of discipline include supervision of students discipline in
general. This means that teachers are allowed to reprimand or demonstration if there are
students who do wrong. Hygiene is also contained within the scope of duty of care discipline.
Teachers are responsible for ensuring the cleanliness class and pupils as clothing is always
awake and obey school rules.
2.6 Administration School
Through field work proved that the teacher does not stop at teaching only. Teachers
also need to be involved in the administration for the smooth functioning of the school.
Among the things to do is help corporate rooms such as science labs, art room, music room,
workshop and so on.
In addition, teachers are also involved in administering such thing as a textbook
distribution, the distribution schedule for teachers and coordinating the work of multiple
classes or subjects. It is important to avoid conflicts and duplication of time and work.
2.7 The activities of the Co-curriculum
Activities, extra-curricular activities should be conducted in the school and to comply
with the rules and instructions given. Extra-curricular activities include uniformed bodies,
associations and clubs. In addition to carrying out the activities of the co-curriculum, teachers
are also required to record and supervise all activities.
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2.8 Semi-Professional Duties
Semi-professional tasks means that tasks are not directly related to the student. In
other words, the semi-professional tasks refer to activities to benefit students or students who
need a teacher as a governor or actuator activity.
These tasks involve things such as visits to schools outside the area either with the
purpose of competition, sports games or educational visits. In addition, teachers are also
responsible for organizing festivals and special ceremonies and school development projects.
Although there are activities that do not involve students in particular as school projects, but
the end result of the project benefits the entire school community, including students.
2.9 Non-Professional Duties
The duties of this profession are not seen as a task that is not in contact with the main
task of the teacher as an educator to the community. This task can also be seen as a social
responsibility of a teacher to the school and community.
Among the items contained in the non-professional tasks are school buildings and
landscaping care and hygiene school. Teachers need to ensure that school places are always
clean and cheerful so that the students who come to school to learn in a comfortable
environment. In addition, teachers also need to control the traffic and maintain security of
schools and students. Therefore, teachers should report any damage in the school and set the
traffic to the students and parents who attend the school.
If there are special cases such as student illness or have a problem that prevented to
attend school, teachers have visited the home of the student. Besides getting clear information
about the situation and problems of students, teachers also indirectly strengthen the
relationship between teachers and parents. Next, to help students in their studies, teachers are
required to sell books to the students training.
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2.10 Other Duties
As the head of an organization of schools, the headmaster has the power to direct the
teachers to do certain tasks if the task that will benefit the school. Therefore, these other tasks
are tasks related headmaster directed by from time to time.
Based on this teacher to-do list it is clear that the teacher is not just to teach but to
cover the entire course related to students. In summary the teacher can set consists of two
parts, namely the management of teaching and learning as well as the management and
administration of the school. However, under each section comprises a variety of other tasks
demanding field breakdown endurance teachers to implement. Headmaster of the school as
the head of administration should take aware of this scenario. Thus headmaster should be
more concerned and do a more fair division of labor as well as emphasizing the welfare of
teachers felt that teachers who shouldered his burden can be reduced.
3.0 LOAD DUTY TEACHER
In addition to the parents at home, teachers are the ones responsible for developing
soul and character grinding to determine the rise and fall of next generation. Therefore
teachers should play a responsibility to educate with the passion and sense of responsibility.
If the teacher negligent in discharging its trust, the greater the possibility to see the next
generation of life in the soul and humility personality flaws (Shukri, 1998). Centered on this
matter it is clear that the teacher is an important component in making the country filled by
people who are not only knowledgeable but also has a soul and an outstanding personality.
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Education system and the educational goals that have been set seen so noble goals.
Yet teachers as implementers need to have a good quality performance to ensure the FPN can
be realized. However, stress and workload will affect the quality of teaching and thus affect
the performance and efficiency of the teacher (Sazali, 1997). The situation is exacerbated by
pressure from the community and high expectations given to teachers (Soh, 1987).
Today the teacher not only in the classroom but also involve clerical work (Moran,
1998). Based on studies conducted by the Salwa (1996), the average hours of work of a
teacher is 65.77 hours per week. Of the total 37.67 hours used to manage and conduct
academic affairs while remaining 28.10 hours was used for non-academic tasks. This task
assignments dtambah again with the positions held by the teacher. On average a teacher holds
six posts covering the role of classroom teachers, the task associated with extra-curricular
activities and special tasks assigned. The research also shows that teachers generally
expressed shouldered workload is heavy.
