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Chief Red Cloud

James Cook. Agate Fossil Beds National Monument.

In the Reflections on R

Nationa

In the late 1800's, Eu and rancher James Cook Oglala Sioux Chief Red common goals: to respel preserve the artifacts of a friendship-unique to thi~

cultures-led to a major housed at Agate Fossil Bec government-to-governmel Graves Protection and Re Their friendship serves as consultation process, inch networks with descendant in this process.

In his last visit to Agl James Cook a letter thanl him a painting that Cook expressed his need for his

Melissa Baird, Ph.D. recently can implications of World Heritage des she is an expert member for the International Scientific Committee

Ruthann Knudson, Ph.D. is thc fon Harrison, NE. She is currently the I Indian, an Adjunct Faculty membe her own consulting firm, Knudson (MT) Resource Conservation and California Academy of Sciences, S

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gate Fossil Beds National Monument.

In the Spirit of Old Friends: Reflections on Repatriation at Agate Fossil Beds

National Monument, Nebraska

by Melissa F. Baird

Ruthann Knudson

Introduction In the late 1800's, Euroamerican Nebraska Territory frontiersman

and rancher James Cook (Cook 1980, Meade 1994, NPS 1980) and Oglala Sioux Chief Red Cloud (Olson 1965, Paul 1997) met for common goals: to respect and learn each other's way of life and to preserve the artifacts of a threatened culture. Their mutual respect and friendship-unique to this time of rampant conflict between these two cultures -led to a major collection of American Indian artifacts now housed at Agate Fossil Beds National Monument and subject to ongoing government-to-government consultations under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA; Fine-Dare 2002). Their friendship serves as a model for reflection on the repatriation and consultation process, including the necessity of establishing long-term networks with descendant communities, and the importance of mentors in this process.

In his last visit to Agate in early May 1908, Red Cloud presented James Cook a letter thanking him for his friendship and bequeathing him a painting that Cook had commissioned. In the letter Red Cloud expressed his need for his legacy to be remembered:

Melissa Baird, Ph.D. recently completed a dissertation that examines the social and political implications of World Heritage designations on local and indigenous communities. In addition, she is an expert member for the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) International Scientific Committee on Archaeological Heritage.

Ruthann Knudson, Ph.D. is the former Superintendent ofAgate Fossil Beds National Monument, Harrison, NE. She is currently the Executive Director of the Friends of the Museum of the Plains Indian, an Adjunct Faculty member at Montana State University-Great Falls, and is Principal of her own consulting firm, Knudson Associates. She also serves as Treasurer of the North Central (MT) Resource Conservation and Development, Inc. Area, and is a Research Associate of the California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco.

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I want you to always own and keep that picture-as long as you live, and then let your oldest son have it to keep. Then I am sure my children and their children can always go and look at the face of one of the last of the old Chiefs that lived before the white men came to take our lands and turn us from the old trails we had followed for so many hundreds of years. I will soon go to join myoId friends and now on my last visit to you my friend I want to say through my nephew and interpreter Mr. Phillip Romero that in you I think my people will always find a true friend and I want them to listen to your words of council.

James Cook and Red Cloud adopted an ethic that was based on mutual respect and understanding and their friendship was extraordinary for times where historical and social forces emphasized tension and distrust.

In this paper, we use their friendship as a model for reflection on the experience of working with Native peoples and land managers on issues ofrepatriation. Historically, Native American peoples and archaeologists have had difficulties understanding each other, particularly when dealing with issues related to reburial or repatriation (e.g., Downer 1997). Contemporary dialogues have benefited from adopting strategies that seek alliances and recognize the validity of diverse viewpoints. The allegiance between Cook and Red Cloud and their legacy of respect is reflected in contemporary dialogues between land managers and Native peoples at Agate Fossil Beds National Monument.

Agate Fossil Beds National Monument: A Brief Introduction Agate Fossil Beds National Monument (AGFO) is aU. S. Department

of the Interior NPS unit located in the "Panhandle" of northwestern Nebraska, an area that is breathtaking in its beauty and starkness. The Monument was authorized in 1965 and includes 3,070 acres along the Niobrara River, of which 2,270 are federally owned and the rest are private. AGFO is open year-round and has about 17,000 visitors from around the world each year.

