Index

Abbas, Ferhat, 116 Abstractionist art, 339-40 Acheson, Dean, 14 Adams, Gerry, 316 Adenauer, Konrad, 17, 19, 84-87 Adorno, Theodor, 329 Afghanistan, 247 Africa, independence movements in,

101, 102, 113-19 African National Congress (ANC), 119 Agriculture, 72-73, 79. See also specific

countries in Eastern Europe, 213-14

Albania, 38, 132, 134, 245 Algeria, 88-89, 116 Alliance of Free Democrats (AFD; Hun­

gary), 256, 257 Althusser, Louis, 328, 329 American culture (Americanization),

345,353 Amis, Kingsley, 332 Andreotti, Giulio, 305-6 Andropov, Yuri, 247-48 Anglo-Soviet Treaty of Alliance (1942),

5 Angola, 278 Antonioni, Michelangelo, 336 Arab immigrants, 167 Arab-Israeli conflict, 111-12 Arab-Israeli War (1948-1949), 111, 112

Arab-Israeli War (1973), 151 Arafat, Yasser, 112 Architecture, 342-43 Ardagh, John, 164, 192, 199 Aristocracy, 196-97 Arts, the, 339-42

in the Soviet Union, 123 Aswan High Dam, 112-13 Atlee, Clement, 47, 49, 93 Atomic bombs. See Nuclear weapons Austerity measures, in Western Europe,

288 Austria, 60, 67, 146, 147, 352

economy of, 70, 71-72 labor unions in, 172 politics in, 96

since the 1960s, 320-21 Automobile industry, 69

British, 77-78 German, 76 Italian, 78

A wolowo, Chief Obafemi, 117 Azikiwe, Nnamdi, 117,118

Badoglio, Pietro, 54-55 Balance of trade, 287-88 Balewa, Abubaker Tafawa, 117 Balfour Declaration of 1917, 111 Balkans, 7, 38 Ball, George, 147

357

358 Index

Balladur, Eduard, 301 Banks and banking, in Germany, 75-76 Bao Dai, Emperor, 108, 109 Barka, Ben, 114 Basic Treaty of November 1972, 258 Basque Separatist terrorism, 281, 282 Basso, Lelio, 83 Baudrillard, Jean, 354 Beckett, Samuel, 333 Beineix, Jean-Jacques, 339 Belgian Congo, 116 Belgium, 60, 61, 165. See also Benelux

countries economy of, 70, 71 politics in, 95, 317

Bello, Sir Ahmadu, 117-18 Benelux countries. See also Belgium;

Luxembourg; Netherlands, the agriculture in, 72 EEC and, 146 politics in, 95-96

Benes, Edvard, 36 Benn, Tony, 311 Beregovoy, Pierre, 300 Bergman, Ingmar, 338 Beria, Lavrenti, 123 Berlin, 1948-1949 crisis over, 11,

16 Berlin Accords ( 1971 ), 258 Berlinguer, Enrico, 302 Berlin Wall, 259 Berlusconi, Silvio, 307 Bevan, Aneurin, 47, 49, 93 Bevin, Ernest, 47, 48, 49 Bidault, Georges, 52, 53 Bildt, Carl, 319 Blair, Tony, 314 Blum, Leon, 53 Boll, Heinrich, 330, 331 Bonomi, Ivanoe, 55 Borchert, Wolfgang, 330 Borrowing by governments, 288 Bosnia and Herzegovina, 272 Bossi, Umberto, 307 Boulez, Pierre, 344, 345 Bourguiba, Habib, 114 Boxer Rebellion, 106 Brandt, Willy, 86, 199, 290, 291

Ostpolitik of, 149 Bratislava Declaration, 240

Brezhnev, Leonid, 137, 223, 245-48 agricultural policies of, 212 economic policy of, 207-8

Brezhnev doctrine, 245 Brodsky, Joseph, 334 Brown, Phillip, 192 Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 187, 320 Bulganin, Nikolai, 125, 127, 131-32 Bulgaria, 7, 8, 33-34, 125

economy of, 266 Muslim (Turkish) minority in, 265, 266 reforms in, 264-66

Bufiuel, Luis, 338 Bureaucracies, 352 Burma, 105 Butler, R. A., 312 Byrnes, James, 12, 13

Caetano, Marcelo, 278 Cage, John, 344, 345 Callaghan, James, 152, 311 Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament

(CND), 93 Camus, Albert, 327, 330 Capitalism, new, 69-71 Carlsson, Ingvar, 319 Cavaco e Silva, Anibal, 280 Ceau~escu, Nicolae, 135, 136, 210,

267-68 Central Intelligence Agency (U.S.), 56 Ceylon, 105 Charter 77, 261, 262 Chechnya, 251 Chernenko, Konstantin, 247-48 Chervenkov, Vulko, 264 Chesnais, J. C., 215 Chiang Kai-shek, 106, 108 China, 19,21-22,38, 12~ 13~ 136,245,

284 dogmatism in, 133-34 independence movement in, 105-7 Soviet Union and, 133-35

Chirac, Jacques, 193, 198, 299-300, 301

Christian Democratic party (DC; Italy), 55,56,82-84,302,304-5,307

Christian Democratic Union (CDU; Ger­many), 17,19,86,87,289-92

Christian Social Union (CSU; Ger­many), 289, 291, 292

Churchill, Winston, 5, 7, 9-11, 13, 46, 92, 104

Cinema, 335-39 Civic Forum (Czechoslovakia), 262 Class structure. See Social classes Clinton, Bill, 316 Cochin China, 108 Cohn-Bendit, Daniel, 230, 232-33 Cold War, 22, 23, 29

end of, 284 France and, 53-54

Cole, Alistair, 186, 194 Colonialism (colonial empires), 101-2.

