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THE CHALLENGE TO A GLOBALMODEL OF EDUCATION:
THE CASE OF MUSLIM PRIVATESCHOOLS IN SOUTH AFRICA
By
ZAINONISA KHAN
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of therequirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
In the
School of Religion and Theology, Faculty of Humanities, Development andSocial Sciences
At the
University of KwaZulu - Natal
SUPERVISOR: Professor S.E. DANGOR
December 2006
ETHICAL STATEMENT BY RESEARCHER
With the signature below I, Zainonisa Khan, hereby declare that the
work that I present in this thesis is based on my own research, and
that I have not submitted this thesis to any other institution of higher
education to obtain an academic qualification.
•
Z.Khan
15 December 2006
Date
11
Abstract
The modern system of education is less than two centuries old. It is
premised on secularism. It is the outcome of theological and
philosophical debates as much as of the politics and power interests of
the 16th and 17th centuries. The past two decades have witnessed the
emergence of Islamic schools in Europe, the United States and South
Africa. The initial aim of these schools was to provide an Islamic
environment to the learners. During the 80s their focus contoured to the
process of Islamization. This project was initiated in the US by Muslim
academics including Isma'il al-Faruqi, Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Fazlur
Rahman as a response to the secularization of Muslim society,
including its educational institutions. Since then seven international
conferences have been held in various parts of the Muslim World. The
International Institute of Islamic Thought and the Association of Muslim
Social Scientists have joined hands in the effort to Islamize education.
The first five conferences laid the theoretical and philosophical
foundation of education. The sixth conference was held in South Africa
and took the form of workshops to drive the Islamization project at
school level. The outcome of the sixth conference was a concrete set of
Islamized syllabi, which could be implemented in Muslim schools. The
South African schools were chosen to do the field-testing; this provided
me with the impetus for this research. The aim is to determine the
extent to which Muslim independent schools in South Africa can be
viewed as challenging the secular model of education through the
process ofIslamization.
111
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
f'1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/I/I/I/.I7I/I/I/I/II''''''''/I/I/I/I/I/I/I/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/,1//1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/1/#:#/1/11
~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ First, I wish to express my sincere gratitude to the Almighty Allah (SWT) ~~ ~I who guided and granted me strength, good health and patience during ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~I Second, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Professor S.E. I~ ~~ ~~ Dangor. Thanks to him I was able to undertake research in Islamization ~~ ~~ ~~ ofKnowledge. His guidance led me to become more knowledgeable ~
~ ~~ with the pioneers and history ofIslamic education. His invaluable ~~ ~~ ~I assistance in, planning the design of the research, his tireless efforts, I~ ~I the proof reading and recommendations, without which this research I~ ~~ d h b ~~ project coul not ave een completed. I am deeply indebted to him, for ~~ ~~ ~~ always affording me unlimited access, sometimes at very short notice. ~
~ ~~ ~I ~
~ "~ ~~ A special thanks to my husband, Abdurahman, whose companionship ~~ ~~ throughout the research was invaluable. His assistance in obtaining the ~~ ~
~ relevant literature and most of all, the hours spent typing the thesis. ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ To my children, Ashraf, Mohamed Hoosain & Mish'al for the ~i ~~ h ~; encouragement t ey gave me to embark on this research. Thanks to ~~ ~~ ~~ Mahomed Hoosain for his invaluable assistance with the analysis of ~; ~
~ the questionnaires. ~i ~i ~~ ~i ~i ~~ Lastly, my thanks to the principals and educators of the various Muslim ~~ ~
~ private schools in Gauteng, Western Cape and Kwazulu Natal who also ~~ ~i ~~ contributed significantly. ~~ ~; ~~ ~t ~~
~ Finally, I am indeed thankful for the financial support received from The ~~ t, National Research Fund. ~t ~~ ~~ ~~ ~t ~t ~1#/#I/I'/I/,l.I'/I/I/I/:I/I/'/I'/I:#/I/I/I/I~I/I/I/.I/I/I/IW/I/I/I/1/1/1/1/1%"/I/I/JI"JII';.~'/I/#./I/,I/"'/"'/llI/I/I/I/I/I/I/;I/"/'/#I/I/I~'"I/'/I/I/#I~
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
1.
1.1.1.2.1.2.1.1.3.1.4.1.5.1.6.1.7.1.8.1.9.1.10.1.11.1.12.1.13.1.14.1.15.
2.
2.1.2.2.2.3.
2.4.2.5.
3.
3.1.3.1.1.3.1.2.3.1.3.3.1.3.1.3.1.4.3.2.3.2.1.3.2.2.3.2.3.3.3.3.3.1.3.3.2.
CHAPTER 1: BROAD OVERVIEW OF THERESEARCH 1
OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH TOPIC 1AIMS OF THE RESEARCH 2SUB THEMES 3RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY 3SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 5KEY CRITICAL QUESTIONS 6RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND OBJECTIVES 6SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH 8RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS 8RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & APPROACH 9KEY ASSUMPTIONS 9LIMITAnONS OF THE STUDY 9PRIOR RESEARCH 9OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS 11LITERATURE REVIEW 13REFERENCES 29
CHAPTER 2: THE SECULARIZATION OFEDUCATION IN THE MUSLIMS WORLD 30
INTRODUCTION 30DEFINING SECULARISM 30THE SECULARISAnON OF EDUCATION IN MUSLIMSSOCIETIES 32CONCLUSION 36REFERENCES 37
CHAPTER 3: EDUCATION IN SELECT MUSLIMSCOUNTRIES 38
EDUCATION IN SAUDI ARABIA 38CHALLENGES & ACHIEVEMENTS 38PUBLIC SCHOOL CURRICULUM .42PRIVATE EDUCATION 42TYPES OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS 43INTEGRATED UNIVERSITY CURRICULUM .44EDUCATION IN EGYPT 45BACKGROUND TO THE EDUCATION SYSTEM .45PUBLIC SCHOOL CURRICULUM .49FOCUS ON ETHICS & VALUES 51EDUCATION IN NIGERIA 53RELIGIOUS EDUCAnON IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 55PRIVATE SCHOOLS: THE HORIZON COLLEGE 57
3.4. EDUCATION IN TURKEy 583.4.1. IMPACT OF ATATURK'S SECULARIZATION PROJECT
ON THE EDUCATION SYSTEM 593.4.2. RELIGIOUS EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS SINCE
1949 613.4.3. IMAM HATIP HIGH SCHOOLS 633.4.4. HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION 643.5. EDUCATION IN PAKISATAN 653.5.1. TRADITIONAL AND MODERN EDUCATION 653.5.2. REFORM OF THE TRADITIONAL MADRASSA 663.5.3. CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION 673.6. EDUCATION IN MALAYSIA 693.6.1. RELIGION EDUCATION IN PUBLIC & PRIVATE
SCHOOLS 713.7. EDUCATION IN INDONESIA 743.7.1. MAINSTREAMING ISLAMIC EDUCATION 773.8. CONCLUSION 823.9. REFERENCES 84
4. CHAPTER 4: THE PIONEERS OF ISLAMIZATION OFKNOWLEDGE 87
4.1. INTRODUCTION 874.2. MUHAMMAD ABDUH 894.3. HASAN AL-BANNA 924.4. SAYYID QUTB 954.5. SAYYID ABU'L ALA MAUDODI.. 974.6. ISMA'IL RAJI AL-FAROQI 1004.6.1. THE PROBLEM 1004.6.2. THE TASK 1014.6.3. THE WORKPLAN 1024.7. SAYYID HOSSEIN NASR 1044.8. SAYYID MUHAMMAD NAQUIB AL-ATTAS 1064.8.1. RESPONSE TO THE CHALLENGE OF KNOWLEDGE 1074.8.2. AL-ATTAS' PROPOSAL 1094.9. ABDULHAMID A. ABUSULAYMAN I 114.9.1. ISLAMIZATION OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 1144.10. FAZLUR RAHMAN 1164.10.1. GRAPPLING WITH THE PROBLEM 1164.11. CONCLUSION 1184.12. REFERENCES 121
5. CHAPTER 5: THE SIXTH INTERNATIONALCONFERENCE ON ISLAMIC EDUCATION AND THEGENERATION OF ISLAMIZED SYLLABI 123
5.1. INTRODUCTION 123
6.