This region has historically been used by many Plains Indian groups including the Apache, Arapahoe, Arikara, Cheyenne; Crow; Dakota

Sioux, Kiowa, Lakota Sic and Shoshoni. Euroameril and geographic makeup of

AGFO attracts visitors and the museum's collect surprised to learn that AGF includes some 500 ninetet artifacts. A portion of this that was created in consult~

'90s. In addition, the Mo the James and Harold Coo related to Native culture a donated to the NPS by Jan in 1963.

Setting the Scene: Unitt James (

James Cook was born "his marksmanship and f( Cook traveled extensively game and supplies to the r exploring the Plains (Mead to visit his friend Dr. Elish the Niobrara River. The ra hunters interested in his f marry Graham's daughter, I it 'Agate Springs Ranch'. excavations at the fossil to Agate to collect specir 1990:6).

In 1876 Cook asked B at the Red Cloud Agency introduce him to Chief Rei fossils in Sioux territory (J the aging chief of the Ogl< met Cook but he and his ba Reservation in South Dakl

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.eep that picture-as ldest son have it to j their children can )f the last of the old :n came to take our 'Ie had followed for III go to join myoid )U my friend I want :rpreter Mr. Phillip Ie will always find n to your words of

1 ethic that was based on iendship was extraordinary s emphasized tension and

model for reflection on the nd land managers on issues peoples and archaeologists

r, particularly when dealing ion (e.g., Downer 1997). m adopting strategies that diverse viewpoints. The

d their legacy of respect is land managers and Native

ment.

: ABrief Introduction GFO) is aU. S. Department mhandle" of northwestern beauty and starkness. The lldes 3,070 acres along the ly owned and the rest are about 17,000 visitors from

many Plains Indian groups Cheyenne; Crow; Dakota

Sioux, Kiowa, Lakota Sioux, Nakota Sioux, Omaha, Ponca, Pawnee, and Shoshoni. Euroamerican contact drastically changed the cultural and geographic makeup of this region.

AGFO attracts visitors who primarily come to explore the fossil beds and the museum's collections of Miocene fossils. Many visitors are surprised to learn thatAGFO is also home to the Cook Collection, which includes some 500 nineteenth and twentieth century Native American artifacts. A portion of this collection is displayed in a beautiful exhibit that was created in consultation with the Oglala Lakota in the 1980's and '90s. In addition, the Monument maintains, interprets, and preserves the James and Harold Cook family historical documents and ephemera related to Native culture and history. This exceptional collection was donated to the NPS by James Cook's son, Harold Cook, after his death in 1963.

Setting the Scene: United States and American Indian Relations James Cook and ChiefRed Cloud

James Cook was born in Michigan in 1857 and was known for "his marksmanship and fearlessness" (Meade 1990:5). In his youth Cook traveled extensively and worked as a hand on cattle drives, sold game and supplies to the railroad and worked as a guide for geologists exploring the Plains (Meade 1990). In 1879, Cook traveled to Nebraska to visit his friend Dr. Elisha B. Graham at his '04 Ranch,' located near the Niobrara River. The ranch attracted many paleontologists and fossil hunters interested in his fossil rich land. Cook met and would later marry Graham's daughter, Kate, and purchased the '04 Ranch,' renaming it 'Agate Springs Ranch'. Cook continued with the paleontological excavations at the fossil beds and invited numerous paleontologists to Agate to collect specimens for their museum collections (Meade 1990:6).

In 1876 Cook asked Baptiste "Little Bat" Garnier, an Indian scout at the Red Cloud Agency (33 wagon miles east of Cook's ranch), to introduce him to Chief Red Cloud. Cook wanted permission to collect fossils in Sioux territory (Meade 1990:3). Red Cloud, Makhpiya-Luta, the aging chief of the Oglala Lakota, lived at the Agency when he first met Cook but he and his band were soon (1878) moved to the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota. Red Cloud is perhaps best remembered

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for being the only Native American leader to direct a successful war against the United States. Red Cloud and his people prevented the United States Army from advancing the Bozeman Trail and forced the United States into a peace conference in 1868 (Viegas 2005).

From their initial meeting, Cook and Red Cloud set in motion a friendship that would span over thirty years. The Pine Ridge Agency was 95 wagon miles from the Agate Springs Ranch and the Lakota needed passes (Marks 1998) to leave the Agency area. Cook frequently got permission for Red Cloud and his entourage to visitAgate Springs Ranch. The Lakota traveled by wagon for several summer weeks each visit­where they could hold traditional cultural dances and ceremonies at the Ranch, feast on beef when desired, and practice their traditional crafts sitting under the cottonwoods. Those visits were usually accompanied by gift exchanges - food and shelter for quilled and beaded moccasins and vests,

...articles representing their old wild life, things that they had kept and treasured for many years. These they would present to father [Harold Cook], knowing that he would protect and value them as relics of days that were gone forever (Cook 1968: 139).