The report submitted by the Special Committee Addressing Load Master (2010) of 17
teachers showed that 8 out of 17 times the number of teachers assigned to teach more than 29
hours a week. 9 out of 17 teachers expressed their hours of duty that includes teaching and
learning time is over 66 hours a week. The report also said the 17 teachers agreed that they do
not have a specific list of duties and responsibilities are not clearly real and actual work time.
In addition, all 17 teachers agree that the main burden being shouldered is clerical
work.Load teacher is varied. Even nowadays many clerical work that had to be done by the
teacher. This coupled with the question of discipline, classroom management, timetable and
lesson planning and teaching material (Lim, 1995). Due to this common work of teacher
brought it home. Indirect work time, teachers are beyond working hours the other office
bearers.
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The teacher on this very important day because the teacher is part of an important
subject for sketching portraits of the country's success. Too great a burden placed on the
shoulders of the teachers are able to cause the teacher missed the runway to create a brilliant
student. This is because the main task of educating cannot be done as effectively as possible
(Moran, 1998). Therefore, it is very appropriate that the relevant parties can review more
closely related to this issue. It is meant to prevent teachers feel pressured to unnecessary
workload. Fear stress experienced by teachers will affect the quality of service of a teacher's
knowledge. Undeniably the burden of teachers keep pace with the country's dream of
achieving developed nation status, but so should be a priority to produce quality human
capital and these efforts should start from school. It is a loss to the nation if these efforts
retardation and disturbed since the beginning.
4.0 HOW TO REDUCE THE BURDEN OF TEACHER JOB
The issue of teacher workload has opened the eyes of many teachers over the years
have been charged with a variety of tasks that should not affect the main focus for educating
teachers. Not only that, the workload is able to bring a lot of stress for teachers. According
Sazali (1997), many teachers reported that they face pressure and burn out at some stage of
their careers. This in turn affects the level of professionalism in the handling of the case.
Thus, the various parties including academics have given some recommendations to address
this problem. Among them is Tan Sri Dr Abdul Rahman Arshad, former Director General of
Education as described in the Daily News newspaper dated May 24, 2010. Four
recommendations given by him is fully capitalize on the success of the role of parents in
school activities, optimize private sector involvement in the development of education,
promoting the contribution of former students and teachers create retirees association. He
added that the proposed recommendation is triggered by the concept of "socialization of
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education" and did not involve any additional cost to the government. However, these efforts
need to involve the private sector, parents and the government to look at this concept can be
realized.
Effort to address teacher workload can also be seen through the formation of the
Special Committee Addressing the burden of teachers in 2010. Through the establishment of
this committee which aims to list the duties and responsibilities of teachers, identifying the
factors that lead to increased teacher burden besides recommending measures to address
teacher workload among others.
He has recommended 13 steps you can take to reduce the workload of teachers. 13 steps are:
i. Laboratory tests conducted once during the exam.
ii. Shrink the size of the class.
iii. Add the number of teachers.
iv. Create a workshop assistant positions.
v. Reduce the time to teach teachers (including teacher discipline).
vi. Fair distribution of tasks.
vii. Give priority to the welfare of teachers.
viii. Provide suitable facilities according to the specifications of other civil servants.
ix. Reduce activities Saturday or exemption from duty on Saturday as other public
servants.
x. Make special leave right teacher.
xi. Create a special position for co-curricular activities.
xii. Increase cooperation with the community and PTA through smart partnerships.
xiii. Creating a teacher assistant positions for clerical work.
Of recommendations proposed by the Special Committee Addressing Load more
comprehensive Teacher's seen. In addition to regular teachers involved in addressing this
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issue, submitted proposals also involve other school administrators involve the government as
policy builder. Furthermore, the proposed recommendations also concern for the welfare of
teachers.
This point concurs with the suggestions made by Shukri (1998) proposes to set up a support
staff to assist the work of clerical allowance of teachers and the need for teachers to do the
work over time. He added that the task given to the teachers to match their abilities and skills
available to the teacher and the teacher does not result in overburdened.
Salwa (1996) suggest, reduced class size to 35 people for a class. In addition, he also
suggested that academic work should be limited to 39.80 hours per week and non-teaching
duties reduced to 4.23 hours per week. The recommended time is significantly different than
66 hours off duty (by combining academic and non-academic assignments) as reported by the
Special Committee Addressing the Burden of Teachers.
Suggestions made should not be ignored. The parties concerned should take proactive
measures to help address the problem of teacher workload. This matter should be taken
seriously to help teachers achieve high job satisfaction without stress by not burdening
teachers with extreme workloads. It is time profession is lifted back the prestige and quality,
not just a victim of ridicule and criticism of society. To accomplish such intention, of course,
the quality of teaching needs to be improved first by priority focus for educating teachers.