5.2.
5.5.
8.
9.
THE SIXTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON ISLAMICEDUCATION 124
5.2.1. PLANNING THE SIXTH CONFERENCE 1245.2.2. FOCUS OF THE SIXTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 1255.3. THE ISLAMIZED SYLLABUSES 1265.3.1. ISLAMIC STUDIES SYLLABUS 1285.3.2. ARABIC SyLLABUS 1285.3.3. ENGLISH SyLLABUS 1305.3.4. MATHEMATIC SYLLABUS 1325.3.5. SCIENCE SYLLABUS 1335.3.6. BIOLOGY SYLLABUS 1365.3.7. GEOGRAPHY SYLLABUS 1395.3.8. HISTORY SYLLABUS 1415.3.9. COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS 1455.3.9.1. WAYS TO ISLAMIZE COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS 1455.3.10. VISUAL ARTS SYLLABUS 1475.3.10.1. PRIMARY OBJECTIVES OF THE SYLLABUS 1485.3.10.2. SAMPLE LESSON 1495.3.11. JUNIOR PRIMARY SYLLABUS 1505.3.11.1. POSITION STATEMENT FOR THE VARIOUS SUBJECTS 1515.3.11.2. ISLAMIC OBJECTS IN THE JUNIOR PRIMARY PHASE ]535.4. INTERNATIONAL BOARD OF EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH & RESOURCES (IBERR) 155REFERENCES 159
CHAPTER 6: MUSLIM PRIVATE SCHOOLS ASAGENTS OF ISLAMIZATION IN SOUTH AFRICA 160
INTRODUCTION ]60MUSLIM INDEPENDENT SCHOOLS IN SOUTH AFRICA 160ANALYSIS OF INTERVIEWS OF PRINCIPALS &EDUCATORS AT SELECTED INDEPENDENT MUSLIMSSCHOOLS IN SOUTH AFRICA 162SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS 163THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT 164DATA COLLECTION & ANALYSIS 164ANALYSIS / RESULTS L65CONCLUSION ]78REFERENCES 181
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION 182
DISCUSSION 182SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ]85RECOMMENDATIONS 186
BIBLIOGRAPHY 188
APPENDIX: QUESTIONNAIRES 188
6.1.6.2.6.3.
6.3.1.6.3.2.6.3.3.6.3.3.1.6.4.6.5.
7.7.1.7.2.7.3.
Chapterl.
Broad Overview of the Research
1.1 Outline of Research Topic
Embedded in the title "The Challenge to a Global Model of
Education: The Case of Muslim Private Schools in South Africa"
is the notion of "Islamization of Knowledge".
The phrase "Islamization of Knowledge" was conceptualized and
proposed by the Malaysian scholar, Sayed Muhammad Naquib
al-Attas, who used it in his book Islam and Secularism first
published in 1967. AI-Attas defines Islamization as follows:
Islamization is the liberation of man first from magical,
mythological, animistic, national-culture tradition
(opposed to Islam) and then from the secular control over
his reason and his language... it is also a liberation from
subservience to his physical demands which inclines
toward the secular and injustice to his true self or soul,
for man as physical being inclines towards forgetfulness
of his true nature, becoming ignorant of his true purpose
and unjust to it. Islamization is a process not so much of
evolution as that of devolution to original nature... 1
The Palestinian philosopher, Isma'il Raji al-Fanlqi,
subsequently used the phrase in 1982 in response to what he
called "the malaise of the ummarr' (Muslim community).
In his book, Islamization of Knowledge: The Problem Principle
and Work plan, he argues:
The prime agent disseminating the alien view has been
the educational system, bifurcated, as it is, into two
systems, one "Modem" and the other "Islamic". This
bifurcation is the epitome of Muslim decline. Unless it is
dealt with and removed, it will continue to subvert every
Muslim effort to reconstruct the ummah, and carry forth
the Amanah Allah (SWT) has entrusted to it.2
"Global Model of Education" in the title refers to the secular
model of education, which has virtually become universal.
1.2 Aims of the Research
This study compnses of three elements. To begin with, I will
raise basic issues relating to my topic, viz. Islamization of
Knowledge. Thereafter I will discuss Muslim private schools
globally, with an emphasis on Muslim private schools in South
Africa. Finally, the challenges facing Muslim private schools will
be analyzed in terms of the globalization of the educational
system and curricula.
The Objectives of this Study can be summarized as Follows:
1. To determine if and to what extent education has been
secularized in the Muslim World.
2. To trace the history of the "Islamization of Knowledge" project.
3. To establish the rationale for the establishment of Muslim
private schools in South Africa.
4. To assess the impact of Islamization on Muslim private schools
in South Africa.
2
1.2.1 Sub Themes
1. To highlight the challenges facing Muslim private schools In
South Africa.
2. To understand the impact of globalization on indigenous
knowledge systems.
3. To conduct a national and international comparative study of
Muslim private schools.
1.3 Rationale for the Study
The aim of the study is to posit "Islamization of Knowledge" as
an intellectual Muslim response to secularization. The Islamic
Weltanschauung dominated in the Muslim World following the
Qur'anic revelation until the eighteenth century. The infiltration
of foreign ideas, including secularization, had a profound impact
on the Muslim World. In many countries, almost all institutions
of state and society have become secularized. Consequently, the
curricula and syllabi offered by the majority of educational
institutions in the Muslim World do not conform to the Islamic
Weltanschauung.