The cross-cultural material exchange was an expression of the harmony and respect between these individuals and groups.

As Dorothy Cook Meade (1990:3; Harold Cook's daughter) notes: Sioux and Cheyenne leaders came with their families,

pitching their tipis on the banks of the Niobrara, hunting pronghorns with Cook, and talking for long hours. There were long talks, tales of olden times and dances around the campfire. Although most of the chiefs spoke no English, they communicated in sign language and through interpreters when Cook's grasp of their language failed.

This mutual esteem was exemplified in Harold Cook's leave-taking from the Agate Springs Ranch in September 1907, as described by his father (Cook 1980:207-208)

"[O]ur eldest son was leaving home to attend school in Lincoln, Nebraska. It was the first time in his life that he had ever been separated from his parents and home.

The Indians, who \I

one hundred yards 1

son was leaving u which was to take lined up on each door to the drivew them, each woman began to chant the part from their own the Indian camp, a best they owned, ( aged chieftain tool close, placing his ( his back, and he s: is my friend. I and and think of you w forward and embr time were dim wit of both the red an the scene."

The Cook Collection ( AGFO, reflects these man) Cook family from the 1881 blankets, pipes, navel an quillwork, and items from collection, as did his son, H room" so visitors could se Indian artifacts (Meade 191

The Impol The magnitude of Jame

be understood by recogniz 19th Century, the US had Indian into the larger whil Indian culture, laws, lands such as the Indian Remov Indians to reservations, W

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to direct a successful war his people prevented the eman Trail and forced the ~ (Viegas 2005). ed Cloud set in motion a 'he Pine Ridge Agency was lch and the Lakota needed lrea. Cook frequently got visitAgate Springs Ranch. lmmer weeks each visit ­lces and ceremonies at the tice their traditional crafts ",ere usually accompanied led and beaded moccasins

ild life, things that , years. These they :], knowing that he s of days that were

vas an expression of the ils and groups. i Cook's daughter) notes: with their families, ~ Niobrara, hunting g for long hours. I times and dances of the chiefs spoke sign language and ;p of their language

larold Cook's leave-taking 1907, as described by his

ne to attend school time in his life that parents and home.

The Indians, who were encamped in their lodges about one hundred yards from the ranch house, knew that our son was leaving us. When the conveyance drove up which was to take him away, the old Indian women lined up on each side of the walk leading from the door to the driveway; and as my son passed between them, each woman gave him a handshake, and then all began to chant the songs which they sing when they part from their own kinsmen. When the carriage passed the Indian camp, all the men came out, dressed in the best they owned, old Red Cloud taking the lead. The aged chieftain took my son in his arms and held him close, placing his cheek against the boy's and patting his back, and he said: "I am an old man. Your father is my friend. I and my people will give you his name and think of you with good hearts." All the men came forward and embraced the boy, whose eyes by this time were dim with tears, as were those of a number of both the red and the white women who witnessed the scene."

The Cook Collection of American Indian artifacts, now housed at AGFO, reflects these many visits between Red Cloud's people and the Cook family from the 1880's through the early 1900's. Gifts included blankets, pipes, navel amulets, painted hides, clothing, parfleches, quillwork, and items from famous battles. James Cook cherished the collection, as did his son, Harold who displayed these items in the "bone room" so visitors could see this magnificent assemblage of American Indian artifacts (Meade 1990: 12).

The Importance of This Relationship The magnitude of James Cook and Red Cloud's friendship can only

be understood by recognizing these turbulent times. By the end of the 19th Century, the US had a clear agenda: to assimilate the American Indian into the larger white society. This included the eradication of Indian culture, laws, lands, and languages. Earlier federal objectives, such as the Indian Removal Act of 1830, and the forced relocation of Indians to reservations, weakened the Indian nations. By 1887, the

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US passed the General Allotment, or Dawes Act, which authorized the break-up of Indian reservations into individual allotments and the sale of "surplus" lands to white settlers. The U.S wanted to remove any vestige of 'Indianness' and force Indians to exchange their communal beliefs for the larger society's individualistic ideology. After the Civil War the US was able to focus its full force and strength on westward expansIOn.

