Index

431

ABAQUS, 76 acidic attack, 329–30 adherend, 187–8 adhesion, 5 adhesive

bonding, 172–4 properties, 82–3, 218–19

adhesive bonds, 5–7 analysis of adhesive joints, 64–72 analysis of geometrically-modifi ed

adhesive joints, 86–91 behaviour of adhesive joints, 61–4 effect of pre-bond moisture on short-term

joint performance, 7 effect of silane treatment on bond

strength, 8 fatigue life of joining CFRP composites

to steel components, 217–36 fi nite element modelling of joining of

FRP composites to steel, 60–92 singular stress fi elds, 72–5 strain distribution, 75–86

modelling and predicting fatigue, 221–4

surface preparation on bond strength over time, 6

test results and analysis, 228–35 crack propagation life, 231–3 effect of load range, 234–5 S–N curve and crack-free life, 230–1 stiffness change, 229–30 strain at the end of plate, 228–9 strength after fatigue testing, 234

testing, 225–8

adhesive layer properties creep resistance, 189–90 ductility, 188 fatigue resistance, 188–9 thickness, 190

adhesive shear displacement, 256 adhesively bonded steel plates, 171–2 Adige Bridge, 399–401 advanced testing, 377–9

Meschio Bridge, 379 twinned girder, 378

aerofi l semi-circular steel beams, 353 aircraft battle-damage repairs (ABDR),

14 aluminium beam structure, 356–9 aluminium overhead sign structures (OSS)

rehabilitation of connections, 203–6 analytical analysis

adhesive joints, 65–71 concept of differential shear, 67 fi bre-reinforced polymer (FRP)

laminates and steel beams, 69–71 non-linear behaviour of adhesive,

69 simple linear-elastic analysis, 66 single- or double-lap joints, 66–9

analytical model, 41–2 anchorage length, 63–4 ARALL composite materials, 272 aramid fi bre-reinforced polymer (AFRP),

331 ARAMIS, 78 Armour Plate, 361 attachment method, 386

432 Index

axial compression design, 152–5

strength curves of experimental capacity vs Winter strength curve, 154

strengthening of thin-walled steel sections, 150–6

buckling, 150–2 optimisation, 155–6 post-buckling and strength, 152

axial impact design, 160–2 strengthening of thin-walled steel sections,

156–63 optimisation, 162–3 quasi-static and dynamic axial crushing,

156–60 axial impact tests, 159 axial stiffness ratio, 279

benefi ts inclusion, 335 Beryl Bravo oil production platform, 364–5 Bid Road Bridge, 343–5 bond enhancement, 178–84

mitigation of galvanic and crevice corrosion, 181–4

surface preparation, 178–81 bond level

effects of gap thickness, 9 effects of moisture and temperature, 9 effects of outdoor weathering, 9

bond line thickness changes sensitivity, 177 bonded composite repairs

design and modelling, 26–37 analytical approach to crack patching,

28 crack length and cycles N , 35 design issues, 31–3 estimation of fatigue crack growth,

33–7 log d a/ d N versus log Δ K, 36

modelling, 27–31 plot of predicted variation of stress

intensity, 30 schematic of test confi guration, 34 theoretical predictions and fi nite

element results, 32 bonded repair coupon (BRC), 43–4 Boots Building, 356–7 boron/epoxy materials, 19, 20, 24, 50 boundary element method (BEM), 249 Bow Road Bridge, 340–1

bridging stress evaluation, 254–7 Broadway Bridge, 384–6 buckling, 150–2

induced by high local stresses, 125–6 bulk adhesive

degradation, 103–7

CalcuRep, 41 carbon/epoxy materials, 19, 20 carbon fi bre, 360 carbon fi bre-reinforced polymer (CFRP),