In their study of pnmary school curricula in 130 countries
(including Muslim countries) Benavot and Kamens discovered
that the same basic subjects were taught and the same
emphasis gIven to various subjects. 3 The secular education
system has become a global phenomenon.
To cite Yasien Mohamed:
By the twentieth century all Muslim countries had
adopted modem educational institutions in the form of
secular universities, colleges and schools.
3
These developments brought about radical social change.
Muslims originally hoped that Modem, secular education
would enable them to adopt modem technology and
share in its benefits and comforts.. .Early revivalists such
as Muhammad Abdu reacted to modernity which had
begun to affect the life-style of Muslims. 4
By the end of the twentieth century, Muslim scholars became
increasingly concerned about the impact of secularization on
Muslim societies all over the world. They feared that the Muslim
World was in danger of losing its identity as a consequence of
modern secular education which was alienating Muslims from
their traditions and values. Muslim scholars concluded that the
solution to the problem was to counter the secularization
through generating a system of education, which was based on
an Islamic epistemology.
This led to a concerted effort by scholars to "Islamize
knowledge". At the first World Conference of Muslim Education
(1977), scholars debated the subject intensely and vigorously
and grappled with the problems associated with secular
education and the negative effects it has on Muslim societies.
One of the key points of the discourse was that knowledge and
the method by which knowledge is obtained should undergo
'Islamization". In the words of Sayyid Muhammad Naquib al
Attas "these efforts to regain intellectual freedom have given rise
to a quasi intellectual moment, sometimes called "Islamization
of Knowledge" or "De-westernization of knowledge"".s
The Second World Conference in Islamabad in 1982 culminated
in the birth of Faruqi's Islamization of Knowledge project, which
has developed into a huge, multi-generational, global program.
4
Muslim schools have emerged as the maIn agencIes of
Islamization. From the 2nd - 4 th July 2004, I attended the
Association of Muslim Schools Conference at the University of
KwaZulu Natal, Westville Campus.
The conference gave me further insight into the Issues
pertaining to the Islamization of the Education System of
Muslim Private Schools.
While a study of the curricula of Muslim schools in South Africa
provides an important barometer to measure the extent to
which the various syllabi have been Islamized, it does not
confirm that these are being implemented. To determine this,
fieldwork was essential.
1.4 Significance of the Study
In the last two decades hundreds of Muslim private schools
have been established throughout the world. In South Africa,
more than seventy such schools have been established in the
same period. This has given rise to speculation as to the
underlying motives for this development. One reason that has
been advanced is that these schools provide an alternate model
of education. It is, therefore, important to determine the nature
of this education and whether and to what extent Muslim
schools in South Africa are providing this new model.
5
This study will be of significance to educators, policy makers
and, to some degree, even to those interested in the issue of
indigenous knowledge systems.
1.5 Key Critical Questions
The study will attempt to answer the following key critical
questions:
1. To what extent has education been secularized in the Muslim
World?
2. In what context was the notion of "Islamization of knowledge"
conceived?
3. What is the rationale for establishing Muslim private schools in
South Africa?
4. Has the Islamization of Knowledge project had any impact on
Muslim independent schools in South Africa?
1.6 Research Problem & Objectives
During the rule of the 'Abbasid dynasty, which succeeded the
Umayyad dynasty, the Bayt al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom) in
Baghdad became the center of Islamic learning. This center was
established by Caliph al-Ma'miln in 830AD. He employed people
of all races and religions to translate the great works of different
cultures into Arabic. This translation of knowledge is considered
among the main events of the middle Ages, which contributed to
the Renaissance in Europe.
The establishment of the Umayyad dynasty in Spain ushered in
the "golden age" of Islam in Spain. Cordova was established as
the capital and soon became Europe's greatest city not only in
population but also from the point of view of its cultural and
6
intellectual life. During the eight centuries of Islamic rule m
Spain's history (711-1491) great contributions were made to
knowledge and learning.
Later, the Ottomans became the dominant power in the
intellectual and civilizational world of Islam. Turkish higher
education dates back to the Nizamiyah Madrassa established by
Seljuk Turks in Baghdad in the eleventh century. The madrassa
was similar to the medieval university in Europe in many ways.
It offered courses in religion, law and rhetoric, as well as in
philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and medicine.
Kamal Ataturk gained power in Turkey, abolished six centuries
of Ottoman rule in 1924, and established Turkey as a secular
state. The secularization of Muslim society was accelerated after
the demise of the Ottoman Empire.
European systems were introduced into the Muslim world,
including the secular education paradigm.
From the 1970's Muslim scholars and, in particular, social
scientists perceived the secular approach to the human and
social sciences as a fundamental problem for Muslims. They
began to organize conferences on Islamization and publishing
papers dealing with the human and social sciences from an
Islamic perspective and based on the philosophy of Islamic
education.
This study exammes the intellectual Muslim response to the
secularization of Muslim societies, in particular to the secular
education paradigm, by the pioneers of Islamization and the
extent of their influence on Muslim communities around the
world, with special reference to South Africa.
7
1.7 Scope of Research
I visited Muslim Independent Schools in three regions, namely,
Gauteng, Western Cape and KwaZulu-Natal where I interviewed
educators and school principals. Though the research was
limited to nIne schools, the findings can be assumed for the
majority, if not all, Muslim independent Muslim schools in
South Africa.
1.8 Research Hypothesis
In order to execute the aims of the research, the hypothesis was
based on literature dealing with Islamization. The literature
indicated that Islamization of Knowledge was conceived as an
alternate paradigm to the secular model of education. In al
Faruqi's words "Islamization IS a systematic orientation and
restructuring of the entire field of human knowledge in
accordance with a new set of criteria and categories derived
from and based on the Islamic worldview."6
AI-Otaibi and Rashid contend that throughout the Muslim
World, efforts are underway to replace the "dominant secular
approach" and "to provide an Islamic framework for the
education of Muslim children".7
The basic hypothesis underlying this research is that Muslim
Independent schools in South Africa, in contrast with other
independent schools and the public school sector, provide an
"Islamized" curriculum.
8
1.9 Research Methodology and Approach
This study takes place in the context of "Islamization of
Knowledge" as a social phenomenon with a historical
dimension, which has developed over three decades.
The research was based on literature as well as interviews. My
literary sources are indicated below. I interviewed principals and
educators. I asked structured and unstructured questions. The
data obtained is transcribed into one of the chapters in the
thesis.
1.10 Key assumptions
The study had the following key assumptions:
~ By interviewing participants, the study would reveal important
information about adoption of the Islamized curriculum in
South African schools
~ By participating in the research, interviewees would acqUIre
more insights into the Islamization project
1.11 Limitations of the Study
The findings of this research are valid only for South African
schools.
Since the circumstances of Muslim schools outside South Africa
have not been considered, these findings are not applicable to
them.