It is revealing that Chief Red Cloud, a warrior and a statesman and charismatic leader of the Oglala Sioux, relied on a Euroamerican rancher to preserve the legacy of his people. It is evident, though, that he had little choice. The ensuing deluge of Euroamericans overwhelmed the Plains communities and their lands. The Lakota nation wrestled with forced reservation life and was involved in numerous conflicts, including the Great Sioux War of 1876-77 (Paul 1997:7). By 1890, the Indian people were demoralized and defeated and had lost the fight against the United States. The massacre of nearly 350 Indians at Wounded Knee marked the "passing of the Indian frontier" (Utley 1984:257). The tragic and senseless 1890 slaughter of Sioux people at Wounded Knee, who had peaceably gathered for the Ghost Dance and hope of reviving their culture, signified the last hope for Indian people and the nadir of American Indian history. The assault on their cultures, their people, their lands, was now complete.

Yet, despite this acrimonious relationship with whites, Chief Red Cloud and his people respected and trusted Cook and considered him both an ally and a friend. It is in this spirit-the spirit of friendship - that the repatriation process at AGFO was undertaken. The tone of their interactions still resonates today in the ongoing and productive dialogues between land managers and Native communities.

Repatriation and Consultation at AGFO Few issues between archaeologists and Native communities have

been as heated as those surrounding repatriation.3 In 1990, the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA, 25 U.S.c. 3001), was passed by the U.S. Congress and signed into law to ensure sensitive treatment of Native American graves and associated grave goods. NAGPRA sanctions the repatriation - the return of­human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, and objects of cultural

patrimony to tribes and c descent or cultural affiliati, NAGPRA "has fundament Native Americans interact" highly controversial in the' communication between COl "archaeologists and Native and deal forthrightly with re have not been stripped bare be dealt with on this issue."

The Consultatio In 1995 detailed invent(

Fossil Beds and Scottsbluff I in a national mailing sent OUI Department of the Interior ~

specialist, was responsible j

AGFO Superintendent Knu moved to AGFO in 1996.

In 1996-7 a database Wi

Iron to describe the AGFO i

and artifacts presumed to b patrimony. Coincidentally. analysis of the AGFO and the "scalps") verifying thei by Moor-Jansen and Westc(

Hughes (1998) complet and SCBL remains and not~

skull discussed below) coul Therefore, he identified 31 northwestern Nebraska Panl were located, concluding th the remains. The tribes wi is affiliated include the Ok Apache; Northern and SOUl Sioux; Northern and Southe Flandreau Santee, Lower B

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Act, which authorized the ml allotments and the sale l.S wanted to remove any exchange their communal c ideology. After the Civil and strength on westward

arrior and a statesman and on a Euroamerican rancher vident, though, that he had nericans overwhelmed the lkota nation wrestled with merous conflicts, including 7:7). By 1890, the Indian ad lost the fight against the Indians at Wounded Knee ." (Utley 1984:257). The ,people at Wounded Knee, )ance and hope of reviving an people and the nadir of ~eir cultures, their people,

ip with whites, Chief Red Cook and considered him it- the spirit of friendship s undertaken. The tone of Ie ongoing and productive ~ communities.

[)n atAGFO Native communities have

ltion.3 In 1990, the Native ation Act (NAGPRA, 25 ress and signed into law to can graves and associated latriation- the return of­~cts, and objects of cultural

patrimony to tribes and organizations that can demonstrate lineal descent or cultural affiliation with the items subject to repatriation. NAGPRA "has fundamentally changed the way archaeologists and Native Americans interact" (Swidler et al. 1997: 18). NAGPRA, though highly controversial in the 'academy,' has allowed for the inception of communication between constituencies. As Downer (1997:32) asserts, "archaeologists and Native Americans are beginning to discuss things and deal forthrightly with repatriation. Museums and curation facilities have not been stripped bare. Indians are seeing that archaeologists can be dealt with on this issue."

The Consultation Process at AGFO and SCBL In 1995 detailed inventories of material in the collections of Agate

Fossil Beds and Scottsbluff (SCBL) National Monuments were included in a national mailing sent out to U. S. Native American tribes by the U. S. Department of the Interior Secretary. Mark Hertig, the AGFO Museum specialist, was responsible for these activities for both monuments and AGFO Superintendent Knudson continued in that joint effort after she moved to AGFO in 1996.