With the intention to produce knowledgeable and high moral no longer be an empty promise.
5.0 CONCLUSION
Workload issue is no longer a new issue. In fact no exaggeration to say that this issue
is an issue like endless bad. Every year teachers will continue to complain of workload
experienced to interfere with the primary responsibility for educating
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Solving this issue can not be done with the involvement of only one side. Sequential solution
must start from the policy makers (government) until the policy implementers (teachers).
Hence, the government through the Ministry of Education to review the tasks entrusted to the
teacher. Unmanageable task execution will cause problems for teachers and students also
receive impact.
Further, the curriculum has been designed not to be too frequently changed. This will result
in teachers not well prepared with the skills of the new curriculum demands to suit a variety
of business infrastructure available at the school. This situation coupled with the pressure of
parents who always want good results regardless of what experienced by teachers. Whereas,
if we examine all sides agreed examination results is not a determinant of success (Sazali,
1997).
Tendency on the part of policy-makers who only emphasize the goal to make the welfare of
student teachers neglected. True the teacher is educating students but must be relevant to the
existing ability. Party policy makers need to look back on things that need to be implemented
to realize the intention of the founding fathers rather than recklessly policies. This means that
all prospective and existing constraints faced by the teacher should be seen.
Other parties, especially the parents can not assume the task is the task of educating teachers
alone. Parents need to play a role monitor their children in terms of discipline and provide
basic education to ease the burden of teachers.
In Finally, extensive cooperation from all parties need to make this issue can be resolved and
thus make improved the quality of teaching as well as the country can produce human capital
that is able to propel the country towards success and material and spiritual progress.
Is the workload of teachers related to leadership style?..... Are they concerned about this
issues?
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3.2 Leadership and teacher satisfaction
Research conducted by UKs Institute of Public Policy Research (West & Patterson,
1999, p. 22), based on an 8-year long study of 100 companies, concluded that "an employee's
satisfaction with their work and a positive view of the organisation, combined with relatively
extensive and sophisticated people management practices, are the most important predictors
of the future productivity of companies." The people-management practices referred to here
include ones that concentrate on enabling staff to actually enjoy their work rather than feel
oppressed by it; ones that encourage questioning and thinking; ones that develop cooperation
through investing in social capital and mutual trust within the organisation. Recent research
in England suggests that such conditions may not be a strong feature of schools. A report by
the think-tank for the National Union of Teachers in that country (Gardner, 2001, p. 8) found
that younger teachers in particular felt pay prospects and lack of control over the way they
taught as a result of government initiatives, were causing them to question their commitment
to the profession.
Most teachers argued consistently that centrally driven educational reform meant
that they experienced change as never-ending barrage of externally imposed, randomly timed
and badly managed initiatives that they had little constructive role in helping to shape. As
stress was purported to be a widespread feature of work in teaching in England, Troman
(2000) studied an opportunity sample of 20 teachers referred to a local authority
Occupational Health Unit as experiencing stress. The study found that the intensification of
teachers' work was involved in eroding positive staff relationships. Changing trust relations
in high modernity (including public distrust of expert systems, professionals) were found to
be shaping the social relations of low-trust schooling and impacting negatively on teachers'
physical and emotional well being and their collegial professional relations. School leaders
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can be a major influence on such school-level factors as well as help buffer against the
excesses of the mounting and sometimes contradictory external pressures. As the analytical
framework for OECDs Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers Project
(OECD, 2002, p. 8) argues, A skilled and well-supported leadership team in schools can
help foster a sense of ownership and purpose in the way that teachers approach their job.
conferring professional autonomy to teachers will enhance the attractiveness of the
profession as a career choice and will improve the quality of the classroom teaching
practice. (OECD, 2002, p. 14) Spencer (2001, p. 814) makes clear that the single most
powerful recruiter of teachers are schools themselves. People who have had positive
experiences in school can prolong that experience by becoming teachers. Once in the
profession, intrinsic rewards are consistently rated highest in studies of teacher satisfaction.
For example, annual surveys administered to teachers over the past several decades
reflect teachers altruism as one of the most common reasons for entering teaching. Teachers
who work together in a meaningful and purposeful way have also been found to be more
likely to remain in the profession because they feel valued and supported in their work.