1.12 Prior Research
There are many publications on Islamization of Knowledge. The
conferences on Islamization culminated in the publication of
9
conference proceedings - such as Islam: Source and Purpose of
Knowledge and Toward Islamization of Disciplines published by
the International Institute of Islamic Thought in 1982 and 1989
respectively - as well as an entire series on Islamic Education
published by the King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah.
In addition, many books and articles in journals have been
published. Crisis in Muslim Education and Aims and Objectives
of Islamic Education both of which were also published by the
King Abdulaziz University set out in succinct terms the
challenges facing Islamic education today, including the issue of
conflicting epistemologies. The American Journal of Islamic
Social Sciences and Muslim Education Quarterly regularly
publish articles relating to Islamization.
However, all of the above publications deal either with the
conceptual issues relating to Islamization of knowledge or the
Islamization of university disciplines such as Anthropology and
Psychology. None deals specifically with Islamization at school
level.
The article by Suleman Dangor entitled "The Islamization of
Disciplines: Towards an Indigenous Knowledge System"
published by Educational Philosophy and Theory discusses the
process of Islamization of school disciplines that occurred In
South Africa after the 6 th World Conference on Education In
Cape Town in 1996. However, it does not deal with the question
of implementation of the Islamized syllabi.
The Master's thesis by Shabir Adam entitled "Association of
Muslim Schools (AMS): The Need and Relevance for the
establishment of Muslim private schools in South Africa" is
relevant to our study.
10
However, while indicating the rationale for the founding of
Muslim independent schools it does not deal with curriculum
issues. This is the gap, which I hope to fill through the present
study.
The pioneering works of al-Attas, al-Faruqi and AbdulHamid
AbuSulayman are the primary sources for this study. I will
examine al-Faruqi's "Tawhfdi' paradigm as set out in his
"Islamization of Knowledge" published by The International
Institute of Islamic Thought (lIlT). AbdulHamid AbuSulayman,
who together with al-Faruqi was the driving force behind
Islamization in the early seventies, emphasized the need for
reforming and renewing contemporary Muslim thought from an
Islamic perspective. His writings are critical for our research.
The curriculum and Islamized texts generated for all the major
school disciplines at the Sixth International Conference on
Muslim education held in Cape Town in 1996 and published in
1998 will be included in one of the chapters of the thesis by way
of illustration.
1.13 Overview of ChaptersChapter 1: Introduction
This chapter deals with the Research Design
Chapter 2: The Secularization of Education in the
Muslim World
This chapter briefly describes the secularization of education in
the Muslim World and the contradictions it generated between
the two divergent approaches to knowledge and education.
11
Chapter 3: Education System of Select Muslim
countries
Chapter 3 deals with the educational system in select Muslim
countries with a view to determining if, and to what extent, the
secularization of education has influenced the educational
system in these countries.
Chapter 4: Pioneers of Islamization of Knowledge
This chapter provides a useful background of the pioneers of
Islamization. This is critical to our understanding of the Muslim
response to the secularization of education.
Chapter 5: Sixth International Conference on
Muslim Education
This chapter will focus on the Sixth International Conference on
Muslim education, which was held in Cape Town in 1996. The
reason for selecting this conference is that it was the first to
deal specifically with Islamization as it applied to schools and
the first to involve educators as active participants in drafting
syllabi. The workshops held at this conference and decisions
made had far-reaching implications for Muslim schools here
and abroad. These will be examined.
Chapter 6:
Islamization
Muslim Schools as agents of
Over seventy Muslim independent schools have been
established in South Africa over the past two decades.
12
This chapter explains the rationale for the establishment of
these schools.
It also exammes the implementation of the Islamized syllabi
adopted at the Sixth International Islamic Educational
Conference (1996) by the Association of Muslim Schools.
The data was compiled from interviews with educators at select
Muslim independent schools in South Africa, including Habibiya
College, presently known as Islamia College. The obstacles to
achieving the goal of Islamization as well as the challenges to
the "Islamization of Knowledge" project identified by the
research will be included.
Chapter 7: Conclusion
This chapter will address the question as to whether Muslim
private schools in South Africa can be viewed as agents of
change m attempts to challenge to the global model of
education.
1.14 Literature Review
Title:
Author:
Date:
Publisher:
Islcim and Secularism
Muhammad Naquib AI-Attas
1993
Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Muslim Youth
Movement Malaysia
Al-Attas asserts that Islam and Secularism was dedicated to the
emergent Muslims in the hope that they would be prepared to
weather with discernment the pestilential winds of
13
secularization. He maintains that the CrISIS, which Maritain
described m the twentieth century IS the same CrISIS
foreshadowed in their writings by the seventeenth century
philosophers (p.l). The secularizing "values" and events that
have been predicted would happen in the Muslim world, have
now begun to unfold and the Muslims' lack of understanding of
the implications of secularization as a philosophical program is
increasing with a persistent momentum.
In the first chapter, al-Attas takes us back to the seventeenth
century with the rise of reason and empiricism and scientific
technological advances and argues that modern science sees
things as mere things. He shows how the "Modern"-or "Western
Ideology" encompassed the various forms of liberal and socialist
thought that developed m the long-extended "Bourgeois
Revolution". This was the historical process that gradually
undermined the traditional society and culture in Western
Europe in the period between the late middle ages and the
twentieth century.
Included amongst the features of this broad framework of
modern thought were faith in reason, science and progress. AI
Attas cites Mascall who observed "that instead of converting the
world to Christianity they are converting Christianity to the
world" (p.5). Dramatic is the claim by western man, according to
al-Attas, that secularization has its roots in biblical faith. He
disagrees, saying that secularization is in the interpretation of
biblical faith by western man (p.20).
For al-Attas, western history has been a series of umque
disasters ever smce the beginning of the so-called
"Enlightenment" from the late seventeenth century when the so
called "Age of Reason" dawned upon Europe, which until then
14
had suffered obscurantism and oppression of corrupt clergymen
in the name of secularization.
He maintains that to study and use nature without a high
spiritual end has brought mankind to the state of thinking that
men are gods or His co-partners (p.38). He advocates that the
categories of knowledge, which were fundamental to the Islamic
tradition, are fundamental to modern education. In the
traditional Islamic worldview, knowledge was of two kinds, the
open-ended jard kifayah knowledge, which includes the natural,
physical and applied sciences, and the jard'ayn, the absolute
nature of the knowledge pertaining to God and the spiritual
realities and moral truths.
Fard'ayn is not static but dynamic, and it increases according
to spiritual and intellectual abilities as well as social and
professional responsibilities of a person.
AI-Attas elucidates certain key concepts pertaining to the nature
and purpose of knowledge from the Islamic viewpoint, and
demonstrates the fundamental nature of their mutual
interrelation and interdependence. These key concepts, he says,
must form the essential elements of the Islamic system of
education.