119 principles of crack repair, 244–5

carbon fi bre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites, 4

fatigue life of adhesive bonds joining to steel components, 217–36

future trends, 235–6 modelling and predicting fatigue, 221–4 research on fatigue performance

between CFRP plates and steel substrates, 218–21

test results and analysis, 228–35 testing, 225–8

testing thin-walled steel SHS, 142–50 carbon fi bre-reinforced polymer (CFRP)

laminates, 88, 174–6 case studies, 382–8

Broadway Bridge, USA, 384–6 fatigue test research results, 383 Morrison Bridge, USA, 387–8

cast iron, 407–8, 416–17, 420–4 King Street Bridge, Mold, UK, 421 load-defl ection graphs of reinforced vs

unreinforced struts, 423 reinforced cast iron strut under test, 422 strain across reinforced strut at various

loads, 423 vacuum infusion of CFRP at Shadwell,

London, UK, 424 cast iron bridges, 336–53

Bid Road Bridge, 343–5 Bow Road Bridge, 340–1 Hammersmith Road overbridge, 341–2 Hythe Bridge, 350–1 Iron Bridge, 337–9 King Street Railway Bridge, 345–7

upgrading, 346 London Underground railway system,

351–3 Maunders Road Bridge, 347–8

Index 433

New Moss Road Bridge, 348–9 Streatham Station Bridge, 342–3 Tickford Bridge, 339–40

cast iron railings, 337–8 cast iron substrate, 334 centre-cracked tension (CCT), 248–8 chemical bonding, 107 chemical etching, 179–80 CIRIA Design Guide, 379–80 classical analyses, 68 Clock Spring, 361 closed-form solutions, 65, 71 cohesion, 5 cohesive failure, 38, 64 composite action, 392 composite materials, 275, 279–80 composite overlays, 280–3 composite wrap systems, 361–2 Concrete Society, 220 confi guration parameters

signifi cant to fatigue performance, 284–6 fatigue-crack propagation life for all

specimens treated with CFRP overlays, 285

consolidation pressure, 177 construction errors design, 329 conventional methods, 170–1 corner splitting, 158 corrosion, 3, 13, 328

rehabilitation and strengthening, 388–90

corrosion resistance, 172 corrosive environments exposure, 182 cost-effective rehabilitation, 335 Covered Ways, 353 coverplating, 391 Cowper-Symonds equation, 162 crack closure phenomenon, 245 crack-free life, 230–1 crack initiation, 231–2 crack patching, 245 crack propagation, 231–3, 270–1 crack repair principles, 244–5 cracked aluminium components

rehabilitation using fi bre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites, 201–14

cracked fi eld specimens, 208, 211, 212 cracked tension member, 171 creep resistance, 177, 189–90 crevice corrosion, 181–4 crippling see buckling

curing time, 177 cyclic stress durability, 181

damaged bridges assessment procedures, 375–9

debonding, 64 deformation, 71 degradation mechanisms, 97–8 delamination, 64 Delaware Department of Transportation,

382–4 design limit load (DLL), 27, 34, 37 design ultimate load (DUL), 27, 37 differential shear, 67 digital image correlation (DIC), 78 do nothing solution, 388–9 double-overlap fatigue specimen (DOFS),

39–40 dry mats, 333 ductile cast iron, 326 ductility, 176, 188 dynamic axial crushing, 156–60

early steel, 326 effective modulus, 69, 70 elastic global buckling, 126–9 elastic modulus, 153, 221–2 elasto-plastic adhesives, 68 Elber ratio, 245 electrical half-cell potential, 98 electrochemical tests, 183 electrolytes, 100 electrostatic attraction, 107 elephant-foot buckling, 126 environmental durability, 177 epoxy, 150

resin liners, 360 resins, 177–8

Euler buckling see elastic global buckling Eurocodes, 401 experimental buckling stress, 151–2 experimental evidence, 242–4

F-16 aircraft, 47–8 typical crack location, 47

F-111 aircraft, 48–52 fatigue, 329

behaviour, 221 bond resistance, 220 capacity, 388 cycle loading, 227

434 Index

initiation life, 276 life prediction, 222–3 strengthening, 242

fatigue crack, 13, 47 growth estimation, 33–7 propagation, 265

fatigue crack repair plates subjected to tension, 278–86

confi guration parameters most signifi cant to fatigue performance, 284–6

effect of composite overlays on stress fi eld of cracked plates, 280–3

stress demands along interface layer, 283–4

fatigue damage repair development of composite materials,

271–4 due to out-of-plane forces, 298–317 evaluation of carbon fi bre-reinforced

(CFRP) overlay and steel plate retrofi t measure, 311–17

preventing debonding of composite overlay, 307–311

suitable confi gurations due to out-of-plane loading, 301–7

fatigue life adhesive bonds joining CFRP composites

to steel components, 217–36 extending life in steel bridges using FRP,

269–317 development of composite materials for

repair of fatigue damage, 271–4 fatigue crack repair in plates subjected

to tension, 278–86 fatigue damage repair due to out-of-

plane forces, 298–317 fracture surface of composite model,

271 major failure mechanisms in fi brous

composites under fatigue loading, 271 repair of welded connections, 286–98 understanding fatigue damage, 274–8