See also National independence movements

Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance), 39, 135-36, 244, 266

Cominform (Communist Information Bu­reau), 15, 39, 126

Commission, EEC, 146, 152 Committee for National Liberation

(CLN; Italy), 55 Committee of National Liberation for

Northern Italy (CLNAI), 55 Common Foreign and Security Policy

(CFSP), 154 Common Market. See European Eco­

nomic Community Commonwealth of Independent States

(CIS), 250 Communism, Jean-Paul Sartre's commit­

ment to, 326-27 Communist parties

Eastern European, 4, 15, 29, 37-38, 223-24, 254

Western European, 13-16, 277 Communist party (China), 106 Communist party (France; PCF), 51-54,

178,296-99 Communist party (Hungary), 255-56 Communist party (Italy; PCI, later re­

named Democratic Party of the Left, or PDS), 56-57, 83,301-2, 302,304,307

Communist party (Poland), Solidarity movement and, 251-54

Communist party (Soviet Union), 123, 124-25

Communist party (Vietnam), 108 Congress of Europe ( 1948), 142

Index 359

Congress party (India), 104 Conservative party (Great Britain), 46-

49,310-14 Constantine, King of Greece, 282 Containment policy, U.S., 5, 12, 19 Coty, Rene, 89 Coudenhove-Kalergi, Count Richard,

141 Council for Mutual Economic Assis-

tance. See Comecon Council of Europe, 142-43 Council of Ministers, EEC, 146, 148, 152 Court of Justice, EEC, 146, 153-54 Craxi, Bettina, 304 Cresson, Edith, 300 Cripps, Sir Stafford, 105 Croatia, 210,270, 271, 272 Crompton, Rosemary, 177 Crozier, Michel, 193 Cuba, United States-Soviet confronta­

tion in (1961-1962), 284 Culture, 325-46

American, 353 art and architecture, 339-43 cinema, 335-39 literature, 330-35 loss of European distinctiveness, 352-

54 music, 343-45 philosophy, 326-30 popular media, 345 youth, 345

Currency, common European, 153 Customs union, 141, 142 Cyprus, 283 Czechoslovakia, 125, 133, 222. See also

Czech Republic; Slovak Republic 1968 uprising in (Prague Spring), 138,

228-29, 237-42 l970s-1990s reforms in, 261-64 agriculture in, 214 coalition government after World War

II, 36-37 Communist coup d'etat in, 16 dissolution of, 263-64 economy of, 210, 211 filmmaking in, 338 Soviet invasion of ( 1968), 240 standard of living in, 217

Czech Republic, 157, 263, 264

360 Index

Dahrendorf, Ralf, 195, 220-21 De Beauvoir, Simone, 330 De Gasperi, Alcide, 56, 83 De Gaulle, Charles, 22, 49-52, 54, 74,

118-19, 296 1968 unrest in France and, 236-37 Algeria and, 88-90 British membership in the EEC and,

93, 147-49 EEC and, 147-49 as president, 89-92

De Klerk, Frederick W., 119 Delors, Jacques, 153, 156 Demographic changes, 67-69 Denmark, 60, 94, 146, 150, 156, 187, 318 Derrida, Jacques, 328, 329 De Sica, Vittorio, 335 Detente, 247, 277, 284, 285 Deviationism, 132 Dien Bien Phu, battle of, 109 Dimitrov, Georgi, 34, 38, 264 Dini, Lamberto, 308 Di Pietro, Antonio, 306 Djilas, Milovan, 7, 222 Dogmatism, 132-34 Douglas-Home, Sir Alec, 94 Dubcek, Alexander, 51, 238-41, 262 Dulles, John Foster, 109, 144 Diirrenmatt, Friedrich, 331 Dutschke, Rudi, 229, 230

Eanes, Antonio Ramalho, 279, 280 Eastern Europe. See also Comecon; spe-

cific countries agriculture in, 213-14 Brezhnev and, 245 Communist parties in, 4, 15, 29, 37-

38,223-24,254 East-West relations during World War

II and, 5-8 economic modernization of, 209-12 education in, 220-22 European integration and, 349, 350 filmmaking in, 338-39 Gorbachev and, 251 map of, 246 nationalism in, 350-51 pluralism in, 223-24 ruling elites in, 222 social structure in, 220

Soviet domination of, 6-8, 16, 28-42 Bulgaria, 33-34 Czechoslovakia, 36-37 Hungary, 34-36 national deviationism, 41-42 people's democracies, 38-39 Poland, 30-32 revolt of the first secretaries, 37-38 Romania, 32-33 Soviet goals, 28-30

Stalin and, 4, 5 Stalinism in, 133 standard of living in, 217-18 status of workers in, 218