Islam 2000
Murad Hoffman
2000
Title:
Author:
Date:
Publisher: Amana Publications, Beltsville,
Maryland D.S.A.
Former German diplomat Murad Hoffman's Islam 2000 is a
must to read by all. Having served as Germany's ambassador to
15
Algeria and Morocco, the author has come up with this book in
response to dual challenges of averting conflict between the
West and Islam on the one hand, presenting Islam to a west
that has grown sterile of an ideology, on the other.
Hoffman says that the sense of victory in the West in the wake
of the collapse of Communism and the Soviet Union proved
short-lived. Wars and ethnic cleansing in the heart of Europe,
exploitation of environment by trans-nationals and excessive
consumerism made the objective of the west-propelled liberation
obvious. Faith in God has been replaced by faith in progress.
The West is not bothered as long as the individual in the west
adopts faith of folkloristic value such as Buddhism or
Shintoism, anything other than Islam. He argues Islam is the
only religion that cannot count on benign neglect or smcere
tolerance. Some of the reasons why Islam has been associated
with intolerance, says he, are the creation of Muslims
themselves. Events in Libya or Iran or invasion of Kuwait are a
few among them. Moreover, Islam is nowhere seen fully m
practice and the Islamic economy model is nowhere m
operation. The West largely remains unaware of the conditions
of Islam to science and arts in as much as, to be ignorant about
Islam and its culture, in Europe or the United States, is not yet
considered as lack of education.
In order to defuse the explosive situation between the two sides
of the Mediterranean, Hoffman urges Muslims to initiate reforms
aimed at removmg illiteracy and fear of technology,
(technophobia to be precise) from among Muslims.
Memorizing of the Qur}an during the early years of Islam was
beneficial because this was the only means for Islam to survive
16
intact in the age of brutal suppression. But this, says Hoffman,
has its drawbacks. Muslim students try to learn their lessons
by-heart, which smothers the capacity to analyze. It was Muslim
Spain that gave the world its first windmills.
The author dismisses the so-called efforts of Islamization of
Knowledge as misguided. He instead urges efforts to create
scientists who are true Muslims.
He also advises that Muslims should squarely admit that the
Islamic economy will not be, cannot be and does not want to be
as profitable, or as competitive as the western economy,
because Islam does not treat man as an economic animal and is
not merely for maximization of profits, optimization of
production and minimization of costs, the capitalist mantras.
One drawback of modern technology is its dehumanizing
nature.
Steeped In the western rationalism, Murad Hoffman's
prescription needs to be read with utmost attention by all in the
Muslim world and appreciated for its candor, depth of insight
and sympathy that this neo-Muslim developed for Islam.
Title:
Author:
Date:
The Islamization of Science: Four Muslim
Positions Developing an Islamic Modernity
Leif Stenberg
1996
Publisher: Coronet Books: New York
The Modern scientific worldview, which grew out of the Age of
Enlightenment, Reformation and the Scientific Revolution of the
seventeenth century, is now a dominant force in most of the
17
world. This dominance has been achieved, in large part, by the
technological advances, which have created an illusion of
reality. Modern science has created a belief system in which
there is no room for the Divine. This belief system comes with
its own values and ethics and attempts to create a
Weltanschauung parallel to, yet in opposition to the religious
worldview.
Leif Stenberg's book is an attempt to provide a comprehensive
account of the recent developments in Islam and science debate.
It is a descriptive an analytic undertaking written in a
comprehensible language with remarkable clarity of thought
and intent.
The study is based on the assumption that the current debate
on Islam and science can be presented through the description
and analyses of "Positions" centered round the ideas of
exponents. The four exponents whose positions have each been
presented in separate chapters are Sayyid Hossein Nasr,
Maurice Buicaille, Ziauddin Sardar and Isma'il al Faruqi.
Each of these four chapters has interrelated themes and
structures and a conscious effort has been made to use similar
headings so that analysis of comparative "Positions" is easy.
The author has been able to include the most up-to-date
information about the life and works of the exponents and their
supporters. He attempts to analyze the contours of emerging
Islamic modernity through these four "Positions". The analyses
presented in a separate chapter, highlights the similarities and
differences of the four "Positions". It also attempts to place these
positions in the context of history of ideas and discusses the
18
relationship between the discourse and phenomenon of
modernity.
Ziauddin Sardar (b.1951) and a few others such as Munawar
Ahmed Anees, Merryl Wyn Davis, S. Parvez Manzoor, who more
or less share similar ideas, are introduced in the first chapter.
During the development of the discourse on Islamization of
Science, the term "Islamic Science" became highly contested
because of the diverse perceptions and approaches of exponents
of Islamization. Sardar developed a unique understanding of the
problems associated with both the ideological as well as
practical aspects of science III the Muslim world. He contends
that science is connected with the scientist and his worldview,
and is not an objective phenomenon or activity but a cultural
activity. Modern science, he argues, is undoubtedly deeply
rooted in western civilization.
In its "correct shape", science will reveal the true understanding
of nature and increase humanity's comprehension of the
creation. He calls on Muslims scientists to develop new
paradigms from which various disciplines would evolve, and to
produce original work on science which could be termed
"Islamic Science".
Sayyyid Hossein Nasr appears as the foremost academician who
has advanced the notion of a "Sacred Science". Nasr advocates a
reconstruction of Islamic scientific thought on the basis of
revealed knowledge. His position is presented through brief
summaries of the central ideas in his important works including
his famous works such as Science and Civilization in Islam
(1987), Ideals and Realities of Islam (1979) as well as the more
recent The Need for a Sacred Science (1993).
19
Nasr's use of Islamic terms in a modern context has been
highlighted throughout the essay.
In part one, Nasr deals with the first principles which highlights
the nature of God and spirit followed by a study on Eternity and
time, a subject which belongs to the domain of metaphysics and
any science dealing with the domain of contingency and change.
Part two deals with the basic question of the multiplicity of
sacred forms and religious universes. Part three deals with the
discussion of traditional or sacred sciences especially as these
have been cultivated and preserved in non-Western civilizations,
which have not suffered from the effects of secularism. The final
part seeks to present confrontation between the traditional
worldview and the modern predicament born in the West, and
its period incubation and growth before spreading to other
continents. This section concludes for all intents and purposes
on theological modernism, which Nasr maintains represents the
penetration of secular science into the very realm of the sacred,
into the domain of theology, which traditional Christian
civilization considered as the "queen of the science".
The third position discussed by Stenberg is of Isma'il Raji al
Farilqi and the International Institute of Islamic Thought (lIlT).
This position is based on the premises that the Muslim ummah
is in a state of malaise; the root of this malaise is to be found in
influences from a world of ideas based on a vision foreign to
Islam. The exponent of this Position is more concerned with
social sciences that natural sciences and its inclusion in the
book is somewhat problematic. However, since science cannot
exist In a vacuum or in total isolation of the historical and
cultural conditions, Islamization of Knowledge in a general
sense can be taken as including the Islamization of science as
well.