(Beane 1998; Bath 1999) Little (1995) is one researcher who has found clear evidence of the
positive effect of teacher leadership on teachers self efficacy and levels of morale. In
contrast, Blas and Blass (2002) study of 50 exemplary teachers in U.S.A. and Canada who
believed they had experienced significant principal mistreatment found that the adverse
effects included early and long-term psychological and emotional problems, physical and
physiological problems, damaged schools, and ultimately leaving the job. Unfortunately these
researchers also found that workplace abusers often target the bold, best and brightest
teachers.
3.3 Leadership and teacher role/performance
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In decentralised school settings principals have the autonomy to develop two very
different leadership models:
a more hierarchical and directive model, or
a more inclusive model which brings teachers in particular, and the local school community
into the frame. (Riley & Louis, 2000, p. 216) Research on decision making in Australian
primary (Mulford et al, 2000) and secondary (Mulford et al, 2001) schools found that the
more positively teachers viewed the decision making processes in the 18 school the higher
the degree of influence and control they perceived to be exerted by education staff groups in
the school. Ongoing analysis of this data base (Mulford et al, in press) shows that where
decision making is perceived by teachers in secondary schools as collegial, cooperative and
consultative and providing adequate opportunities for participation it will be more likely to
lead to positive student perceptions about their school and teachers as well as perceptions
about relationships and their own performance than where decision making is more top-
down, executive, or does not foster widespread teacher involvement.
However, the results also show that while decentralisation may have occurred from the
system to school level it had not necessarily occurred within schools and where it had it
tended to be about administrative rather than education matters. These results are supported
by other research. Gray (2001, p. 13) points out that in England teachers note considerably
greater changes in areas to do with their schools management and organisation than in ethos,
culture or teaching classroom-level changes were far less frequent than school-wide
initiatives. From case studies in nine Scottish secondary schools Adler et al (1997, Pp. 6-7)
also concluded that implementation of devolved school management has, so far, fallen short
of transforming the culture and working patterns of schools but had contributed to a dramatic
change in the role and status of head teacher. Schools seemed able to respond more
quickly to changing needs and priorities, but this was mainly in terms of repairs,
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maintenance and equipment. Teachers will be attracted to, and stay in, the profession if they
feel they belong and believe they are contributing to the success of their school and students.
Louis and Kruse (1995) have shown the important role of school-level leadership in the
development of a professional community. Teacher morale, efficacy, conditions of work, and
professional autonomy have all been shown to be crucial to the emotional lives of teachers.
(Hargreaves, 2000) There is no doubt that teachers themselves prefer principals who are
honest, communicative, participatory, collegial informal, supportive and demanding and
reasonable in their expectations with a clear vision for the school - principals who work
with rather than through. (Day et al, 2000, p. 20) Day et al (2000, p. 160) conclude that,
Research findings from diverse countries and different school contexts have revealed the
powerful impact of leadership processes related to school effectiveness and improvement.
Essentially, schools that are effective and have the capacity to improve are led by head
teachers who make a significant and measurable contribution to the effectiveness of their
staff. Research on school leaders in Denmark, Scotland, England and Australia by
MacBeath (1998, p. 63) identified a number of characteristics of effective leaders including
Good leaders are in the thick of things, working alongside their colleagues, respecting
teachers autonomy, protecting them from extraneous demands, and look ahead, anticipate
change and prepare people for it so that it doesnt surprise or disempowering them. Durland
and Teddlie (1996) posit a Centrality-Cohesiveness Model of Differentially Effective
Schools. Differentially effective schools can be distinguished by the cohesiveness of the
staff (webbed versus stringy) and the centrality of the leadership within the school. Well-
webbed structures and central leadership where found to be more effective than those
based on cliques, or stringy structures, and a perceived lack of leadership
Great leaders see beyond their egos.
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There is no argument that strongleadershipis critical for organizations to flourish. In
currentbusinessenvironments, it is almost a daily event to witness the exposure of poor
leadership in the largest companies worldwide. Whether you agree with media infiltration or
not, the length of time between when initial concerns are brought to the forefront about
companies and/or leadership and full transparency as the exposure unfolds is getting shorter
and shorter.
Accountability and responsibility have never been more important as the landscape of
corporate transformation alters in response to the turmoil in the economy. There have always
been weak leaders and those who cripple organizations with their lack of leadership skills.
However, the high visibility factor may have a tendency to provide a check and balance affect
in strengthening how leaders lead.
