Independent Study Behaviors: A Framework for Curriculum Development

Hammill Institute on Disabilities

Independent Study Behaviors: A Framework for Curriculum DevelopmentAuthor(s): Virginia BrownSource: Learning Disability Quarterly, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Spring, 1978), pp. 78-84Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1510310 .

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INDEPENDENT STUDY BEHAVIORS: A FRAMEWORK FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Virginia Brown

LD students spend a good deal of their instructional time under the watchful eye of the teacher. Supervision that is too close or constant may retard the student's development of independent study behaviors (ISB's). In this article, Brown discusses characteristics, assessment and curriculum development of ISB's. Since a basic instructional goal for LD students is independence of action, this topic is of particular relevance to the LD Professional. - D.D.D.

Check marks showing "Needs Improve- ment" beside the report card categories of Studies Independently or Work Habits usually indicate a need for further evaluation and

programming to teach the student to study both productively and independently. These behaviors are of concern to teachers (note the

presence of these categories at nearly every level of reporting); to parents (concerned that the child doesn't "apply" her/himself); and to students themselves (who are often ad-

monished, but rarely taught, to study). The main purposes of this discussion are

(1) to analyze the characteristics of Indepen- dent Study Behaviors (ISB's), and (2) to suggest specific ways in which practitioners can

begin to consider them systematically within the scope of their evaluation and programming activities. Because of the importance placed upon independent study throughout a student's school career, the topic is relevant at all

grade levels.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDEPENDENT STUDY BEHAVIORS

Independent Study Behaviors (ISB's) en-

compass a wide range of possibilities,

depending upon factors such as grade level and subject; yet, they have common characteristics that have critical implications for the design of programs for learning disabled students. These implications generally mean

(1) that a behavioral description can be made more precise than the usual IEP statements such as, "The student will learn to work inde-

pendently," and (2) that specific instructional

methodologies can be used to teach these behaviors.

Characteristic 1. Independent study is usually undertaken for the purpose of showing others what is known, or what has been "learned" by the learner.

The "Other" to be shown must be taken into account in any programming, in-

cluding expectations that are idiosyncratic to that person. For older students, there are often many "Others" to consider. Fur-

ther, the emphasis upon "Others" sug- gests that seldom is the study of school work initiated by the student, thus

VIRGINIA BROWN, Ed.D., is Associate Pro- fessor of Special Education, University of Minnesota, Duluth.

78 Learning Disability Quarterly



STUDY BEHAVIORS B R O

w N

creating a built-in problem of motivation. The possible need to arrange for external reinforcement is more understandable under these conditions.

Characteristic 2. Study behavior products usually take the form of homework, seat-

work, various test responses, and oral recita- tions or interviews.

Strategies for learning the content to be

shown, as in studying, must be separated from ways of demonstrating what has been learned, as in test-taking. Further, each expected product must be analyzed not only for its own characteristics, but also for the behaviors needed to produce it. For example, there are many kinds of

tests, each associated with unique study and test-taking skills: in some classrooms seatwork directions can only be guessed at, so that the student must be taught appropriate ways to seek clarification of the

expectations.

Characteristic 3. Study is usually carried out

independently; frequently in isolation; and is, therefore, highly dependent on self-

discipline. Many well-intentioned attempts to cue or tutor a child in specific tasks may have the unintended side-effect of making the student dependent on the presence of an assistant. Such situations should be

analyzed carefully to determine how the student can be taught to work in-

dependently. In addition, self-discipline involves an array of more specific behaviors such as time management, ignoring of distractions, and organization of

materials for study. Self-monitoring and self-reinforcement may require complex instruction and reinforcement programs.

Characteristic 4. "Study" is usually intentional rather than incidental.

While a great deal of learning may be considered incidental, "study" implies a

deliberately chosen set of behaviors that can be analyzed, specified, and managed. Consequently, these behaviors should in- deed become part of the evaluation and

programming process. Characteristic 5. Study has little "payoff" of its

own, and is usually related to products in content areas. Rewards and punishments often take the form of grades in specific content areas.