20
The inclusion of Maurice Bucaille's Position m the book is
problematic for Bucaille's concern is not to find an Islamic
epistemological base for science, nor is he concerned with moral
or ethical issues of modern scientific research. He is simply
interested in correlating certain scientific "facts" with the
Qur}anic verses. The Bible} The Qur}an and Science (1978) do not
form a basis of a discourse on Islam and science and inclusion
of this Position in the book seems unjustified. The last two
chapters of the book "Communication and Interaction Between
the Positions" and "Analysis" presents well documented and well
informed thematic links and points of convergence and
divergence among various Positions. This book is a valuable
source for future research.
Title:
Author:
Date:
Issues in Is[(im and Science
Mehdi Golshani
2004
Publisher: Institute for Humanities and Cultural
Studies, Teheran.
Mehdi Golshani's latest book Issues in Islam and Science is a
compilation of articles that he has published in different
international journals during the last five years. The book
consists of six chapters dealing with different but related
themes pertaining to the relationships between Islam and
science. The major themes highlighted in these chapters may be
summarized as follows,
Chapter one is entitled "Islam and the Sciences of Nature· some,fundamental questions".
21
Its central theme is the confrontation between Islam and
modern views on the meaning and significance of science for the
human understanding of reality in its totality and the human
quest of God.
Golshani contends that religious faith and scientific pursuit
stand to derive mutual benefit from their encounters (pp.11-12).
Coming from a man of deep religious faith as well as a
practicing scientist we can expect the claim to receive a more
respectable consideration from readers than if the claim was to
come from a non-scientist. The possible impact of science on
faith is the epistemological content that needs to be explored. In
other words, we wish to know how scientific activity can fortify
epistemological content of one's faith. It is only in the final
chapter entitled "Does Science Offer evidence of a
Transcendental Reality and Purpose"? That Golshani offers us a
more detailed insight into the epistemological and cosmological
content of faith.
Conversely, Golshani maintains that religious faith can provide
a good motivation for scientific work. In support of this claim,
he quotes the eleventh century Muslim scientist-philosopher,
al-Bin1ni, and the twelfth century author of The Social Structure
ofIslam, Reuben Levy, both of who acknowledge the centrality of
religion in the Muslim motives for the study of the universe. In
the same chapter he provides a brief discussion of the scientific
fruits of religious faith such as experienced by al-Bin1ni and the
seventh century English scientist Robert Boyle (pp.135-136).
Unfortunately Golshani's discussion on this important subject
could have been more in depth.
Chapter two is devoted to the multiplicity of the methodological
approaches to the study of nature entitled, "Ways of
22
Understanding Nature In the Qur'anic Perspective". This nme
pages chapter is too brief for such an important subject.
However, for those who are not familiar with Islamic teachings
on the sources of human knowledge, this chapter provides
useful introductory material to the subject.
In chapter three entitled, "How to Make Sense of Islamic
Science"? He attempts to rationalize the widespread usage of the
term "Islamic science" in contemporary Muslim societies. In the
history of the idea of Islamic science, there appears to be some
inconsistencies in the book. In chapter one (page 24) he writes:
The idea of Islamic science has been around for the last thirty
years. In chapter three he claims that the history of
"Islamization of Knowledge" and "Islamic science" may be traced
as far back as the 1930s with the writings of Sayyid Abu'1 Ala
Maudlldi (d1979), founder of the modernist Salafi movement in
the Indian sub continent, the Jama 'at al-Islami (pA5). The
Malaysian scholar, Sayyid Muhammad Naquib al-Attas has
maintained he was the first to have explicitly formulated the
idea of Islamization of Knowledge. The term "Islamic science"
was only in vogue after being introduced in the early 1960s by
the Iranian scholar of Islam, Sayyid Hossein Nasr.
Chapter four is another brief discussion on "Islam, science, and
society" and is supposed to deal with the societal dimension of
science from the Islamic perspective. The various aspects of the
relationship between science and society are hardly discussed.
A more substantive treatment of the subject is to be found m
the next chapter (5) entitled "Values and ethical issues m
science and technology". Why the author did not combine these
two chapters into one is rather surprising.
23
The final chapter again takes up the issue of the meaning and
significance of a metaphysical framework for science. "Does
science offer evidence of transcendental reality and purpose" is
the question posed in this chapter. The main drawback of the
book is that it is repetitive on a number of issues and contains
several inconsistencies. On a number of very important issues
the book's handling of them is too brief. However, the book does
contain new insights and makes appropriate emphasis on
issues that are important to contemporary Muslim discourse on
Islamic science.
Title: Islamization ofKnowledge: The Problem,
Principles and the Work Plan
Author: Isma'il Raji al-FarUqi
Date: 1982
Publisher: International Institute of Islamic Thought
(lIlT) Herndon, Virginia
In 1977 the participants of the two-week international
conference unanimously agreed that the contemporary crisis of
the ummah was intellectual-a crisis of thought-and the remedy
was sought within that framework. Following the second
conference in Islamabad (1982) the institute published the book
Islamization of Knowledge, a detailed work plan based on the
papers and speeches delivered at various conferences by Dr.
AbdulHamid AbuSulayman and Dr. Isma'il Raji al-Farllqi. This
book presents an action plan and guide to foster the awareness
of the Muslim ummah of its worth and potential, and of the real
cause of its civilizational crisis and the means to overcome the
malaise.
24
Chapter one highlights the malaise of the ummah. Under the
major effects of the malaise are the political, economic, and
cultural factors, which caused the decline of the ummah. In this
chapter, al-Faruqi mentions the core of its malaise and that the
educational system is the breeding ground of these diseases.
For Faruqi, despite the tremendous expanSIOn that has taken
place in education, the state of Muslim education is at its worst.
According to him, the Islamic component of the curriculum in
certain universities, remain unchanged, partly because it is the
secularist plan to keep it out of touch with reality and
modernity.
In chapter two he highlights a method to solve the education
problem. Firstly, bifurcation of Muslim education into an Islamic
and secular system must be abolished. These two systems
should be integrated and united and the whole education
system must be endowed with a mission of imparting Islamic
vision and cultivating the will to realize it on the largest scale.
To install the Islamic vision, Faruqi maintains that the study of
civilization is necessary as a way to foster in the person a clear
sense of identity. Before the Muslims went into a decline of
slumber, they contributed greatly in all fields of knowledge.
Today, non-Muslims are the undisputed masters of all
disciplines. That is why, says Faruqi, we are alerting the Muslim
world to the evil, seeking for the first time in history to elaborate
a plan, to arrest it, to combat its effect and to re-launch Islamic
education on its proper track leading to its predestined goal.
The values of Islam should replace the western values and
divert the learning activity in every field.