The book, Good to Great, by Jim Collins, has become, for some, the final word in what
strong leadership should look like and how leaders should lead. Jim Collins
states, Greatness is not a function of circumstance. Greatness is largely a matter of
conscious choice, and discipline.However, the confidence required to lead complex
organizations doesnt always provide an infrastructure for supporting a Level 5 Leader, as
defined in Good to Great. Often this high level of confidence is accompanied by an ego that,
if not kept in check, will take over and compromise effective decision-making. You can pick
up any newspaper and read about the fall of a CEO due to greed, ego and/or compromised
integrity. The discipline described by Jim Collins may be the most difficult behaviours to
sustain.
http://www.examiner.com/topic/leadershiphttp://www.examiner.com/topic/leadershiphttp://www.examiner.com/topic/leadershiphttp://www.examiner.com/businesshttp://www.examiner.com/businesshttp://www.examiner.com/businesshttp://www.examiner.com/businesshttp://www.examiner.com/topic/leadership -
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Below are a few signs that indicate poor leadership is present.
Leadership expects the workforce to tighten the financial belts, but does not tightentheir own. This is especially serious if the organization is in financial crisis.
There is little communication and transparency from top leadership. They choose tobe removed from all levels of the workforce. This may result in a deterioration of trust
by the workforce.
The organizational strategy is inconsistent and changes frequently. The strategy is notunderstood and is not integrated throughout the organization. Without clear direction,
you run the risk of spinning your wheels and getting nowhere.
The top leader takes credit for success and no responsibility for failure. The lack of understanding or belief that all levels of the organization are of equal
value in the grand scheme of things.
While there tends to be more focus on the results of poor leadership than strong, I believe
there are many more strong leaders than weak. However, as our economy begins to turn
around, the requirements for success will demand the best of leadership skills. Isnt it relevant
today to assess todays leadership and the leadership of tomorrow? Training, assessments,
succession planning and development are the focus of smart leadership and are systemic to
organizations that will thrive in the future.
Workload and Work Pace
The experience of being overworked is not new, and, if anything, some would suggest that it
is increasing within particular sectors (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997). The strains associated
with being overworked have been
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found to be uniformly negative across behavioral, psychological, and physiological outcome
domains (e.g., Jex & Beehr, 1991). Measures of role overload are empirically linked to
assessments of both context-free (e.g., Kelloway & Barling, 1991) and context-specific
mental health (see, for example, Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1992; Posig & Kickul, 2003).
Issues of workload and work pace become increasingly important in an environment in which
hours of work are increasing. The data suggest that working couples have
seen their average work year increase by nearly 700 hours in the past two decades and that up
to 30% of the workforce is exhausted by the end of the workday (NIOSH, 2002).
Organizational leadership is clearly linked to workload and pace in most organizations. By
establishing the pace of work and the amount of work that
is required, and by specifying deadlines, organizational leaders effectively establish
workloads and work pace for most individuals. Thus, when leaders set tight deadlines or
assign extra tasks without considering existing workloads, they become a source of
workplace stress through the experience of overload. To the extent that passive leaders are
unaware of the concerns of their employees, they may be less attuned to the amount of work
that their employees can reasonably manage and thus endorse a heavy workload or
unmanageable work pace. Similarly, abusive leaders who in their actions display little
concern for the welfare of their employees may also be more likely to set unreasonable
deadlines and workloads than highly effective leaders.
Role Stressors (Conf li ct, Ambiguity, and Inter role Conf li ct)
Role conflict exists whenever individuals face incompatible demands from two or more
sources. Role ambiguity reflects the uncertainty employees experience about what is expected
of them in their jobs; the opposite of role
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ambiguity would be role clarity. Inter role conflict exists when employees face incompatible
demands from two or more roles. The most common form of inter role conflict is work-
family conflict in which the demands of work conflict with the roles of parent or spouse.
Kelloway and Barling (1991) found that the experience of role stressors at work predicted
mental health in the workplace. Considerable research has also now emerged documenting
the stressors associated with inter role conflict and, more specifically, work-family conflict
(see, for example, Kelloway, Gottlieb, & Barham, 1999; Gignac, Kelloway, & Gottlieb,
1996; Gottlieb, Kelloway, & Martin-Matthews, 1996). Because organizational leaders are
tasked with establishing the expectations
for employees, they are a potent source of role expectations for individuals in organizations.
