INDEKS KELESTARIAN LINGKUNGAN = Environmental Sustainability Index

INDEKS KELESTARIAN LINGKUNGAN

=Environmental

Sustainability Index

Diabstraksikan oleh: soemarno, psdl ppsub, desember 2012

Bahan Kajian pada MK. PSDAL

KUANTITAS AIR

DOMESTIC WATER QUANTITY, SERVICE LEVEL AND HEALTH

Diunduh dari: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/wsh0302/en/ ……………… 4/12/2012

The quantity of water delivered and used for households is an important aspect of domestic water supplies, which influences hygiene and therefore public health.

Summary of requirement for water service level to promote health

Service level Access measure Needs met Level of healthconcern

No access (quantitycollected oftenbelow 5 l/c/d)

More than 1000m or30 minutes totalcollection time

Consumption – cannot be assuredHygiene – not possible (unlesspractised at source)

Very high

Basic access(average quantityunlikely to exceed20 l/c/d)

Between 100 and1000m or 5 to 30minutes totalcollection time

Consumption – should be assuredHygiene – handwashing and basic foodhygiene possible; laundry/bathing difficult to assure unlesscarried out at source

High

Intermediate access(average quantityabout 50 l/c/d)

Water deliveredthrough one tap onplot(or within 100mor 5 minutes totalcollection time

Consumption – assuredHygiene – all basic personal and foodhygiene assured; laundry and bathingshould also be assured

Low

Optimal access(average quantity100 l/c/d and above)

Water suppliedthrough multiple tapscontinuously

Consumption – all needs metHygiene – all needs should be met

Very Low

WATER QUANTITY ESTIMATION

The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply scheme has to be designed requires

following data:

1. Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in litres per day per head)

2. Population to be served.

Quantity= Per capita demand x Population

Water Consumption RateIt is very difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water

demanded by the public, since there are many variable factors affecting water consumption. The various types of

water demands, which a city may have, may be broken into following classes:

Water Consumption for Various Purposes: Diunduh dari: http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%202.htm ……………… 4/12/2012

WATER CONSUMPTION FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES

Diunduh dari: http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%202.htm……………… 4/12/2012

Types of Consumption Normal Range (lit/capita/day)

Average %

1 Domestic Consumption 65-300 160 35

2 Industrial and Commercial Demand 45-450 135 30

3 Public Uses including Fire Demand 20-90 45 10

4 Losses and Waste 45-150 62 25

FIRE FIGHTING DEMAND

The per capita fire demand is very less on an average basis but the rate at which the water is required is very large.

The rate of fire demand is sometimes traeted as a function of population and is worked out from following empirical

formulae:


Authority Formulae (P in thousand) Q for 1 lakh Population)

1American Insurance Association

Q (L/min)=4637 ÖP (1-0.01 ÖP) 41760

2 Kuchling's Formula Q (L/min)=3182 ÖP 31800

3 Freeman's Formula Q (L/min)= 1136.5(P/5+10) 35050

4Ministry of Urban Development Manual Formula

Q (kilo liters/d)=100 ÖP for P>50000 31623

FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND:

1. Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that for smaller towns as big cities have sewered houses.

2. Adanya industri-industri.3. Kondisi iklim.4. Perilaku kebiasaan orang dan status ekonominya.5. Kualitas air: If water is aesthetically $ medically safe, the

consumption will increase as people will not resort to private wells, etc.

6. Pressure in the distribution system.7. Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water

mains and services; and unauthorised use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys.

8. Biaya air.9. Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged

in two different ways: on the basis of meter reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate. Diunduh dari: http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture

%202.htm……………… 4/12/2012

FLUCTUATIONS IN RATE OF DEMAND

Average Daily Per Capita Demand

= Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 x Population)

If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet the fluctuations.

1. Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs are generally more in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation .

2. Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on Sundays and Festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.

3. Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours the requirement is negligible. Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be supplied during short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly supply. Diunduh dari: http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture

%202.htm……………… 4/12/2012

The adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the peak demand. To meet all the fluctuations, the supply pipes, service

reservoirs and distribution pipes must be properly proportioned. The water is supplied by pumping directly and the pumps and

distribution system must be designed to meet the peak demand. The effect of monthly variation influences the design of storage reservoirs and the hourly variations influences the design of pumps and service

reservoirs. As the population decreases, the fluctuation rate increases.

Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x average daily demand

Maximum hourly demand of maximum day i.e. Peak demand = 1.5 x average hourly demand = 1.5 x Maximum daily demand/24 = 1.5 x (1.8 x average daily demand)/24 = 2.7 x average daily demand/24 = 2.7 x annual average hourly demand


FLUCTUATIONS IN RATE OF DEMAND

DESIGN PERIODS & POPULATION FORECAST

This quantity should be worked out with due provision for the estimated requirements of the future . The future period for which a provision is made in the water supply scheme is

known as the design period.

Design period is estimated based on the following:1. Useful life of the component, considering obsolescence,

wear, tear, etc.2. Expandability aspect.3. Anticipated rate of growth of population, including

industrial, commercial developments & migration-immigration.

4. Available resources.5. Performance of the system during initial period.


WATER QUANTITY STRESS

Diunduh dari: https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:qlbP8LaJgEgJ:www.conservation-ontario.on.ca/… 4/12/2012

The word stress is used to talk about problems with water quantity, or the ability of a drinking water system to supply enough water.

It is important to understand when, where and how water is leaving a drinking water source and compare it to how quickly that source can be naturally replenished. It is also important to look at water takings and

water supply trends. What results from looking at all of these factors is a water budget,

which is useful in predicting water supply shortages and planning for those shortages. Water quantity stresses can lead to water quality

issues as too little water in a source can mean contaminants are more concentrated and therefore, may be above acceptable levels.

Water quantity stressors include :1. water that is taken by municipalities for drinking water; 2. water that is taken by industry for manufacturing processing; 3. water that is taken by business for activities such as food and

beverage processing; 4. water that is taken by agricultural for irrigation; 5. private well use.

POTENTIAL WATER QUANTITY ISSUESTaking too much water from a source of water, such as a surface water body or aquifer, can mean that the water

source is stressed. This may develop into to a water quantity issue should more

water be taken from a source than can be naturally replenished.

Some of the common reasons for taking water include:

1. Municipal water takings for domestic, industrial, commercial and institutional use

2. Agricultural water takings3. Private wells taking water for domestic use4. Industrial takings such as for aggregate extraction, mining,

forestry, food processing,5. bottled water and greenhouse operations6. Recreational takings such as for golf courses and bait

harvesters in some areas.Diunduh dari: https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:qlbP8LaJgEgJ:www.conservation-

ontario.on.ca/… 4/12/2012

THE THINGS TO PROTECT WATER:1. Conserve water. Not only is conserving water helpful to maintaining a constant supply of

drinking water, too little water in a source can mean contaminants are more concentrated and, therefore, may be above acceptable levels.

2. Be an avid recycler. Recycling paper products, glass, metals and plastics cuts down on pollution and also reduces the amount of water we use. Manufacturing recycled paper uses 58% less water than making paper from virgin wood pulp. Making glass from recycled materials cuts related air pollution 20% and water pollution 50%.

3. Dispose of hazardous waste properly. Take unused paints, cleaners, pesticides, and medical prescriptions to your local hazardous waste facility. Take used engine oil to recycling facilities. Use drop cloths or tarps when working with hazardous materials such as paints, driveway sealers or wood stain to prevent spills from leaking into the ground. If a spill occurs, clean it up with an absorbent material such as kitty litter or sawdust and scoop the contaminant into a container.

4. Use non-toxic products for cleaning and environmentally-friendly soaps, shampoos and personal care products. Remember that what you use in your house goes back down your drain.