Certain behaviors such as "gathering needed materials" are content-free, cut-

ting easily across areas, but in most cases each content has its own study characteristics or techniques that must be identified and learned by the student, and therefore must be taught by the teacher. In addi-

tion, grades in a content area may not

always reflect what is actually known, but

may be an indication only of how well the student has produced the "product" -

paper or otherwise - expected by the teacher.

Characteristic 6. Study may not be possible until the student learns how-to-learn.

Various methodologies are available for

"learning," e.g., behavior rehearsal, outlining, and textbook analysis. However, the student may not know how to select an appropriate technique, or know that differing methodologies actually exist.

Characteristic 7. Practice or drill may be associated with study when a criterion performance is specifiable and demanded.

Stimulus variation, or making the materials to be practiced as varied, in-

teresting and rhotivating as possible, is often used by teachers at the elementary level. However, in cases where stimulus variation is not considered and/or where the student has no choice of materials,

contingency management may be the only option that can provide motivation for tedious drill.

Volume 1, Spring 1978 79



Characteristic 8. Study skills are seldom

taught to children as a specific "curriculum"

area. They must often be learned inductively from peers, from teachers, or from parents.

It may be that ISB's need to become a

vital, publicly acknowledged "curriculum" area for the learning disabled student who does not know the subtleties of study. Both special education and mainstream teachers are responsible for instruction in an area in which the student is so fre-

quently graded.

Characteristic 9. Study behaviors must become habitual if the student is to achieve in-

dependence. A monitoring program is usually needed

to insure that skills taught are continued.

Further, as new teachers, new content

areas, or new types of study are introduced, the student should be "checked out" to make certain that any needed skills are available and used in the particular situa- tion.

Characteristic 10. Independent Study Behaviors should not be confused with the

"study skills" associated with Reading and Social Studies.

Behavioral description will serve to reduce the ambiguities about which term to use.

Reference to the term "study skills" does not mean that ISB's are being taught or

evaluated.

ASSESSMENT OF ISB's

Because of the private nature of studying, it is difficult to evaluate a student's capabilities and performance in this area. However,

many observable, relevant behaviors can be

singled out through some of the techniques suggested below.

1. Observation of work habits. In-class observations include the recording of Time-on- Task patterns and Off-Task Behaviors; notes

of distracting conditions; and notes or data

collected on discrepancies from Time1-to- Time2, from Content1-to-Content2, and from

Teacher1-to-Teacher2. These systematic observations constitute a baseline of student

performance as well as working notes of facilitative and hindering conditions within the school environment. 2. Discussion with the student. Some students may respond well to informal questions about work/study habits, while others

may need a more formalized approach to this

topic. One useful technique is a modification of Target Behavior using items such as those listed in Figure 1.

FIGURE 1 SAMPLE: Q-SORT ITEM POOL FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY BEHAVIORS'

A. Finish assigned work B. Do as well as I can C. Usually understand assignments D. Don't understand purpose of most assignments E. Collect all materials needed F. Budget time for study G. Can explain what "studying" means H. Can't stand studying I. Check over completed assignments J. Concentrate well K. See little real vlaue in studying L. Use textbooks well M. Study with tests in mind

N. Learn a lot from assignments O. Take notes well P. Begin assigned work Q. Prefer to study alone R. Study as well as my friends do S. Take notes well T. Keep "study" records U. Easily distracted from study V. Ask for help with studying W. Organize study time well X. (Your own idea) Y. Can outline study materials Z. Study only subjects I like

*(See Kroth (1972) for specifics on how to apply a Q-Sort)




The discrepancies revealed by a Q-sort

technique can serve as the basis for discussion and as an entree to data collection to validate or invalidate "perceptions." 3. Examination of product requirements and evaluation procedures. The requirements and

expectations of the teacher cannot usually be determined from examining the products alone. The way in which homework is checked