Thus, supervisors who fail to establish clear expectations or who promote conflicting goals
actively promote increased
role stress. Supervisors who establish expectations for long hours in the office may promote
work-family conflict. Researchers have long believed managers play a key role in the
presence of role ambiguity. Certainly, passive leaders may neither take the time to assure that
their employees have clear role descriptions nor even realize that their employees are
experiencing any type of role conflict. In many instances, however, researchers have argued
that role ambiguity is the variable that might be most readily influenced by managers. Singh
and Rhoads (1991) have argued that role ambiguity is most susceptible to managerial
intervention in attempts to reduce stress in the workplace. With respect to abusive leadership,
research by Monat, Averill, and
Lazarus (1972) suggests that a hostile situation is even more stressful if one does not know
when exactly it will occur (i.e., role ambiguity). Temporal uncertainty is yet another avenue
by which abusive leaders affect the stress levels of those they lead. Temporal uncertainty
refers to an individuals inability to know when a given event or action is likely to occur.
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Within the context of this discussion, temporal uncertainty refers to the unpredictability of the
leaders behavior. This suggests that abusive bosses who have bursts of aggression not only
have a direct psychological impact on individuals but also produce a chronic state of stress in
workers as workers find themselves always needing to be on guard, not knowing when
another outburst will be directed their way. As highlighted by the example at the start of this
chapter, the worker is not shocked by his or her bosss escalation in anger but by the
unpredictability of the bosss actions during his state ofchaos (i.e., throwing a coffee pot out
the window).
Career Concerns
Career-related factors such as job insecurity, fear of job obsolescence,under- and
overpromotion, and, more generally, concerns about career development have been identified
as stressful. For example, in their study of
South African miners, Barling and Kelloway (1996) found that job insecurity was associated
with both negative affective reactions and raised blood pressure. The importance of job
insecurity as a stressor in the workplace is
highlighted by observations that the temporary or contingent labor force is rapidly increasing
and that job tenure has declined for many workers (NIOSH, 2002). Recently, the
development of the effort-reward imbalance model has focused research attention on the role
of organizational rewards as a psychosocial stressor. Siegrist (1996) proposed the effort-
reward imbalance model that essentially suggests that strain results when rewards are not
consistent with efforts in work environments. In this view, efforts are described as the
strivings of the individual to meet the demands and obligations of the job. Rewards are
conceptualized as encompassing financial rewards, esteem rewards, and career rewards,
including job security. Similar to its intellectual
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forebearer, equity theory (Adams, 1965), the effort-reward imbalance theory is based on the
notion that individuals attempt to maintain a state of equilibrium and cannot maintain an
imbalance between effort and rewards over an extended period of time. Siegrist does,
however, involve an individual variable (i.e., over commitment) to explain potential
discrepancies. That is, individuals who are overcommitted to their work may maintain a high
effort, low-reward environment. Eventually, however, this condition will result in ill health
(Siegriest, 1996). Initial results using cardiovascular risk as the outcome generally support the
model propositions (Peter & Siegrist, 1999). The relative recency of the effort-reward
imbalance theory has
resulted in a lack of formal evaluation of the theory, although these initial results seem
promising.
Organizational leaders are, of course, the primary gatekeepers of organizational reward
structures. Indeed the legitimate power (e.g., French & Raven, 1959) of supervisors is closely
linked to reward power. Managers
have the power to reward subordinates (Yukl & Falbe, 1991) or, alternatively, to deny such
rewards. For example, bonuses, merit pay, and career decisions are frequently based on
annual performance reviews conducted by organizational leaders (Murphy & Cleveland,
1995; Milliman, Nason,Zhu, & De Cieri, 2002). The empirical data suggest that such ratings
are often a function of whether or not supervisors like their subordinates
(Lefkowitz, 2000). For example, Scullen, Mount, & Goff (2000) found that over 50% of the
variance in performance ratings was attributable to idiosyncratic rating errorsmore than
twice as much as was attributable to true variation in employee performance.
Work Scheduling
Working rotating shifts or permanent night work results in a disruption of physiological
circadian rhythms as well as disrupted social activities and has been identified as a work-
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related stressor. For example, employees who work nights or overtime report that this affects
their mental and physical health outcomes (Ettner & Grzywacz, 2001), and there is a great
deal of literature on how to schedule shifts so as to minimize these effects (e.g.,Tucker,
MacDonald, Folkard, & Smith, 1998). These effects are sufficiently well established to
provide the basis for labor law in the European Union that regulates the scheduling of shifts
and rest days (International Labour Office,1988, 1990). On a more macro scale, researchers
have examined the effect of scheduling of vacation time (Westman & Eden, 1997) on well-
being. Related to issues of workload and pace, there has been concern expressed about the
absolute number of hours required of some employees, particularly trainees
and interns who may be required to work excessively long hours during the course of their
training (e.g., Bartle & Rodolfa, 1999).Again, in many organizations, shift schedules are
drawn up by those in organizational leadership roles, and supervisors can create or minimize
stress by adjusting how they schedule shifts. Decisions as to when to require overtime or who
is required to work overtime are also frequently left to managers
and supervisors. To that extent, individuals who report to passive or abusive leaders may not
receive optimal work scheduling options, as these leaders are likely less aware of or
concerned about the importance of work
scheduling for the well-being of individual employees.