5. Clean up pet waste which contains nutrients and pathogens that can run into storm sewers during a rain storm.

6. Prevent pollutants from entering into runoff by reducing or eliminating the use of pesticides, fertilizers, sidewalk salts and by not over-watering your lawn. If you run an agricultural operation and haven’t already, consider developing and implementing a Nutrient Management Plan.

7. Take care when refueling gas tanks for cars, lawn mowers, chainsaws, weed trimmers, tractors or other machinery to avoid spilling fuel on the ground. Also take care when changing engine oil. One litre of gas or oil can contaminate a million litres of groundwater.

8. Take your car to commercial car washes designed to prevent pollutant runoff from entering storm sewers. Use commercial car washes that use water efficient sprays, reducing their water consumption

Diunduh dari: https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:qlbP8LaJgEgJ:www.conservation-ontario.on.ca/… 4/12/2012

SOME WAYS TO PROTECT WATER FOR THOSE WHO LIVE ON RURAL PROPERTIES INCLUDE:

1. Keep your septic system in proper working order and empty the tank regularly.

2. Protect and maintain your private well. Wells provide pathways for contaminants to enter the groundwater. If you have a well, be sure it is sealed properly and if you own a well you no longer use, have it properly decommissioned by a licensed well technician. Test your well water regularly to ensure the water is safe to drink.

3. Manage animal waste on farms to prevent water contamination.

4. Manage livestock grazing. Overgrazing exposes soil and increases erosion.

5. Protect the vegetation along the banks of ponds, streams and lakes to help control erosion, provide food for aquatic life, and maintain cooler water temperatures necessary for some species of fish.Diunduh dari: https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:qlbP8LaJgEgJ:www.conservation-

ontario.on.ca/… 4/12/2012

WATER QUANTITY EVALUATION

Diunduh dari: http://environment.alberta.ca/01555.html ……………… 4/12/2012

Water quantity is evaluated differently for rivers and streams, lakes and groundwater.

1. Rivers and streams. Streamflow hydrographs record data from gauges installed in waterways, indicating how much water flows past a fixed point, over time.

2. Lakes. Lake bathymetry uses sonar devices to measure variations in water depth, then links this measurement to the lake's surface area and volume change with depth. This allows for estimates of water gained and lost as the lake's level goes up or down. Bathymetric surveys are commercially available for many Alberta lakes.

3. Groundwater . Difficult to quantify because of geological variables, but can be achieved using computer flow modeling. A pump test can demonstrate the sustainable productivity of a single, groundwater well. However the groundwater resource of an entire area is at best an approximation.

4. Precipitation . Alberta Environment and its stakeholders have a network of precipitation gauges throughout the province, providing a good measure of distribution and quantity of the province's rainfall. This is critical in evaluating potential water availability. Alberta also collects real time precipitation from many stations and regularly produces summary maps of the province-wide distribution of precipitation.

Freshwater Resources

Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt

• Importance of water for human, animals, plants:

• Humans, and other organisms, are mostly water.– Water

• ~ 60% body weight in male• ~ 55% body weight in female.

– Intracellular water • cytoplasm = water, proteins, salts

– Intercellular fluid • Blood plasma, cerebrospinal fluid, etc.


Air

• Hydrogen bonding,– forces of attraction

between molecules account for other properties


Sifat Fisika & Kimia Air

• Liquid over wide temperature range – which happens to correspond to temps on Earth

• High specific heat, changes temperature slowly – Holds & carries much heat energy in large water bodies– High heat of vaporization,– Heat recovered when water condenses, heat of

condensation• Solvent– Dissolves wide variety of substances

• Expands when freezes (ice floats!)