(whether items are discussed or merely marked), the teacher's selection of students to

respond, the kinds of questions asked, and assistance given to students, are all potentially relevant to special program development. Further, a separation must be made between behaviors that are critical to learning the content and those that are idiosyncratic, or teacher pleasing behaviors (Brown, 1969). It is often necessary to teach the student to discriminate or "psych out," and produce relevant behaviors that are unique to a teacher or to a setting. 4. Separation of "Can-Do-and Doesn't"

from "Can't Do". Some students know how to study, but do not choose to do so, while others need instruction in studying or prepar- ing the products of their study. Except in the most severe cases, two techniques are available to distinguish between these instances:

(1) contingency management, or the making of rewards contingent upon desired performance; and (2) stimulus control, or making the task content more relevant to the student's interests. For the student who

Can't-Do, gross task analysis is needed to determine if the task is not possible for the student because s/he cannot, for example, read, write, or spell independently enough to do the work.

ISB CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT: CONTENT

Assistance with Independent Study Be- haviors often takes the form of on-the-spot cues given by a teacher to assist a student in the completion of a specific task, e.g., spacing arithmetic problems correctly on the page. Rarely are these cues considered as behaviors in their own right, subject to instructional

planning or reinforcement. However, by shift-

ing chance assistance to deliberate teaching, it is possible to revise a curriculum, or sets of

programs for dealing with ISB's. The behaviors of concern will be used in

one or both of these processes: (1) content

acquisition, or some form of study; and (2) product preparation, or showing what has been learned (see Figure 2). Each area is noted briefly below.

B / C

FIGURE 2.

ISB CURRICULUM CATEGORIES A = Common Behaviors B = Product Preparation Behaviors C = Content Acquisition Behaviors




Common Behaviors (A)

1. The student must know the specific criteria of acceptability, both of what must be learned, and of how it is to be shown. Methods for uncovering criteria that are not specified by the teacher may need to be taught to the student.

2. Task analysis and subtask ordering can help the student identify each subtask involved and determine a se-

quence for completing each one. In- cluded in this category would be the selection of materials needed, as well as the work itself.

3. Knowledge of the product format will

help the student select appropriate study methods. Oral reports, true- false tests, written compositions, and seatwork exercises are among the

many formats that relate to specifiable study methods. Millman and Pauk

(1969) show many of these relation-

ships, even though they deal primarily with product preparation, i.e., test-

taking. 4. The use of aids to memory may be

needed at any stage. Usually, such aids involve prosthetic devices such as calculators or note cards. The more

socially acceptable, the more likely it is that these aids will be used.

5. Means of checking or verifying poten- tial answers or products refers to a

range of activities that can include "re-

reading one's paper before turning it

in" and asking someone to check

spelling or grammar. These behaviors are often difficult to establish because the idea of independence is often

oversimplified to mean, "do it by yourself" rather than, "find appropriate ways of helping yourself do it correctly." Yet, in everyday life out-

side of school, verifying the accuracy of one's content base or one's product is a critical behavior (as in income tax

preparation).

6. Physical conditions should be as con- ducive as possible to making study and product preparation feasible. The student may need to learn how to seek out an appropriate place for study, or to request better conditions for test-

taking.

7. The student's skills in time management are often a high priority for needed instruction. Once taught, such skills will also require extensive

monitoring to ensure that they are maintained. Even for adults, time

management is often problematic.

8. Self-monitoring is often accomplished through check-lists and data sheets.

Many students will need written moni-

toring devices over an extended

period before such behaviors become internalized.

9. Self-reinforcement systems, con-

tingent upon prespecified responses, can be taught to the student. While some externally controlled systems may be used initially, eventually the student must learn to control his/her own reinforcement, unless the tasks

per se, or teacher approval become

reinforcing in and of themselves.

10. The student's attitude is a nebulous

construct, but can be made more con- crete by specifying and subsequently learning the behaviors that a teacher associates with it. "Good student

behaviors," such as arriving for class on time, looking interested and alert, or asking relevant questions, may provide the student with an "edge" that has nothing to do with actual work quality. Where the ISB curriculum




considers teacher pleasing, or

conforming behaviors that are not

directly related to the content under

study, then values education and clarification should also be used. In this way, the student is not led to believe that conformity per se is

always preferred.