improvements of steel components, 242–5

steel components strengthened with FRP composites, 239–65

design of FRP reinforcement, 262–5 fracture mechanics modelling, 245–58 steel girders, 258–60 welded details, 260–2

fatigue lifetime, 245 fatigue limit, 236 fatigue performance

research between CFRP plates and steel substrates, 218–21

idealised Wohler diagram, 219 fatigue resistance, 176–7, 188–9 fatigue testing, 225, 234, 235 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),

46–7, 272 fi bre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites

alternative approaches to strengthening, 425–7

durability of steel components, 96–112 enhancing the strength of structural steel

components, 117–35 fatigue life of steel components

strengthening, 239–65 fi eld applications of FRP-stabilised steel

sections, 129–34 fi nite element modelling of adhesive

bonds joining steel, 60–92 materials, 174–8

CFRP laminates, 174–6 structural adhesives, 176–8

rehabilitation and strengthening of bridges, 379–88

rehabilitation of cracked aluminium components, 201–14

rehabilitation of metallic infrastructure, 3–10, 323–68

rehabilitation of steel tension members, 169–94

aluminium beam structure and case study, 356–9

cast iron bridges and other structures, 336–53

onshore and offshore pipe work, 360–6 steel structures and case studies, 354–6 structural defi ciencies, 328–30

reinforcement design, 262–5 repair of metallic airframe components,

11–55 application technologies and non-

destructive inspection of bonded repairs, 22–6

case studies, 47–52 certifi cation of repairs to primary

structures, 37–42 composite materials and adhesives,

19–22

Index 435

design and modelling of bonded composite repairs, 26–37

key issues in repair, 14–16 limitations, 52–5 mechanically fastened patches, 12 use of adhesively bonded patch repairs,

16–19 validation of certifi ed repairs, 42–7

steel railway bridges assessment and rehabilitation, 373–401

strengthening metallic structures, 330–6

strengthening of cast and wrought iron structures, 417, 419–27

strengthening of historic metallic structures, 406–28

strengthening of thin-walled hollow steel sections, 140–66

axial compression, 150–6 axial impact, 156–63 role of steel–CFRP bond, 163–5 testing SHS with CFRP, 142–50

fi bre-reinforced polymers (FRP) extending fatigue life of steel bridges,

269–317 development of composite materials for

repair of fatigue damage, 271–4 fatigue cracks repair in plates subjected

to tension, 278–86 fatigue damage repair due to out-of-

plane forces, 298–317 repair of welded connections, 286–98 understanding fatigue damage, 274–8

Fickian diffusion law, 103, 104 fi nite element (FE) analysis, 71–72, 219,

277 fi nite element method (FEM), 247, 376–7 fi nite element modelling

adhesive bonds joining FRP composites to steel, 60–92

adhesive joints, 61–72 geometrically-modifi ed adhesive joints,

86–91 singular stress fi elds, 72–5 strain distribution, 75–86

FM 73, 20, 23 FM 300-2, 20 force transfer mechanism, 61–4 fracture mechanics modelling, 245–58

crack opening stress as function of stress ratio, 247

reinforcement debonding effect, 249–53 semi-analytical model for stress intensity

factor evaluation, 253–8 stress intensity factor evaluation, 247–9

fracture model, 265 fretting, 14 full-depth steel splice plates, 311 full-scale fatigue tests, 258

γ -GPS, 22 γ -methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane

( γ -MPS), 111 galvanic corrosion, 98–103, 181–4 generic installation methodologies, 362 geometric discontinuities, 182 girder web, 311 GLARE, 20

composite materials, 272 glass fi bre-reinforced polymer (GFRP), 120,

203–4, 425–6 architecture, 204–6

composite application steps, 205 newly fabricated specimens, 208–9

global effect, 262 grey cast iron, 325 grit blasting, 6, 23

Hammersmith Road overbridge, 341–2 hand grinding, 150 heating, 24–6 high modulus (HM), 174, 332 high stiffness fi bre, 334 high strength (HS) fi bres, 174, 334 high strength-to-weight ratio, 172 high tensile strength, 243–4 Historic Bridge Awards, 354 historic irons

production, metallurgy and properties, 409–15

historic metallic structures strengthening using fi bre-reinforced

polymer (FRP) composites, 406–28

structures in cast and wrought iron, 416–17

hollow structural square (HSS), 121 hot-melt adhesives, 178 hot-melt bonding, 173–4 hot spot stress (HSS), 280 hybrid carbon, 184 Hysol, 295