In 1996-7 a database was created by enrolled Crow Indian Yvonne Iron to describe the AGFO and SCBL Native American human remains and artifacts presumed to be sacred Native objects or items of cultural patrimony. Coincidentally, a bioanthropological description and analysis of the AGFO and SCBL collections' human remains (except the "scalps") verifying their Native American identity was completed by Moor-Jansen and Westcott (1999).

Hughes (1998) completed a cultural affiliation study of the AGFO and SCBL remains and noted that none of them (excluding the Klallam skull discussed below) could be associated with a specific Indian tribe. Therefore, he identified 31 tribes as being culturally affiliated with the northwestern Nebraska Panhandle landscape in which AGFO and SCBL were located, concluding that any or all of them could be affiliated with the remains. The tribes with whom the AGFO and SCBL landscape is affiliated include the Oklahoma, Fort Sill, Jicarilla, and Mescalero Apache; Northern and Southern Arapahoe; Fort Peck Assiniboine and Sioux; Northern and Southern Cheyenne; Cheyenne River, Crow Creek, Flandreau Santee, Lower Brule, Oglala, Rosebud, Santee, Spirit Lake,

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Standing Rock, and Yankton Sioux; Northwestern Band and Wind River Shoshoni; Shoshone-Bannock; Shoshoni-Paiute; Comanche; Crow; Omaha; Nebraska and Oklahoma Ponca; Pawnee; Mandan-Hidatsa­Arikara; and Kiowa.

Within the AGFO collection five artifacts had been historically identified as "human scalps" with no verification of their human nature. In 1999 Knudson had these artifacts examined by the Laramie (WY) County Coroner to adjudge their human nature; four (NPS 2001b) were determined to be of human origin, which was confirmed by their associated historic records, and one was judged to be a decoration made of horse hair. There was documentation that two of these were affiliated with the Pawnee, one with the Blackfeet, and one with the Crow. The Pawnee and Blackfeet scalps were repatriated, but the Crow have declined to request the return of the scalp of a historic Crow member.

One Native American skull in the AGFO collections had been acquired by James Cook in the early 1900s from an antiquities shop in Seattle, Washington. Documentation associated with the skull stated that it had been found on Vancouver Island, Be. Because the historic Native American community associated with the BC find spot were Klallam Indians who live on both the Canadian and U.S. sides of the Juan de Fuca Strait, Knudson initiated consultation with the Lower Elwha Klallam tribe in Port Angeles, WA. The Lower Elwha requested repatriation of the skull, all appropriate legal documents were completed (NPS 2001 a), and the skull was repatriated to the Washington state tribe in 2002.

In 1999 Superintendent Knudson initiated personal contact with the 31 AGFO/SCBL-Iandscape-affiliated tribes, beginning conversations with them about a future NAGPRA consultation event. This event would include discussion of the scalps present in the AGFO collections, but only as ancillary to the primary discussion about the other human remains in the AGFO and SCBL collections whose cultural affiliation was initially unclear.

In 1999, Dr. Margaret Conkey, Baird's advisor and mentor, con­tacted the junior author, Dr. Ruthann Knudson, the Superintendent of AGFO and after some exchange Knudson invited Baird to serve as the NAGPRA Coordinator, under her direction and sponsored by the Na­tional Park Service (NPS) and the Student Conservation Association.

Baird followed up on the initial tribal connections made by Knudson

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and responded to inquiries gathered and reviewed SuP] tribes on issues of reburia research in the Monument a Upon completion of this tm for review by tribal govern to be held where tribal rei NAGPRA-eligible collecti from both AGFO and SCB

Legally appropriate rep were invited to consult ane event at Fort Robinson St The NPS proposed to pay Native participants. Of the i Sioux; Crow; Crow Creek Peck Assiniboine and Siou Ponca of Oklahoma; Ponca Three Affiliated Tribes 0

Wind River Shoshoni;) ser Siouan Intertribal Repatrial tribes (Flandreau Santee ~

represented at the meeting these exchanges and the di.