East Germany, 17, 85-86, 133. See also Germany, unification of

agriculture in, 214 economy of, 209, 210, 294-95 education in, 220-21 literature in, 335 reforms in ( 1970s-1980s ), 258-59 standard of living in, 217, 218

Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), 153, 154

Economic growth, 70, 72 decline in rate of, 287-89

Economic planning, 70 Economic recovery in Western Europe

(1945-1960s ), 65-79 agriculture, 72-73 demographic changes and, 67-69 industrial concentration and nation-

alization, 71-72 Marshall Plan and, 66-67 new capitalism, 69-71 trade and, 67

Economy. See also Economic growth; Eu­ropean unity (integration); spe­cific countries

austerity measures in Western Europe, 288

class structure and, 159-61 politics in the 1960s and, 97-98

Eden, Anthony, 5, 13, 92 Edinburgh Summit (1992), 155, 156 Edinger, Lewis J., 185 Education. See also Higher education

in Eastern Europe, 220-22 EEC. See European Economic Commu­

nity

Egypt, lll, 112 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 22, 50, 109 ELAS (People's Army; Greece), 60-61 Elites. See ruling elites Embourgeoisement, 175, 177, 180 Energy costs, recession and, 287 Energy crisis (1970s), 150, 259, 287, 350 Energy policy, 150 England. See Great Britain English language, 353 Enlightenment, the, 329 Erhard, Ludwig, 86, 87 Erikson, Robert, 186 Estonia, 5 Eurocorps, 296 Europe. See also Eastern Europe; Euro­

pean unity (integration); Western Europe

European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), 70, 74, 143-44, 145

European Community (EC), 155. See also European Union (EU)

European Council Summit (1992), 155 European Defense Community (EDC),

144-45 European distinctiveness, loss of, 352-54 European Economic Community (EEC;

Common Market), 65, 94, 146-53 agricultural policies and, 151 agriculture and, 72, 73 British entry into, 73, 93, 147-51 Spain and, 97

European Free Trade Association (EFTA), 94, 146-47

European Monetary Institute, 154 European Monetary Union (EMU), 153,

154, 156 European Parliament (EP), 146, 148,

152, 155, 156 European Payments Union (EPU), 143 European Recovery Program. See Mar­

shall Plan European Union (EU), 154, 156-57

Norway and, 320 Sweden and, 319-20

European unity (integration), 19, 140-57, 288, 348, 354-55. See also Eu­ropean Economic Community

beginnings of, 141-42 Council of Europe, 142-43

Index 361

declining support for (1970s), 350 Eastern Europe and, 349, 350 European Coal and Steel Community

(ECSC), 143-44 European Defense Community

(EDC), 144-45 European Monetary Union (EMU),

153, 154 Maastricht Treaty and, 154-56 Single European Act (SEA), 153

Evian Accords, 90 Existentialism, 326-27, 330

Falange (Spain), 58 Fanfani, Amintore, 83 Fassbinder, Rainer Werner, 337 Fellini, Federico, 336 Finkelkraut, Alain, 329, 354 Finland, 5, 60, 94 Flemish, the, 95, 317 FLN (National Liberation Front; Alge-

ria), 89 Foreign policy, 284-86 Forza ltalia, 307 Foucault, Michel, 328, 329 Fouchet Plan, 153, 232 France, 9, 10, 21, 186

African independence movements and, 116, 118-19

agriculture in, 72, 151 Algeria and, 88-90, 116 British membership in the EEC and,

147-49 Cold War and, 53 demographic changes in, 67-68 economy of, 51, 70, 72, 73-74, 149 European Defense Community (EDC)

and, 144 European integration and, 143-46 Fifth Republic, 89, 296 filmmaking in, 336-37 Fourth Republic, 52, 88-89 immigrants in, 167 Indochina and, 107-9 Indochina War and, 53 labor unions in, 172-73 literature in, 330, 332-33 Middle Eastern and North African

independence movements and, 110-14

362 Index

France (cont.) occupation of Germany and, 12-13, 17 politics in

1945-1948,51-54 1948-1960s, 87-92,97 since the 1960s, 296-301

provisional government during World War II, 49-51

ruling elites in, 185 aristocrats, 197 education, 192-95 housing and life-style, 199-200 wealth, 198

social classes in, 180 student-led protests in (1968), 231-37,

241-42 Suez Canal crisis (1956) and, 112-13,

145 West Germany and, 85 women in, 187, 188 workers' attitudes in, 179

Franco, Francisco, 57-59, 96-97, 280 Frankfurt school of social theorists, 329 Free Democratic party (FDP; Ger-

many), 19,289,291,292,296 French Union, 116 Fringe benefits, 162 Frisch, Max, 331 Full employment policies, 70

Gaddis, John, 11-12 Gaitskell, Hugh, 93, 312 Galbraith, John Kenneth, 79 Gandhi, Mahatma, 103, 104, 105 Gardner, Lloyd, 22 Gati, Charles, 29 Gaullists, 297. See also Rally of the