Sifat Fisika & Kimia Air

• Surface water – lakes, streams, rivers,

wetlands – Watershed, drainage

basin


Distribusi Air Tawar

• Groundwater– Water that has infiltrated

through soil into deeper, porous sediments & rock in sand, sandstone, volcanic ash layers

– usually below “water table”

– Recharge area


Distribusi Air Tawar

• Agriculture: – worldwide 70% of surface water used on 17% of

cropland.– 60-80% evaporates or seeps below roots, wasted


Penggunaan Air Tawar

• Industry: ~ 20%– Solvent, Cleaner, Coolant– Essential part of product



• Domestic/Residential & civic use: ~ 10%– Drinking and food preparation– Fountains, pools, lawns, parks, golf courses– Flushing sewage



• In USA– Distribution of population– Distribution of freshwater


Sumberdaya Air Tawar

• Causes:– Dry climate– Drought • time period of rainfall deficit and/or high evaporation

– Desiccation • loss of soil moisture because of deforestation, overgrazing,

etc. May cause higher evaporation & failure of recharge.– Water stress • low per capita availability. Too many people/ water


Kelangkaan Air Tawar

• Causes:– Dry climate– Drought – Desiccation – Water stress



• Depletion of surface water– Colorado River



• Depletion of ground water– Ogallala Aquifer

• World’s largest



• Build dams, reservoirs • Bring water from elsewhere – pipes, aqueducts

• Withdraw groundwater • Desalination• Improve efficiency (stop waste)


Peningkatan suplai air

• Build dams, reservoirs (Buford Dam, Lake Lanier) – Benefits

• Hydroelectric power• Irrigation • Control flooding• Source of water for cities, industry etc. • Recreation



• Build dams, reservoirs– Drawbacks

• reduce downstream flow, – habitat loss in river & estuary – Deprives people downstream of “their” water: AL, FL, GA

• flood valleys upstream, – farmland, forests, people displaced

• weight of dam + reservoir alters geology, – earthquakes

• siltation fills reservoir• dam failure catastrophic flood

– Johnstown Flood, PA. 31 May 1889

10 April 2009 Freshwater.ppt 32Diunduh dari: facstaff.gpc.edu/~apennima/ENVS/Freshwater.ppt


• Bring water from elsewhere– Benefits

• irrigation• source for cities, industry

– Drawbacks• Costs of pipelines, pumps, etc.• Habitat loss• Depletion of another resource

– Mono Lake, CA– Aral Sea




1. Withdraw groundwater 2. Desalination3. Improve efficiency (stop waste)


FRESHWATER RESOURCESUnited Nations Environment Programme

Diunduh dari: api.ning.com/files/..._/FRESHWATERRESOURCES.ppt

Agenda 21's freshwater management guidelines

1. Integrated water resources development and management; 2. Water resources assessment; 3. Protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic

ecosystems; 4. Drinking-water supply and sanitation; 5. Water and sustainable urban development; 6. Water for sustainable food production and rural development;

and 7. The impact of climate change on water resources.


Estimasi Sumberdaya Air Global

• The total volume of water on Earth is ~1.4 billion km3.

• freshwater resources is ~35 million km3, or about 2.5% of the total volume.

• The total usable freshwater supply for ecosystems and humans is ~200 000 km3 of water, which is < 1% of all freshwater resources, and only 0.01% of all the water on Earth

• (Gleick, 1993; Shiklomanov, 1999).


Global Freshwater Resources: Quantity and Distribution by Region

• Of these freshwater resources, ~24 million km3

• 68.9% is in the form of ice and permanent snow cover in mountainous regions, the Antarctic and Arctic regions.


• Some 8 million km3 or 30.8% is stored underground in the form of groundwater (shallow and deep groundwater basins up to 2 000 metres, soil moisture, swamp water and permafrost).

• This constitutes about 97% of all the freshwater that is potentially available for human use.


Global Freshwater Resources: Quantity and Distribution by Region

DAS utama di dunia

Rivers - an estimated 263 international

river basins covering 45.3% of the land surface

area of the earth, excluding

Antarctica.


IIt is estimated that the freshwater available for human consumption varies between 12 500 km3 and 14 000 km3 each year


Biological Oxygen Demand 1976-2000

Biological oxygen demand is an indicator of the organic pollution of freshwater


INDEKS KELESTARIAN LINGKUNGAN = Environmental Sustainability Index

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