TheW. On June 2, 1999 repres

groups met at Fort Robin facilitate the development and SCBL should interact the National Historic Prl Protection Act, NAGPRA manage cultural resources between Monument and productive. The worksho] understanding and address focus was on productive e: were raised, these were :

'\

~stem Band and Wind River Paiute; Comanche; Crow; Pawnee; Mandan-Hidatsa­

facts had been historically ation of their human nature. ined by the Laramie (WY) nature; four (NPS 2001b) lich was confirmed by their ged to be a decoration made two of these were affiliated nd one with the Crow. The riated, but the Crow have ~ a historic Crow member. GFO collections had been from an antiquities shop in lted with the skull stated that Because the historic Native Be find spot were Klallam .S. sides ofthe Juan de Fuca the Lower Elwha Klallam

ha requested repatriation of ~re completed (NPS 2001 a), ~ton state tribe in 2002. ed personal contact with the s, beginning conversations mltation event. This event :nt in the AGFO collections, )ion about the other human IS whose cultural affiliation

; advisor and mentor, con­ison, the Superintendent of nvited Baird to serve as the I and sponsored by the Na­:onservation Association. mections made by Knudson

and responded to inquiries from both NPS employees and Tribes and gathered and reviewed supporting documents for consultations with the tribes on issues of reburial and repatriation, proposed archaeological research in the Monument and its effect on traditional cultural properties. Upon completion of this task, all supporting documents were distributed for review by tribal governments and plans were initiated for a meeting to be held where tribal representatives could discuss the monuments' NAGPRA-eligible collections and related issues with representatives from both AGFO and SCBL.

Legally appropriate representatives from each ofthe related 31 tribes were invited to consult and see the collections during a June 2-3, 1999 event at Fort Robinson State Park, Crawford, Nebraska, and AGFO. The NPS proposed to pay all travel expenses and honoraria for these Native participants. Of the invited tribes, 14 (Arapahoe; Cheyenne River Sioux; Crow; Crow Creek Sioux; Duck Valley Shoshoni-Paiute; Fort Peck Assiniboine and Sioux; Lower Brule Sioux; Northern Cheyenne; Ponca of Oklahoma; Ponca of Nebraska; Rosebud Sioux; Santee Sioux, Three Affiliated Tribes of the Arikara, Hidatsa, and Mandan; and Wind River Shoshoni;) sent representatives to the event. Because of a Siouan Intertribal Repatriation Memorandum of Agreement, three other tribes (Flandreau Santee Sioux, Oglala Sioux, Yankton Sioux) were represented at the meeting as well. What was important was the tone of these exchanges and the dialogue that continues today.

The Workshop, June 2-3,1999 On June 2, 1999 representatives from the afore-mentioned 14 tribal

groups met at Fort Robinson, Nebraska at a workshop designed to facilitate the development of inter-tribal consensus about how AGFO and SCBL should interact with tribal governments in compliance with the National Historic Preservation Act, Archaeological Resources Protection Act, NAGPRA, and other legal requirements and how to manage cultural resources within the monuments. The interactions between Monument and Tribal representatives were positive and productive. The workshop was designed to assist the Monuments in understanding and addressing the needs of the tribes. In this light, the focus was on productive exchanges. Although questions and concerns were raised, these were addressed amicably and with an emphasis

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on respect. During these discussions the Lower Elwha skull in the collection was mentioned, as were the four scalps, and it was decided that these items were outside the purview of the current discussions about landscape-related materials.

On June 3, 1999, the group met at Agate Fossil Beds National Monument, where the attending tribes were able to view the NAGPRA­eligible remains and associated items. After this review and their own discussions, the tribes presented to the Superintendent of Agate Fossil Beds and Scottsbluff National Monuments a signed request for the repatriation of the human remains and associated funerary objects based on an assertion of joint cultural association. That request was subsequently agreed to by the Monument managers, that agreement being published in the Federal Register (NPS 2000) with a subsequent correction because of the genetic mis-identification of tone remains (NPS 2001 b). A Repatriation Agreement was signed by Superintendent Knudson and all 17 tribes (NPS 2005) and is currently on fIle at AGFO awaiting implementation.

Working with Descendant Communities Consultation and collaboration with Native groups is critical to

building positive relationships and requires a long-term time investment and commitment from all involved for these relationships to be fruitful. Establishing a working rapport, built on mutual trust and respect for differing worldviews and opinions is vital for these relationships to evolve. Some may argue that they do not know how to take the initial steps - that the consultation process is too cumbersome, too difficult, or they lack the connections and resources necessary for consultation. Yet, as Ben Rhodd, a Potawatomi Indian (cited in Russell 1996:15) asserts, "all it sometimes takes is sitting down with the people you fear and talking with them on a human level. A lot of it is your approach as an individual." At AGFO lines of communication were consistently being checked and rechecked and the tribes were consulted at all stages AGFO's implementation of a proactive approach that included all tribal groups in all stages with all relevant material in the consultation process not only facilitated communication but also improved relations.