French People Geneva Conference (1954), 109 German Democratic Republic. See East

Germany German Federal Republic. See West Ger­

many Germany. See also East Germany; West

Germany dismemberment of, 9, 10 economy of, 293-95 foreign policy of, 295-96 industrial absentee and turnover rates

in, 178, 179

labor unions in, 172 literature in, 330-31, 333, 335 nationalism in, 349-50 occupation of, 10, 12-13, 18 (map) postwar borders of, 10 reparations issue, 8-10 ruling elites in, 185, 189

education, 195 housing and life-style, 199, 200 wealth, 198

unification of, 85, 154, 261, 289, 292-96

women in, 187 before World War II, 5 World War II and, 2-3

Gero, Erno, 129, 130 Ghana (Gold Coast), 116-17 Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe, 135 Giap, Vo Nguyen, 109 Gierek, Edward, 251 Giscard d'Estaing, Valery, 285, 297-98 Glasnost, 248, 250 Godard, Jean-Luc, 336 Gokhale, G. K., 104 Gomulka, Wladyslaw, 37-38, 127, 128,

132,240,241 Goncz, Arpad, 257 Gonzalez, Felipe, 281 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 223, 244, 248-51,

348-49 agricultural policies of, 212, 213 East German reforms of 1980s and,

259 economy under, 208

Gottwald, Clement, 37 Gouin, Felix, 52 Government of India Act, 104 Gramsci, Antonio, 329, 332, 336 Grass, Gunter, 330-31 Great Britain, 5, 9, 12, 14, 21, 187

African independence movements and, 116-18

agriculture in, 73 economy of, 48-49, 70, 76-78, 93,

310-13 EEC and, 146-47

membership issue, 73, 93, 147-51 European integration and, 142-53 independence movements in colonies

of, 104-5

labor unions in, 173 literature in, 331-32 Middle Eastern independence move­

ments and, 110-13 nationalization in, 47, 77, 92, 311 politics in

1945-1951, 46-49 1948-1960s,92-94 since the 1960s, 310-14

rearmament of, 49 ruling elites in, 185, 186

aristocrats, 196-97 education, 190-92 housing and life-style, 199, 200 wealth, 198

Suez Canal crisis (1956) and, 112-13, 145

welfare state in, 47-48, 92 World War II and, 3

Greece, 7, 151, 180, 187, 272 Civil War in, 4, 7, 13-14,48, 61 economy of, 161, 169 end of authoritarian government in,

282-84 during World War II, 60-61

Greens (Germany), 292 Gross domestic product (GDP), 161 Grosz, Karoly, 256 Groza, Petru, 33 Guinea, 118 Guinea-Bissau, 278

Habermas, Jiirgen, 329 Haby, Rene, 194 Haider, Jorg, 321 Hallstein, Walter, 148 Hassan II, 114 Havel, Vaclav, 261-63,274, 348, 350-51 Heath, Edward, 147, 149, 310 Helsinki Accords, 247 Herzog, Werner, 337 Higher education

in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, 221

ruling elites and, 189-96 Hitler, Adolf, 2 Ho Chi Minh, 107-8 Holland. See Netherlands, the Honecker, Erich, 258-59 Horkheimer, Max, 329

Index 363

Horn, Gyula, 258 House of Lords (Great Britain), 196-97 Housing of ruling elites, 199-200 Hungarian Democratic Forum (HDF),

256, 257 Hungarian Socialist party (HSP), 256 Hungary, 7, 29, 125, 157,218, 220

1956 Revolution in, 128-32 1990 elections in, 256 1994 elections in, 257-58 agriculture in, 213, 214 coalition government after World War

II, 34-36 economy of, 210-11, 224, 255

in 1990s, 256-57 filmmaking in, 339 reforms in (1970s-1990s), 255

Husak, Gustav, 261, 262

Ibrahim, Abdallah, 114 Iliescu, Ion, 268, 269 Immigrant laborers, 166-68 Immigrants, 168 Income. See also Wages

of ruling elite, 197-99 Incomes policy, 162 Independence movements. See National

independence movements India, 48

independence movement in, 104-5 Indochina, 21

independence movements in, 107-9 Indochina War, 53 Indonesia, independence movement in,

109-10 Industrial concentration, 71 Infant mortality rate, 215 Inflation, 288 International style in architecture, 342 Iran, 13, 247 Iraq, 111 Ireland, 150, 155, 180, 315

economy of, 161 Irish Republican Army (IRA), 314-16 Israel, 112, 113 Italy, 6, 73

economy of, 70, 71,78 filmmaking in, 335-36 labor unions in, 173 literature in, 331

364 Index

Italy (cont.) politics in

1945-1948, 54-57 1948-1960s, 82-84 since the 1960s, 301-8

student unrest in (1968), 229

Jakes, Milos, 262 Japan, 21

World War II and, 2-3 Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 252-53 Jews, 111-12 Jinnah, Mohammed Ali, 105 John XXIII, Pope, 84, 308 John Paul II, Pope, 251, 309 Jones, Gareth, 177 Jordan, 112 Jospin, Lionel, 301 Juan Carlos, King of Spain, 58, 281 Juncker, Claude, 317 Jungblut, Michael, 198, 199

Kadar, Janos, 130, 131, 255, 256 Kaganovich, Lazar, 127 Kahan, Arcadius, 212 Kang Yu-we, 105, 106 Kania, Stanislaw, 251, 252 Karamanlis, Constantine, 282, 283 Kennan, George F., 13-16, 21 Kennedy, John F., 147 Keynesian economics, 69-71, 79 Khrushchev, Nikita, 5, 85, 96, 123, 124,