Product Preparation Behaviors (B) 1. Format characteristics related to oral

reports, times-tables tests, or spelling worksheets can be analyzed in enough, detail to ensure that each aspect is ac- counted for.

2. Test-taking strategies vary with the test

type. Types of tests used locally are those likely to be used as the student

goes from one setting to another, as from elementary to secondary programs, or from one school to another.

3. Where feedback has been obtained, product revision should be learned and practiced. Rough-drafting, behavioral rehearsal, etc. are useful here.

Content Acquisition Behaviors (C) 1. Study skills such as those suggested by

Zifferblatt (1970) or Morgan and Deese (1969) will provide a range of

topics and ideas that can be adapted by age level and content areas.

2. Content-specific strategies can be structured for the student if the teacher monitors the literature about

"methods" for teaching-Social Studies, Math, etc.

3. Students may be taught actively to seek out alternate ways of acquiring needed information. Both knowledge of information sources and strategies for gaining access to them should be insured.

ISB CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT: METHODOLOGIES

The methodologies by which students can be taught the Independent Study Behaviors

necessary for a successful school career are those with a behaviorial orientation. Currently, most of these approaches provide examples of how to shift behavioral programs to the self-control of the student. The techniques include: behavior rehearsal (Rose, 1972); modeling and role playing (Sarason & Sarason, 1974; Shaftel & Shaftel, 1967); behavioral counseling (Hosford & de Visser, 1974); contracting (De Risi & Butz, 1975; Homme, 1970); and formalized behavior modification (Gelfand & Hartmann, 1975). While only few of these techniques suggest specific examples of application to ISB's, the methods themselves are content-free and

adaptable to much of the content previously noted.

CONCLUSION

While making the student the target of direct instruction in Independent Study Be-

haviors, no mention has been made of the wealth of literature dealing with how teachers can incorporate aids-to-study within their own content areas, e.g., Participating in secondary reading (Brunner & Campbell, 1978). The omission has been deliberate. Even though such techniques should be developed in

classrooms, they will vary from teacher to teacher, and at times be non-existent. The student cannot be left to such chance cir- cumstance. A combination of consultation to the teacher and direct instruction to the student can both work effectively. The present need is to bring the necessary behaviors into focus.

REFERENCES

Brown, V.L. Learning how by knowing why. Teaching Exceptional Children, 1969, 1(2), 106-111.




Brunner, J.F., & Campbell, J.J. Participat- ing in secondary reading: A practical approach. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1978.

De Risi, W.J., & Butz, G. Writing behavioral contracts. A case simulation manual. Cham- paign, Ill.: Research Press, 1975.

Gelfand, D.M., & Hartmann, D.P. Child behavior: Analysis and therapy. New York: Pergamon Press, 1975. Homme, L. How to use contingency con-

tracting in the classroom (rev. ed.). Champaign, Ill.: Research Press, 1970.

Hosford, R.E., & de Visser, L.A. Behavioral approaches to counseling: An introduction. Washington, D. C.: APGA Press, 1974.

Kroth, R.L. Communicating with parents of exceptional children. Denver: Love Publishing Co., 1972.

Millman, J., & Pauk, W. How to take tests. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969.

Morgan, C.T., & Deese, J. How to study (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969.

Rose, S. Treating children in groups: A behavioral approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1972.

Sarason I.G., & Sarason, B.R. Constructive classroom behavior: A guide to modeling and role playing techniques. New York: Behavioral Publications, 1974.

Shaftel, F.R., & Shaftel, G. Role-playing for social values: Decision-making in the social studies. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1967.

Zifferblatt, S. Improving study and homework behaviors. Champaign, Ill.: Research Press, 1970.

October 26 - 28, 1978

8th Annua

Conferenc of the Iwa Assocition f o

Jean Oman an BettyLou Krtovill



Independent Study Behaviors: A Framework for Curriculum Development

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