436 Index

Hysol EA 9395, 21 Hythe Bridge, 350–1

ICE design, 379–80 Illinois Department of Transportation,

382 in-plane fatigue damage, 275 in situ resin infusion, 174 increased dead load, 328 increased live load, 328 Industrial Revolution, 407 inelastic section buckling, 118–25 infl ated bladder, 25 interface layer

effect of confi guration, 295–6 effect of thickness, 296–8

interferometry technique, 249 intermediate moment frames (IMF),

129–30 Iron Bridge, 337–9 ISO 9664, 219 ISO/TS 24817, 362

joint geometry, 186–7

K-tube-to-tube connections constant amplitude fatigue performance,

209–13 static tests, 206–9

Kansas Department of Transportation, 300–1

king post, 392 King Street Railway Bridge, 345–7

laminates, 79–81 FE with isotropic and orthotropic

material assumption, 80, 81 lateral buckling, 131 light weight, 172 linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM),

377 linear variable differential transformers

(LVDT), 346 load-capacity approach, 9 load range

effect, 234–5 load resisting area, 171 load tests, 382–4 local buckling see inelastic section

buckling local effect, 262

localised direct contact, 182 Loctite, 295 London Underground railway system,

351–3 London Underground ’ s Engineering

Standards (LUES), 353 longitudinal strain, 222 low temperature moulding (LTM), 356–8

masonry jack, 345 material corrosion, 329 Maunders Road Bridge, 347–8 maximum adhesive stresses reduction, 236 maximum interfacial stresses, 221–2 mean crush load, 156 mechanical interlocking, 107 mechanical pressure, 25, 54 mechanical tests, 104 metallic airframe components, 13–14

case studies, 47–52 F-16 lower wing-skin ‘vent hole’ repair,

47–8 Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF)

F-111 lower wing-skin repair, 48–52 limitations, 52–5 repair using FRP composites, 11–55

application technologies and non-destructive inspection of bonded repairs, 22–6

certifi cation of repairs to primary structures, 37–42

composite materials and adhesives, 19–22

design and modelling of bonded composite repairs, 26–37

key issues in repair, 14–16 mechanically fastened patches, 12 use of adhesively bonded patch repairs,

16–19 validation of certifi ed repairs, 42–7

compliance with Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) advisory circular, 46–7

proof testing option, 43–5 structural health monitoring (SHM)

option, 45–6 metallic infrastructure

FRP composites for rehabilitation of differing types, 323–68

aluminium beam structure and case study, 356–9

Index 437

cast iron bridges and other structures, 336–53

onshore and offshore pipe work, 360–6 steel structures and case studies, 354–6 strengthening, 330–6 structural defi ciencies, 328–30 types of metallic materials and

structures needing rehabilitation, 325–8

rehabilitation using FRP composites, 3–10 overall considerations, 4–5

methacrylate adhesives, 178 Miner ’ s rule, 245 modern design practice, 328 modern steel, 326

bridge in North Harrow, North West London, 354–6

modifi ed virtual crack closure technique (MVCCT), 250

modulus of elasticity, 280 moisture susceptibility, 103–5 monotonic tests, 130 Morrison Bridge, 387–8 Mouchel Consulting Advanced Engineering

Group, 341 multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT),

101–2

New Moss Road Bridge, 348–9 non-destructive inspection (NDI), 16, 18,

42–3 bonded repairs, 26

non-destructive testing (NDT), 258–9, 376–7 normal strain, 61 numerical analysis, 65 numerical procedure, 224

offshore infrastructure steel blast wall at Mobil Beryl platform,

363–6 offshore pipelines, 360–4 onshore pipelines, 360 optical techniques, 249–50 optimisation, 155–6

axial impact, 162–3 ordinary moment frames (OMF), 129–30 organosilane adhesion promoters, 108–11 out-of-plane fatigue damage, 275