223,284 agricultural policies of, 125, 136, 207,

212 China and, 133-35 Comecon and, 135 denunciation of Stalin by, 126-27, 133,

134, 334 economy under, 206-7, 215 fall from power, 136-38 Hungarian Revolution and, 129-32 peaceful coexistence policy of, 134,

136 Poland and, 126-28 polycentrism and, 132-36 rise to power, 124-25 Romania and, 135

Kiesinger, Kurt Georg, 290 Kinnock, Neil, 314

Klaus, Vaclav, 263 Kohl, Helmut, 154, 291,292, 293,296 Kolko, Gabriel, 3 Korean War, 19, 21-22 Kosovo, 270, 271 Kosygin, Aleksei, 207 Kreisky, Bruno, 320 Kuisel, Richard, 354 Kundera, Milan, 335 Kuomintang, 106

Labor unions, in Western Europe, 172-74

Labour party (Great Britain), 46-49, 93, 310-12,314

Lacan, Jacques, 327-28 Language

English, 353 structuralist view of, 327-28

Latvia, 5 League of Communists (Yugoslavia),

133, 223, 224 Le Corbusier, 342 Leftist parties. See also Communist

parties; Social Democratic parties

popularity of (1945-1948), 61-62 Le Pen, Jean-Marie, 167, 300 Lessing, Doris, 332 Levi, Carlo, 331 Levi-Strauss, Claude, 327, 328 Lilov, Alexander, 265 Literature, 330-35 Lithuania, 5 London Six-Power Conference (1948), 16 Lubbers, Ruud, 318 Lukacs, Georg, 329, 332 Lulchev, Kosta, 34 Lumumba, Patrice, 116 Luxembourg, 68, 316-17. See also

Benelux countries Luxembourg Agreement (1966), 148

Maastricht Treaty, 154-56 MacArthur, Douglas, 22 Macauly, Herbert, 117 Macedonia, 271, 272 Macmillan, Harold, 92-94 McNeill, W. H., 6 Major, John, 314

Makarios, Archbishop, 283 Malenkov, Georgy, 125, 126, 132, 135 Malraux, Andre, 140 Managers, 189 Manchus, 105, 106 Mandela, Nelson, 119 Mao Zedong, 38, 103, 106-7, 133, 135 Marceau, Jane, 193 Marchais, Georges, 299 Marcuse, Herbert, 329, 332 Markovic, Ante, 271 Marshall, George, 14 Marshall Plan, 13, 14-16,37, 66-67, 141 Martens, Wilfried, 317 Marwick, Arthur, 186, 189 Marxism, 329 Massu, Jacques, 89 Mattei, Enrico, 72 Matthew, Mervyn, 215 Mauroy, Pierre, 299 Mayne, Richard, 147 Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 253 Meciar, Vladimir, 263 Mendes-France, Pierre, 54, 87, 88, 114,

144,236 Mendras, Henri, 186, 194 Meritocracy, 184 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 326, 327 Michael, King of Romania, 32-33 Middle East, national independence

movements in, 110-13 Migration of workers, 79 Mikolajczyk, Stanislaw, 32 Mikoyan, Anastas, 123, 127 Milosevic, Slobodan, 271, 272 Mitterrand, Franr;ois, 91, 155, 193, 198,

236,285,296,298-301 Mladenov, Peter, 265 Modernism, 325, 328-29 Mohammed V, Sultan of Morocco, 113,

114 Mollet, Guy, 88 Molotov, Vyacheslav, 8, 123, 127, 132 Monnet, Jean, 70, 74, 143 Monnet Plan, 70 Montenegro, 272 Monumental formalism, 342 Moravia, Alberto, 331 Morgenthau, Henry, 9 Morgenthau Plan, 9

Index 365

Moro, Aldo, 83, 84, 304, 305, 306 Morocco, 88, 113-14 Moscow Conference ( 1941 }, 5 Mouvement Republicain Populaire

(MRP), 51, 52, 87 Movimento Sociale Italiano (MSI), 307,

349, 350 Mozambique, 278 Music, 343-45 Muslim League (India}, 105

Naguib, Mohammed, 112 Nagy, Ferenc, 36 Nagy, Imre, 36, 125, 128-31 Nanterre university, student protests at

(1968), 232-33 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 92, 112, 145 National communism, in Romania, 135 National Communists, 132 National Democratic party (NPD; Ger­

many), 290, 292 National Democratic party (NPD; West

Germany), 349 National deviationism, 37, 41-42 National Health Service Act (Great Brit­

ain), 48 National independence movements,

101-20 in Africa, 101, 102, 113-19 in India, 104-5 in Indochina, 107-9 in Indonesia, 109-10 in the Middle East, 110-13 stages of, 102-3

Nationalism, 101, 140-41. See also Na-tional independence movements

in Eastern Europe, 37-38 in former colonies, 119-20 resurgence of, 349-51

Nationalization, 71-72 in Eastern Europe, 205 in France, 51 in Great Britain, 4 7, 77, 92, 311