25
In chapter three entitled "the methodology", al-Faruqi asserts
that Muslim leaders lost their nerve and confidence in
themselves when faced with the devastation inflicted by the
non-Muslims in the sixth and seventh centuries-the Tartar
invasion from the East and Crusader invasion from the West.
The Muslims then turned away from the major source of
creativity in the law- ijtihad - and declared its gates closed.
For Faruqi, Western powers took advantage of the Muslim's
weakness and contributed in a significant fashion to the malaise
he describes in the first chapter. Even Muslim leaders in
Turkey, Egypt and India have tried to westernize the ummah in
the hope of making it politically, economically and militarily
viable. However, according to Faruqi, the attempts of Ataturk to
abolish all Islamic institutions and reject traditional Islamic
principles, and also the western system, which was planted
alongside the traditional system in Egypt failed to achieve
excellence. They only succeeded in weakening each other.
The alienation of wahy (revelation) and .aql (reason) from each
other called for a new methodology, since according to Faruqi, it
is inimical to the whole spirit of Islam, and opposed to the
central appeal of the Qur'an to reason.
In the final section of chapter three, Faruqi highlights the "first
principle of Islamic methodology", under a framework to recast
the disciplines, and a work plan with five objectives and lastly,
twelve steps leading to Islamization of Knowledge.
26
Title:
Author:
Date:
Publisher:
Debates on Islam and Knowledge in
Malaysia and Egypt: Shifting Worlds
MonaAbaza
2002
Routledge Curzon: London
In her book, Debates on Islam and Knowledge, Mona Abaza
explores intellectual traditions and intellectual cultures in two
Muslim-majority countries-Egypt and Malaysia. Abaza locates
the Islamization of Knowledge project in the context of the post
colonial debate, the questioning of western domination of
knowledge, and Isma'il al-Farilqi's call on Muslim scholars and
'ulamd to take up the task of reconstructing the order of
knowledge in terms that are Islamic, culturally authentic, and
relevant to the needs of Muslims globally (Pp.9, 23-24).
Admittedly skeptical about the project, Abaza begins her
analysis by noting the low quality of academic output that has
come from the proponents of the project. The political leaders
hijacked the project and see it as a convenient vehicle to serve
their own interests and regain lost territory in Islamic
legitimation.
The Malaysian government's patronage of Sayyid N. al-Attas and
ISTAC was, in her view, a case of "the refeudalization and
institutionalization of an Islam of power" that served the
interests of the ruling elite (pp. 92-95). Through a close reading
of some of Naquib's texts, she notes that his was a view of
Islamic knowledge that was firmly rooted in a neo-Sufistic
understanding of social strata and hierarchy (pp.92-93), deeply
enmeshed to the structures of power and domination (Pp. 104
105) that suited the interests of the modernizing authoritarian
27
political leadership of Malaysia, then under the guidance of the
Prime Minister Or. Mohamed Mahathir and his erstwhile deputy
Anwar Ebrahim.
In her analysis of the developments in Egypt (chaps. 9, 10) and
Malaysia, Abaza notes that these proponents of Islamization of
Knowledge were not able to get as far as they hoped to, the
reason being that they were at odds with themselves most of the
time. Abaza's critical assessment is based on a structural
analysis that looks more at the structure of power, control and
domination-as well as the mechanisms for the construction and
production of knowledge-rather than at the contents of the
discourse itself.
Chapter nme, which looks at the Islamization of Knowledge
debate m Egypt, reads as a well-thought out cursory
observation of the state of the art of Islamic thinking in Egypt.
This is familiar territory as she probes deep into the
complexities of the debate and its historical antecedents,
pointing to the clashes of ideas and personalities such as Abdel
Wahhab al-Messiri, Nasr M. Arif, Muhammad Immara, and
Tareq al-Bashri.
The chapters on Isma'il al-Faruqi, al-Attas, Henry Corbin and
Sayyid Hussein al-Attas read as detailed character studies that
could have been published and read on its own as biographical
papers that sum up the works and ideas of the thinkers in
question. She shows that the most influential thinkers spent
much of their education in the west and engaged themselves
with western literature.
28
Abaza's book remains an important contribution to the study of
the Islamization of Knowledge project and its strength lies in its
comparative approach as the author attempts to connect the
seemingly disparate and unrelated developments in different
localities within a broader context of global Islamic intellectual
revivalism.
References
I AI-Atlas, M.N.1993. Islam and Secularism. London and New York: Mansell Publication. Pp.133-160.2 AI-Faruqi, I.R. 1982. Islamization of Knowledge: The Problem, Principles and the Work Plan.International Institute ofIslamic Thought. Herndon, Virginia. p.16.3 Benavot, A. & Kamens, D. 1989. "The Curriculum Content ofPrirnary Education in DevelopingCountries", Policy, Planning & Research Papers, Education & Employment, WP5 no 237, WashingtonDC: Population & Human Resources. ,4 Mohamed, Y. 1989. Perspectives on Islamic Education: Education Crisis and Solutions. Chaper 2.South Africa, Muslim World League. p.8.5 AI-Atlas, M.N.1985.Islam, Secularism, and the Philosophy ofthe Future. London and New York:
Mansell Publication. P. 127-160.
6 Safi, L. 1993. "The Quest for an Islamic Methodology: The Islamization of Knowledge Project in itsSecond Decade" in The American Journal ofIslamic Social Sciences, 10: I, p. 25.7 AI-Otaibi, M. & Rashid, H.M. 1997. "The Role of Schools in Islamic Society: Historical and
Contemporary Perspectives" in The American Journal ofIslamic Social Sciences 14:4, pp. 14-15.
29
Chapter 2
The Secularization of Education in theMuslim World
2.1 Introduction
This chapter gives a brief overvIew of the secularization of
education in the Muslim World and the inevitable contradictions
this generated between two diverse knowledge systems, one
indigenous and the other adopted. It then describes the
educational systems in select Muslim countries.
2.2 Defining Secularism
The Fontana Dictionary of Modem Thought (1977) gIves the
meaning of Secularism as "the rejection of religion after
secularization" and of SecularizatioD as follows: "the decline of
religion. This has been more marked in the twentieth century
than in any prevIOUS period of recorded history, and the
concentration on this age (Latin saeculum) instead of on the
divine has become the real orthodoxy of the modern
establishment" .
The New Encyclopedia Britannica (1995) defines secularism as
"any movement in society directed away from other worldliness
to life on earth".
The South African Pocket Oxford Dictionary, 3rd . edition
explains the word Secular as "not religious or spiritual".