Palmgren–Miner procedure, 401 Paris Law, 221, 245

partial buckling-restrained braces, 133–4 patch repairs

adhesively bonded, 16–19 peel stress, 63, 222 peeling force, 63 physical adsorption, 107 plate length curtailment, 236 Poisson ’ s ratio, 150–1 polymer matrix, 174–5 post-buckling, 152 post-tensioning, 391–2 pot life, 177 pre-cured system, 381 prefabricated laminates, 173 prepeg sheets, 333 pressurisation, 24–6 primary structure, 15

certifi cation of repairs, 37–42 principal stress failure criterion, 106 probability of detection (POD), 45 proof test, 43–5, 55 pultrusion technique, 333

quasi-static axial crushing, 156–60 axial force-axial displacement results

for dynamic impact axial crushing, 160

dynamic impact axial crushing mechanisms illustration, 158

quasi-static compression specimens, 150

quasi-static theory, 162

railway strengthening, 408 reduced beam section (RBS), 130 rehabilitation

aluminium beam structure and case study, 356–9

cast iron bridges and other structures and case studies, 336–53

Bid Road Bridge, 343–5 Bow Road Bridge, 340–1 Hammersmith Road overbridge,

341–2 Hythe Bridge, 350–1 Iron Bridge, 337–9 King Street Railway Bridge, 345–7 London Underground railway system,

351–3 Maunders Road Bridge, 347–8 New Moss Road Bridge, 348–9

438 Index

stages of degraded metallic beam, 338 Streatham Station Bridge, 342–3 Tickford Bridge, 339–40

cracked aluminium components using FRP composites, 201–14

differing types of metallic infrastructure using FRP composites, 323–68

onshore and offshore pipe work, 360–6

steel structures and case studies, 354–6 steel tension members using FRP

composites, 169–94 adhesive bonding of FRP laminates,

172–4 bond enhancement, 178–84 damage, 170 fundamentals of analysis and design,

184–91 future trends, 191–4 materials, 174–8 repair methods, 170–2

reinforced beams monitoring, 236 reinforcement debonding effect, 249–53 remedial methods, 355–6 repair member solution, 389 repair methods, 170–2 replace member/entire structure, 389–90 Replark composite technique, 339 residual stress, 20 resilient composite overlays, 289–91 resin infusion under fl exible tooling (RIFT),

333, 365–6 resin layer, 316 retrofi tting, 332, 388 Rochdake Metropolitan Borough Council,

354

S-glass composites, 184 S – N curve, 212–13, 230–1

aluminium connections, 212 sand blasting, 150 sanding, 6 secondary structure, 15 seismic moment connection

ensuring ductility, 129–33 semi-analytical model, 253–8 shear formation, 256 shear strain, 61 shear strength, 176 shear stress, 222 Sika, 76, 84

Sikadur, 225, 356 simple truss spans, 393 singular point, 72 singular stress fi elds, 72–5

effect of mesh refi nement on peeling stress, 75

effect of mesh refi nement on shear stress, 74

elastic bimaterial wedge, 73 positions of stress singularity, 74

skin-double specimen (SDS), 40–1 slag fi bres, 411–12 Slattocks Canal Bridge, 354–5 slenderness, 122–3, 151–2 solvent degreasing, 179 special moment frames (SMF), 129–30 specifi c energy, 156 spot-welded square hollow sections,

142–50 static tests, 206–9 stationary potential energy theory, 71 steel blast wall, 363–6 steel bridges

extending fatigue life using FRP, 269–317

development of composite materials for repair of fatigue damage, 271–4

fatigue cracks repair in plates subjected to tension, 278–86

fatigue damage repair due to out-of-plane forces, 298–317

repair of welded connections, 286–98 fatigue damage, 274–8

steel components fatigue life and FRP composites, 239–65

design of FRP reinforcement, 262–5 fracture mechanics modelling, 245–58 future trends, 265 improvements, 242–5 steel girders, 258–60 welded details, 260–2

fatigue life of adhesive bonds joining CFRP composites, 217–36

modelling and predicting fatigue, 221–4 research on fatigue performance

between CFRP plates and steel substrates, 218–21

test results and analysis, 228–35 testing, 225–8

steel girders FRP composites strengthening, 258–60

Index 439

steel railway bridges assessment and rehabilitation using FRP

composites, 373–401 analyses of damage on bridge,

375–9 corrosion, 388–90 strengthening, 379–88 strengthening of structural members,

390–401 steel structures, 354–6

Slattocks Canal Bridge, 354–5 steel substrate priming, 180 steel tension members rehabilitation