National Liberation Front (FLN; Alge­ria), 89

Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (1939), 5, 28

Nehru, Jawaharlal, 102, 104, 105 Nemeth, Miklos, 256 Nenni, Pietro, 56, 83

366 Index

Neo-expressionism, 341 Neorealism

in art, 339 in films, 335-36

Netherlands, the, 60, 151, 187,352. See also Benelux countries

economy of, 70, 71 Indonesia and, 110 politics in, 95-96, 317-18

New brutalism, 342 New capitalism, 69-71 New Economic Mechanism (NEM; Hun-

gary), 255 New Left, 329 Nigeria, 117-18 Nixon, Richard, 285 Nkrumah, Kwame, 105, 116-17 North Atlantic Treaty Organization

(NATO), 19, 145, 282, 283, 286 de Gaulle and, 91, 92

Northern Ireland, 314-16 Northern League (Italy), 306-7 North Korea, 19, 21-22 Norway, 60, 70, 146, 187

political and economic trends since the 1970s, 318,320

politics in, 94-95 Novotny, Antonin, 133, 237-39 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 92, 134 Nuclear weapons (atomic bombs), 11, 22

French, 92 Nyerere, Julius, 118 Nyers, Rezso, 256

Oil, 145, 150 Oil prices, recession and, 287 Op art, 340-41 Opus Dei movement (Spain), 97 Organization for Economic Cooperation

and Development, 179 Organization for European Economic

Cooperation (OEEC), 19, 142 Orwell, George, 331 Ostpolitik (Eastern policy), 290

Paisley, Ian, 315 Pakistan, 105 Palestine, 48, Ill, 112 Palestinians, 112 Palme, Olaf, 318

Papandreou, George, 282, 283, 284 Parri, Ferruccio, 55-56 Partnership for Peace, 286 Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS;

Germany), 295, 296 Pasternak, Boris, 334 Paul VI, Pope, 308-9 Pavese, Cesare, 331 Peaceful coexistence, Khrushchev's pol­

icy of, 134, 136 Peasant party (Poland), 32 People's democracies

in Eastern Europe, 38-39 Per-capita domestic product, 161 Perestroika, 248, 250 Petkov, Nikola, 34 Pet<ifi Circle, 129, 130 Pflimlin, Pierre, 89 Philosophy, 326-30 Pleven, Rene, 144 Pleven Plan, 144 Plutocrats, 197-99 Poland, 5, 125, 157

agriculture in, 213, 214 decision-making process in, 223-24 economy of, 210, 211 higher education in, 221, 222 labor unions in, 224 postwar borders of, 10 social classes in, 220 Solidarity movement in, 224, 251-54 workers' revolt in (1956), 126-28 after World War II, 30-32 during World War II, 30-31

Polish Home Army, 30, 31 Polish Socialist Workers party (RPPS),

32 Polish Underground, 30 Political attitudes, social class and, 178 Political refugees, 167-68 Polycentrism, 132-36 Pompidou, Georges, 149, 237, 297 Pop art, 340 Portugal, 146, 180, 187

African colonies of, 278 economy of, 161, 169 EEC and, 151 end of authoritarian government in,

278-80 politics in, 59-60

Postmodernism, 325-26 in architecture, 342 in cinema, 339

Poststructuralism, 328-30 Potocki family, 220 Potsdam Conference, 10 Poujadist movement, 73-74 Pozsgay, Imre, 256 Pratolini, Vasco, 331 Preston, Paul, 58 Productivity, decline in, 287 Profumo, John, 93 Public against Violence (PAY), 262, 263

Quebec Conference (1944), 9

Rabin, Yitzhak, 112 Rajk, Laslo, 36 Rakosi, Matyas, 36, 125, 129 Rally of the French People (RPF;

Gaullists), 54, 87-88 Ramadier, Paul, 53, 54, 87 Rasmussen, Paul, 318 Reagan, Ronald, 247 Recession, 287 Revisionism, 132-33 Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), 119 Ricardous, Jean, 333 Robbe-Grillet, Alain, 332 Rocard, Michel, 300 Roman Catholic Church. See also Vati­

can, the in Italy, 305 in Poland, 251, 252, 255

Romania, 5, 7, 8, 32-33, 220, 240, 245, 266-69

1989-1994 developments in, 268-69 Ceau~escu regime in, 267-68 Comecon and, 135 economy of, 209-10 national communism in, 135

Rome Treaties of 1957, 146 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 5, 7-10 Rosellini, Roberto, 335 Rothschild, Joseph, 264 Royer, Jean, 74 RPF. See Rally of the French People Ruling elites, 185

aristocracy, 196-97 composition of, 185-87

Index 367

in Eastern Europe, 205-6, 222-23 education of, 189-96, 201 housing and life-style of, 199-200 managers, 189 plutocrats, 197-99 women in, 187

Rumor, Mariano, 302 Russian Orthodox Church, 122-23 Rutskoy, Aleksandr, 250 Ryzhkov, Nikolai 1., 250

Saint Michel Accords, 317 Sakharov, Andrei, 334 Salaries. See Wages Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira, 59 Sampson, Anthony, 186-87, 192, 193 Sanlet, Jacques, 317 Santer, Jacques, 156 Saragat, Giuseppe, 56, 83 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 326-27, 330 Saussure, Ferdinand de, 328 Scandinavian countries

educational system in, 195-96 politics in, 94-95

1948-1960s,94-95,97-98 since the 1970s, 318-20

ruling elites in, 186 Sease, Richard, 192 Schengen Agreement, 168 Schluter, Poul, 318 Schmidt, Helmut, 152, 290, 291, 292 Schonberg, Arnold, 344 Schools. See Higher education; Secon-

dary schools; Universities Schumacher, Kurt, 17, 86 Schuman, Robert, 54, 70, 74, 143 Schuman Plan, 143 Scotland, 311 Scott, John, 196 Secondary schools