It is also essential that people new to the consultation process have mentors to help guide them in interacting with descendant communities.

In Baird's experience, wo archaeologist and tribal mt insight into the consultation working with tribal groups to explore the consultation resolve potential conflicts a with their guidance.

It is increasingly de and descendant communiti relationships to be fruitful. at AGFO is one example constituencies can be posit Cook and Chief Red Cloud between the AGFO and Tri together with patience and· continue to reflect upon OUl

Cook and Chief Red CIOl structure future dialogues.

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Lower Elwha skull in the scalps, and it was decided of the current discussions

.gate Fossil Beds National able to view the NAGPRA­fter this review and their Ie Superintendent of Agate iments a signed request for associated funerary objects >ciation. That request was managers, that agreement

)S 2000) with a subsequent nification of tone remains .s signed by Superintendent s currently on file at AGFO

:ommunities ·ative groups is critical to llong-term time investment relationships to be fruitful. lutual trust and respect for for these relationships to

now how to take the initial 1mbersome, too difficult, or ssary for consultation. Yet, n Russell 1996: 15) asserts, h the people you fear and t of it is your approach as nication were consistently were consulted at all stages :)ach that included all tribal in the consultation process improved relations. ~ consultation process have h descendant communities.

In Baird's experience, working under the tutelage of a professional archaeologist and tribal members on these issues provided invaluable insight into the consultation process. Knudson's honesty and experience working with tribal groups on multiple levels provided an opportunity to explore the consultation process. A mentor is essential in helping resolve potential conflicts and many awkward moments can be avoided with their guidance.

Conclusion It is increasingly clear that relations between archaeologists

and descendant communities must be grounded in respect for these relationships to be fruitful. The repatriation and consultation process at AGFO is one example of how interactions between these two constituencies can be positive and productive. The legacy of James Cook and Chief Red Cloud was reflected in the contemporary dialogues between the AGFO and Tribal representatives with both sides coming together with patience and fortitude to work on these issues. We must continue to reflect upon our interactions and recognize that like James Cook and Chief Red Cloud, our discourse today may inform and structure future dialogues.

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References

Atalay, S. 2006 Indigenous Archaeology as Decolonizing Practice. In American Indian quarterly 30(3):280-310.

Cook. H. J. 1968. Tales ojthe 04 Ranch. Recollections ojHarold J. Cook. 1887-1909. University oj Nebraska Press. Lincoln.

Cook, 1. H. /980. 50 Years on the Old Frontier. University oj Oklahoma Press, Norman.

Downer, A. 1997. Archaeologists-Native American Relations. In Native Americans and Archaeologists: Stepping Stones to Common Ground, edited by Swidler et aI., pp. 23-34. AltaMira Press. Walnut Creek.

Ferguson, T.J. 1997. The Changing Role of Native Americans in the Archaeological Study of the Past: Recent History and Future Prospects. Paper presented at the 62"d Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology. Nashville.

Fine-Dare, K. S. 2002. Grave Injustice: The American Indian Repatriation Movement and NAGPRA. University ojNebraska Press, Lincoln.

Hughes, D. T. 1998. Cultural Affiliation oj Native Americans to the Region Encompassing Scotts Bluff National Monument and Agate Fossil Beds National Monument in northwestern Nebraska. Report to the National Park Service submitted by Wichita State University; on file, Agate Fossil Beds National Monument, Harrison, Nebraska.

Marks, P. M. 1998.ln a Barren Land: American Indian Dispossession and Survival. HarperCollins. New York.

Meade. D.C. 1994. Heart Bags and Hand Shakes: The Story oj the Cook Collection. National Woodlands Publishing Company, Michigan.

Moore-Jansen, P, with D. J. Westcott. 1999. Investigations and Analysis oj Human Skeletal Remains from Scotts Bluff and Agate Fossil Beds National Monuments. Nebraska. Report submitted to the National Park Service by the Biological Anthropology Laboratory, Wichita State University. Wichita, Kansas; onfile. Agate Fossil Beds National Monument. Harrison, Nebraska.

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I

48

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