FRP composites, 169–94 adhesive bonding of FRP laminates,

172–4 bond enhancement, 178–84 future trends, 191–4 materials, 174–8 repair methods, 170–2

fundamentals of analysis and design, 184–91

effects of adherend stiffness imbalance and thermal mismatch, 187–8

effects of adherend thickness, 187 effects of adhesive layer properties,

188–90 effects of FRP adherend matrix

properties, 188 effects of joint geometry, 186–7 stress analysis of bonded FRP repairs,

190–1 general considerations, 184–6

stiffness change, 229–30 stiffness test, 352 stiffness-to-weight ratio, 172 STO, 76, 84

distribution of peeling strain, 84, 85 distribution of shear strain, 83, 85

strain end of plate, 228–9

strain distribution adhesive joints, 75–86

behaviour of adhesives, 77 confi guration and nominal dimensions

of specimens, 76 FE model, 77 material properties of specimens, 76,

79–83 painted specimen, 79

principal strain through thickness of adhesive layer, 86

set-up of optic measurement system, 78 thickness of adhesive layer, 83–6

Streatham Station Bridge, 342–3 strength, 152 strength of singularity, 73 strengthening effect, 159–60 strengthening metallic structures, 330–6 stress analysis, 60

bonded FRP repairs, 190–1 stress concentration reduction, 223–4 stress corrosion cracks, 13–14 stress demands

along interface layer, 283–4 stress intensity factor, 28, 247–9, 278

semi-analytical model, 253–8 bridging stress evaluation, 254–7 weight function, 257–8

StrongBack, 361 structural adhesives, 176–8 structural defi ciencies, 328–30 structural degradation, 329 structural forms, 408 structural health monitoring (SHM), 45–6,

55 structural members strengthening,

390–401 case study of Adige Bridge, 393, 399–401 cover plate options for compressive

members, 394 intervention techniques and case studies,

395–8 king post strengthened beam technique

intervention, 392 new member added to existing tension

members, 393 structural repair, 170–1 Structural Repair Manual (SRM), 11 structural steel components

strength enhancement using FRP composites, 117–35

buckling or crippling induced by high local stresses, 125–6

elastic global buckling, 126–9 fi eld applications of FRP-stabilised

steel sections, 129–34 inelastic section buckling, 118–25

stub column tests, 126–7 superior fatigue life, 172 surface abrasion, 179–80

440 Index

surface chemistry, 107–8 surface preparation, 22–4, 178–81, 204

temperature, 177 tensile force, 184 tensile tests, 352 tertiary structure, 15 test set-up

instrumentation, 225–7 theoretical composite plate, 153 theoretical elastic buckling coeffi cient, 150–1 thermal mismatch, 187–8 thermally-induced stress, 105–7 thin-walled circular steel tubes, 126 thin-walled hollow steel sections

role of steel-CFRP bond, 163–5 axial load–axial displacement results,

164 strengthening using FRP composites,

140–66 axial compression, 150–6 axial impact, 156–63 future trends, 165–6 testing thin-walled steel SHS, 142–50

thin-walled steel SHS, 142–50 thin-walled steel structures, 125 three-point bending tests, 261 Tickford Bridge, 339–40 traditional reinforcing techniques, 242

UK Design Guide, 424–5 ultra-high modulus (UHM), 121–2, 243, 332

fi bres, 174 ultra-high stiffness fi bre, 334

ultrasonic impact treatment (UIT), 287 uncracked fi eld specimens, 207, 210–11 US Air Force Primary Adhesively Bonded

Structures Technology, 186 US Design Guide, 379–80 Utah State DOT, 213

vacuum bag, 25, 54 vacuum resin infusion technique, 88 van der Waals forces, 108 von-Mises failure criterion, 106

web-gap region, 299–300 web local buckling (WLB), 122 wedge test, 23, 181 weight function, 257–8 welded connections repair, 286–98

bond between composite overlays and metals, 294–8

effect of overlay confi guration on fatigue life, 291–4

fabrication of resilient composite overlays, 289–91

fatigue life of welded connections for various types of treatments, 289

three-point bending specimens, 288 welded details strengthening, 260–2 wet layup, 173, 381 Winter equation, 152–3 workability, 177 wrought iron, 325–6, 407–8, 410, 416–17,

424–5

Young ’ s modulus, 150–1, 220, 225, 255