I nterpersonal Relations
Poor interpersonal relations in the workplace are consistently identified as a source of
stress. Conversely, having well-established sources of social support (i.e., receiving support
from co workers and supervisors) may actually
reduce the effects of other workplace stressors (House, 1981). As we previously reviewed,
leaders who are abusive, aggressive, or punitive are a clear source of stress for individuals in
the workplace. However, such behaviours by a supervisor may also lead to individuals
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becoming isolated or rejected by the work group. That is, in order to win favor with, or avoid
being a victim of, an abusive supervisor, co workers may harass, exclude, or engage in
mobbing (Schuster, 1996) co workers. Supervisors may also affect well-being through their
impact on interactional injustice. Interactional injustice refers to the perceptions of low-
quality interpersonal treatment experienced by individuals within a work environment (Bies,
2001). A sample of behaviors exhibited by a supervisor that could be perceived as
interactional injustice may include not paying attention to subordinates concerns, not
displaying any empathy for an employees quandary, not treating employees in a fair manner,
betraying confidences, and not interacting with employees in a civil manner. These examples
are by
no means exhaustive but are examples of forms of injustice that share the common thread of
being interpersonal in nature and at the dyadic level.Although the other two forms of injustice
(procedural and distributive) have
received more empirical scrutiny, Mikula, Petrik, and Tanzer (1990) report findings that a
large portion of perceived injustices concern the manner in which people were treated
interpersonally rather than the procedural or distributive elements in a job.Organizational
scholars have empirically linked justice evaluations to a
host of organizational outcomes such as organizational citizenship (Skarlicki & Latham,
1996), job satisfaction (Parker, Baltes, & Christiansen,1997), and retaliation (Skarlicki,
Folger, & Tesluk, 1999). However, research
into the relationship between interactional justice and employee health variables is lacking
(Elovainio, Kivimaki, & Helkama, 2001). Articles do exist, however, that link these two
variables through indirect mechanisms. Thus, drawing on this thin literature, we reason
supervisor interactional injustice to have negative impact on employee stress. More
specifically, we propose that abusive supervisors through unjust interactions negatively affect
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employees pride and self-esteem, which serially affects the level of stress they encounter at
work. Subordinates who experience interactional justice come to trust and respect their
leaders. We argue that this, in turn, is likely to result in high quality relationships with their
supervisors, which will have positive effects on employees psychological well-being and
performance on the job. A meta analysis exploring this proposition found high-quality
relationships between supervisor and follower to be positively correlated to job performance,
satisfaction with supervision, overall satisfaction, commitment, lack of role conflict, and low
turnover intentions (Gerstner & Day, 1997). Conversely, when passive or abusive supervisors
behave in an unjust manner, employees may deem these interactional injustices to be a breach
of the psychological
contract. These employees, in turn, are more likely to feel stress and anger and be moved to
retaliate (see Rousseau, 1995).
Job Content and Control
As phrased by Sauter et al. (1990, p. 1153), narrow, fragmented, invariant and short-
cycle tasks that provide little stimulation, allow little use of skills or expression of creativity
and have little intrinsic meaning for workers are considered as stress provokers in the
NIOSH content model of workplace stressors. There is now substantial evidence that job
characteristics such as skill use, skill variety, and autonomy are associated with both
motivation and individual mental health (Fried & Ferris, 1987; Hackman & Oldham, 1980;
Kelloway & Barling, 1991; Parker & Wall, 1998). Because organizational leaders are
responsible for job design and task assignment, they have the potential to influence the
content of jobs. Perhaps most significantly, supervisors and managers directly affect the
amount of control experienced by employees.The notion that personal control is beneficial to
psychological and physiological well-being is not new. Organizational scholars have
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confirmed repeatedly the convincing relationship between job control and health and lack of
job control and ill health (e.g., Bosma, Stransfeld, & Marmot, 1998; Shirom, Melamed, &
Nir-Dotan, 2000; Tetrick, Slack, DaSilva, & Sinclair, 2000). Control, autonomy, and decision
latitude are increasingly referred to,often interchangeably, as organizational practices that
promote job performance. Within research circles, control has long been regarded as a critical
element in job redesign research to promote performance (Hackman & Oldham, 1980) and
worker mental health (Wall & Clegg, 1981). Not surprisingly, the role of job control in stress-
strain process has been receiving increased investigation. The primary impetus for this line of
research has largely been a result of Karaseks (1979) demand-control-support model.