German, 195 British, 192

Segni, Mario, 306 Self-management system in Yugoslavia,

269-70 Senegal, 119 Serbia, 272 Service class, 175-77, 184

political attitudes of, 178 in West Germany, 198-99

368 Index

Service sector, 159, 160 Seton-Watson, Hugh, 29 Sinai Peninsula, 113 Single European Act (SEA), 153, 154 Sinn Fein, 315, 316 Sino-Soviet split, 133-35, 245 Slovakia, 157, 258, 263 Slovak Republic, 263, 264 Slovaks, 238 Slovenia, 157, 210, 271, 272 Smith, John, 314 Soares, Mario, 279, 280 Social classes (social structure), 159-61,

180. See also Ruling elites; Ser­vice class; Workers (working class)

in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, 220

political attitudes and, 178 social leveling and, 175-77

Social Democratic parties, 82, 94 Social Democratic party (Germany;

SPD), 17, 19, 86,289-91 Social Democratic party (Italy; PSDI),

56, 302 Socialist party (France; PS), 296-98,

300 Socialist party (France; SFIO), 87 Socialist party (Italy; PSI), 56, 83, 84,

301-2,302,304 Socialist Party of Proletarian Unity

(PSIUP), 302 Socialist realism, 333, 334 Solidarity movement, 224, 251-54 Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr, 334 Sorbonne university, student protests at

(1968), 233-35 South Africa, 119 South Korea, 19 South Vietnam, 109. See also Vietnam

War Soviet Union, 122-38. See also Brezh­

nev, Leonid; Cold War; Gorbachev, Mikhail; Khrushchev, Nikita; Stalin, Joseph

agriculture in, 125, 136, 207, 212-13 the arts in, 123 China and, 133-35 de Gaulle's view of, 91 detente and, 247, 277, 284, 285

dissolution of, 244-45, 250 domination of Eastern Europe by. See

Eastern Europe, Soviet domina­tion of

economy of, 28, 206-8 consumer goods, 125, 208, 215-17 at the end of World War II, 4 under Gorbachev, 208, 211 under Khrushchev, 206-7 under Kosygin and Brezhnev, 207-8 under Stalin, 123

education in, 221 German unification and, 85 housing in, 217 invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968), 240 Korean War and, 19, 21 literature in, 333-34 occupation of Germany and, 10, 12 postwar society under Stalin, 122, 123 reforms under Gorbachev, 248-50 ruling elites in, 222 Solidarity movement in Poland and,

252 standard of living in, 214-17 as superpower, 1-3 wages and fringe benefits in, 215 Western Europe and, 348-49 women in, 218-20 at World War II's end, 3-5 Yugoslavia's split with, 39-40

Spaak, Paul-Henri, 142, 146 Spain, 114

economy of, 161 EEC and, 151 end of authoritarian government in,

280-82 politics in

1945-1948, 57-59 1948-1960s,96-97

World War II and, 58 Spinola, Ant6nio de, 279 Stalin, Joseph, 223. See also Stalinism

Berlin crisis of 1948-1949 and, 16-17 Bulgaria and, 34 China and, 134 choice of successor to, 124-25 Czechoslovakia and, 36-37 East-West relations during World War

II and, 5-11 Hungary and, 34-36

Khrushchev's denunciation of, 126-27, 133, 134, 334

Korean War and, 21 Marshall Plan and, 15, 16 postwar economy under, 123-24 postwar society under, 122, 123 Romania and, 32, 33 security concerns of, 4-5 United Nations and, 8 Yugoslavia and, 38

Stalinism, 4-5, 123, 133, 238 Standard of living

in the Soviet Union, 214-17 in Western Europe, 168-70

Stettinius, Edward, 9 Stockhausen, Karlheintz, 344, 345 Strauss, Franz Josef, 86-87, 292 Structuralism, 327-28 Suarez, Adolfo, 281 Subsidiarity, principle of, 155 Suchocka,Hanna, 254 Suez Canal crisis (1956), 92, 112-13, 145 Sukarno, Achmed, 110 Sun Yat-sen, 105, 106 Superpowers, emergence of, 1-3 Superrealism in art, 341 Svoboda, Ludvik, 239, 241 Sweden,60,94, 146,147,352

economy of, 70, 287, 319-20 educational system in, 195-96 industrial absentee and turnover rates

in, 178-79 labor unions in, 172 political and economic trends since the

1970s, 318-20 ruling elites in, 186, 198 social classes in, 180 social leveling in, 176

Switzerland, 68, 146, 161 Syria, 111, 112

Tahlin, Michael, 176 Taiwan, 106 Tanganyika, 118 Tariffs, agricultural, 72-73 Technocrats, 184 Teheran Conference, 7 Thatcher, Margaret, 152, 173, 198, 311,

312-14 Theater, 333

Third World countries, 73 Thorez, Maurice, 51, 52, 87 Tilak, B. G., 104 Tildy, Zoltan, 36 Tilliette, Bruno, 193

Index 369

Tito, Marshal, 4, 34, 38, 39-40, 126, 129, 130, 133, 222-23, 224, 270

Tocqueville, Alexis de, I Togliatti, Palmiro, 55, 83, 126, 302 Touraine, Alain, 189 Toure, Sekou, 119 Trade, 152

balance of, 287-88 economic recovery of Western Europe

and, 67 Trade Expansion Act of, U.S. (1961),

147 Trade unions. See labor unions Truffaut, Fran~ois, 336 Truman, Harry, 10-14, 16, 19, 22, 109 Truman Doctrine, 13, 14, 15, 48, 61 Tunisia, 88, 111, 114 Turkey, 14, 48, 283 Turkish immigrants, 167, 168

Ulbricht, Walter, 12, 125, 133, 240, 241, 258

Ullman, Richard, 273 Ulster, 314-16 Umberto, Lieutenant General of the

Realm, 55 Unemployment, among youth, 351, 352 Unions. See labor unions United Kingdom. See Great Britain United Nations, 8, 112 United Socialist party (PSU; Italy), 302 United States, 187. See also specific presi-

dents aid to Western Europe. See Marshall

Plan; Truman Doctrine British membership in the EEC and,

147. 148 containment policy of, 5, 12, 19 cultural influence of, 353-54 de Gaulle and, 91, 92 d~tente and, 247 income inequality in, 201 Indochina War and, 109 Korean War and, 19, 21-22 military might in Western Europe, 19

370 Index

United States (cont.) per-capita domestic product, 161 as superpower, 1-3

Universities. See also Higher education British, 190-92 French, 192-94 German, 195 women in, 188

Upper class. See ruling elites

Vacations in Eastern Europe, 218 in Western Europe, 171-72

Vandenberg, Arthur, 14 Vatican, the, 308-10 Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy, 54,

55 Vietminh, 108-9 Vietnam, independence movement in,

107-9 Vietnamese National Party (VNQDD),

107-8 Vietnam War, 109, 231, 232, 233 Visconti, Luchino, 335-36 Vittorini, Elio, 331 Voinovich, Vladimir, 334 Vojvodina, 270, 271 Volkswagen, 76 Voroshilov, Kliment, 36, 123 Vranitsky, Franz, 321

Wages, in Western Europe, 161-63 women's, 164-65

Waldheim, Kurt, 321 Wales, 311 Walesa, Lech, 251, 252, 253 Walloons, 95, 317 Warsaw Pact, 240, 244 Wealth of ruling elite, 197-99 Welfare state (welfare programs), 98

British, 47-48, 92 Wenders, Wim, 337 Western Europe. See also specific coun­

tries economic integration of. See Common

Market; European Economic Community (EEC); European unity (integration)

economic outlook for (1990s), 288-89

economic recovery in (1945-1960s ), 65-79

agriculture, 72-73 demographic changes and, 67-69 industrial concentration and nation-

alization, 71-72 Marshall Plan and, 66-67 new capitalism, 69-71 trade and, 67

foreign policy in 1970s-1980s, 285-87 political and economic trends since the

1960s, 277-321 U.S. military might in, 19

Western European Union (WEU), 145, 154, 156

West Germany, 17. See also Germany; specific chancellors

agriculture in, 72 asylum law in, 168 banks in, 75-76 demographic changes in, 67 East German reforms of 1970s-1980s

and, 258 economy of, 66,70-71,75-76, 149 EEC and, 148, 149, 152 filmmaking in, 337 foreign workers in, 167 literature in, 330-31, 333 politics in

1948-1960s, 84-87 since the 1960s, 289-92

rearmament of, 21, 85, 143, 144, 145 service class in, 198-99 social classes in, 180 student unrest in (1968), 229-31

Williams, William A., 22 Wilson, Harold, 149, 310 Wolf, Christa, 335 Women

in the Soviet Union, 218-20 in Western Europe

power and, 187-88 status of, 163-66

Workers (working class) in Eastern Europe, 218 in Western Europe

class structure, 159-61 dissatisfactions, 178 immigrant workers, 166-68 political attitudes, 178

social leveling, 175-77 wages and fringe benefits, 161-65

Work week, 170-71 World War I, 27

independence movements and, 101, 102

World War II, 2-4. See also specific coun­tries

East-West relations during, 5-11 Indochina and, 108

Wylie, Laurence, 74 Wyszynski, Stefan Cardinal, 128

Yalta Conference, 7-9, 31 Yalta Declaration on Liberated Europe,

8 Yeltsin, Boris, 250 Yevtushenko, Yevgeny, 334 Youth, in 1980s and 1990s, 351

Index 371

Youth culture, 345 Yugoslavia, 4, 7, 14, 136

1960s-1980s reforms in, 269-71 agriculture in, 214 disintegration of, 271-73 economy of, 210, 224, 270, 271 revisionism in, 132-33 ruling elite in, 222-23 split with the Soviet Union, 39-40 standard of living in, 217

Zanzibar, 118 Zhdanov, Andrei A., 15, 123 Zhdanov era, 123 Zhivkov, Tudor, 264 Zhukov, Georgi, 5, 127 Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia), 119 Zinoviev, Alexander, 334-35 Zuckmayer, Carl, 331