Karasek and Theorell (1990) argue that a healthy workplace is one where the workers level
of demand on the job is met with appropriate levels of control, promoting growth and
development on the job. Conversely, a job in which demands are high and control is low is
posited to result in job strain and burnout. Empirical findings, however, have not supported a
moderating pattern between job control and employee health (Pomaki & Maes, 2002).
Nonetheless, increasing empirical evidence accumulates in the literature on the importance of
job control in promoting well-being (see Karasek & Theorell, 1990).
Although certain organizational level policies restrain the amount of control one has
on the job (Thomas & Ganster, 1995), following Karasek and Theorells (1990) model, we
argue that an employees immediate supervisor, given behavioral and psychological
proximity to his or her followers, has a vast influence on an employees perceived level of
job control. Given that passive leaders either avoid the responsibilities of their position or
only step in during crisis situations, it is unlikely that they will take the necessary time to
engage in a stress prevention strategy such as attempting to positively influence an
employees perception of control. With respect to abusive supervisors who occupy an
immediate leadership role, we suggest that theirmunique position may enable them to
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significantly limit employees job control across two areasenvironmental control and
perceived control.Environmental control refers to the measure of alternatives the employee is
given by the supervisor, the organization, or the immediate work environment (Spector,
1998). In most instances, the specified amount of control remains at the discretion of the
employees immediate supervisor. Forinstance, Johansson, Aronsson, and Lindstrom (1978)
found that jobs that taxed employees cognitive ability while giving employees little control
of the pace of work (machine controlled) resulted in increased health disorders, job strain,
and job dissatisfaction. Abusive leaders exert tight control over their environment
(Offermann & Hellmann, 1996), and by controlling their environment,mthey are able to
control the people within it. It is this control these types of leaders mobilize in abusing their
power. Environments in which leaders are granted the power to control work demands
present an ideal situation for abusive supervisors to exercise their power. Perceived control is
a measure of the alternatives individuals believe they have (Spector, 1998). It is possible,
even with control, for the individual to perceive the situation to be out of control. For
instance, Steers and Rhodes (1978) have shown a small degree of absenteeism to be healthy
for an organization as it allowed employees to temporarily escape the stressful conditions.
Many organizations subscribe to this notion and have set policies that allow employees to be
absent from work when they feel it is needed, for example, for family or personal
responsibilities. Nonetheless, individuals may not trust management (Kramer,1999) enough
to exercise their control, instead fearing that they might be disciplined or punished. In a
relationship that is already characterized by power and status differences, employees who
have to deal with abusive supervisors may, out of distrust or fear, choose not to approach
them. In addition, individuals may also feel low job control when they lack self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy (a form of perceived control) refers to a persons conviction that he or she can
accomplish a certain task successfully (Bandura,1997). Given the ability to change the pace
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of work, work environment, or resources, an individual with low self-efficacy will likely feel
incapable of accomplishing the work. This problem is compounded when this same
individual reports to an abusive or passive supervisor. Given that an individuals self-efficacy
can be influenced by words and actions directed at the individual (Bandura, 1997), verbally
abusive supervisors who constantly put down their workers are most likely to have an adverse
effect on their employees self-efficacy. Passive leaders, relative to transformational leaders,
are often out of touch with the needs of their employees. To that extent, they will be less
likely to engage in encouraging conversations and provide the type of positive feedback that
may elevate an employees self-esteem. In either case, when employees are faced with a job-
related setback and must take control, their run-down self-efficacy will make this an arduous
task. Parkes, Mendham, and von Rabenau (1994) found that a job that entails high demands
but low control prompts ill health in employees only when support is low. This suggests that
in jobs where there is an inherently high level of demands and low control and in jobs where
supervisors have little influence on job demands or control, the amount of support extended
by the supervisor to the employees has the potential to help cushion the psychological and
physiological impact of the work environment. Thus, it is not hard to imagine an unskilled
leader in this situation (a) failing to recognize employees struggle in coping with a high-
demand, low-control job, and consequently (b) failing to extend the necessary support for the
employees in such jobs. Drawing on past research (Tepper, 2000), it is also conceivable that
abusive supervisors, recognizing employees struggle with the workconditions, intentionally
withdraw support for their employees as a form of passive aggression toward them (Neuman
& Baron, 1998).