According to G.J. Holyoake, a nineteenth century proponent of
secularism, historically speaking the word secularist was first
used to signify a way of thinking, that is, the secular ideology or
30
secularism. 1 The word secularism first appeared ill the press
in December 1851.2
The Muslim philosopher, Sayyid Naquib al-Attas, in his work,
Islam, Secularism and the Philosophy of the Future (1985),
argues that the term secular, from the Latin saeculum, conveys
a meaning with a marked dual connotation of time and location;
the time referring to the "now" or "present" sense of it, and the
location to the "worldly" sense of it. 3 He maintains that the
proponents of the secular thesis distinguish between the
process of secularization and the ideology of secularism as
follows: The former implies a continuing and open-ended
process in which values and world views are continually revised
in accordance with "evolutionary" change in history, the latter
like religion, projects a closed world view and an absolute set of
values in line with an ultimate historical purpose having a final
significance for man. 4
According to al-Attas (1985):
Secularization is the result of the misapplication of Greek
philosophy in Western theology and metaphysics, which
in the seventeenth century led to the scientific revolution
enunciated by Descartes, who opened the doors to doubt
and skepticism; and successfully in the eighteenth and
the nineteenth centuries and in our times, to atheism and
agnosticism, utilitarianism, dialectical materialism,
evolutionism, and historicism. 5
31
Fernandez-Armestro describes the difference between religious
and secular as follows:
Religious behavior differs from secular behavior not
because it involves belief but because it is linked with
committed attitudes to transcendent. .. the sense of
transcendence distinguishes the sacred from the profane.
We should not expect religions to be unaware of the
world. The sense of transcendence, is an addition to a
worldly perspective, not a substitute for it. .. when
religions become absorbed with the world, they cease to
be religious. When they ignore it, they cease to be
effective.6
Nasr explains secularism as «everything whose origin is merely
human and therefore non-divine, and whose metaphysical basis
lays in this ontological separation between man and God".7 He
adds: «Secularism implies ideas and institutions of purely
human origin, not derived form an inspired source, no matter
what the origin". 8
2.3 The Secularization of Education
Societies
in Muslim
The rebellion of civil society against the Church, which preceded
the Renaissance in Europe, led to the secularization of every
sector of society, including education. The secular model
became the dominant model of education throughout Europe.
Later, following European colonization, it was «transplanted" in
the colonized lands, including much of the Muslim World.
32
The second half of the 19th century witnessed the
transformation of the traditional Islamic educational systems to
bring them In line with European models. Of course,
colonialists also had an interest in educating and training an
elite group of indigenous Muslims to assume positions in the
colonial administration. But many Muslim intellectuals were
convinced that the revival of Muslim societies could only be
achieved by imitating European models. 9
In Nasr's VIew the intrusion of secularism into the Muslim
World is most visible in the field of education. From the 19th
century, schools have been based on the "European model". By
teaching various disciplines which are "... alien to the Islamic
perspective, the curriculum of the schools and universities in
the Muslim countries has to a large degree injected an element
of secularism into the mind of a fairly sizeable segment of
Islamic society".lO It is precisely this intrusion that has created
the crisis in education in Muslim societies, which this study
addresses.
Rosnani Hashim confirms the dependence of Muslims on the
"Western" secular model of education:
"Institutions in Muslim countries tend to subscribe to a
curricular framework borrowed wholesale or partially from the
West. In most cases such models are secular... "11
The bifurcation of knowledge into sacred and secular is a
product of the Western-Christian experience as al-Attas argues:
Islam totally rejects any application to itself of the
concepts of secular, secularization, or secularism as they
do not belong and are alien to it in every respect; and
33
they belong and are naturally only to the intellectual
Western-Christian religious experience and
consciousness. 12
This, is echoed by Mahmoud Dhaouadi:
Islam does not accept secularization of human knowledge and
science that has characterized Western scientists and scholars
since the Renaissance. 13
The adoption of the secular model of education by Muslim
countries has had far-reaching implications. It had a bearing on
the contents of the curriculum, learning outcomes, and teacher
qualifications. Hashim captures the contradictions between the
Islamic and secular systems as follows:
".. the content of the curriculum, that is, courses or subjects offered in
Muslim educational institutions - from the elementary to the tertiary
levels, particularly in the acquired sciences - is borrowed from the
Western, secular worldview. Thus the knowledge that is taught is
devoid of religious values; even it is not, it is filled instead with values
which are frequently incompatible with the beliefs and values of the
Islamic faitH' 14
Hashim is also concerned that the learning outcomes are not
consistent with the educational aims of Islamic education,
especially with regard to moral and spiritual development. IS She
proposed the following three steps to Islamize the curriculum:
(a) Ensure that educational goals are based on the Islamic
worldview.
(b) Formulate a philosophy of education based on this worldview
(C) Reflect the educational philosophy in the curriculum. 16
34
The classification of knowledge, which was advanced, by the
theologian, philosopher and mystic Abu Hamid al-Ghaza.1i
(d. 1111) has come to be accepted as standard by Muslim
scholars. He classified knowledge into al-'ilm al-'aqli (knowledge
acquired through human reason and intellect) and al-'ilm al
naqli (transmitted knowledge). The latter is obtained from Divine
Revelation (wahy) which the pnmary source of knowledge in
Islam. The former is the product of human intellectual
endeavor. The 'sacred' and the 'secular' were thus integrated
and not classified into mutually exclusive and contending
domains. 17
Since modern education is founded on rationalism, empIncIsm
and induction from fact and expenence, non-empirical
knowledge is excluded. This effectively means that "sacred" texts
- or Divine Revelation as understood by Muslims - have no place
in the scheme of knowledge. This is contrary to the Islamic
philosophy of education where revelation is considered a
primary source of knowledge. In fact, it forms the very essence
of the Islamic world-view. 18
Excluding the "sacred" from education also impacts on the
ultimate aims and objectives of education. There IS no
consensus on the aims and objectives of "secular education."I9
One objective, which is common, is to produce a good individual
and citizen. 20 This approach to education is based on the
assumption that the ultimate goal of human existence on earth
is to erect material civilization.
It is clear from the above that the emphasis in education is
essentially on intellectual progress for the material well-being of
the individual and society, and that moral or spiritual
development is not among its objectives.
35
In Islam, on the contrary, education is intended to produce a
God-conscious and righteous individual, who lives In
accordance with the Divine mandate. Education is viewed as a
comprehensive process involving the physical, intellectual,
emotional, as well as spiritual growth of the human personality.
21
In terms of the Islamic approach to education, the educator is
obliged to impart useful knowledge to learners and is at the
same time a person of virtue and piety whose conduct could
influence learners. 22 However, In the modern system of
education, faith in God, personal piety and righteousness are
not relevant factors in determining the teacher's caliber. Teacher
competence is based on knowledge, skill and interpersonal
relationships.
2.4 Conclusion
Secularized institutions began to emerge towards the end of the
seventeenth century and developed into an identifiable species
during the eighteenth century in Europe. The transplanting of
these institutions in colonized Muslim lands reshaped the
contours of Muslim societies. This was particularly the case
with educational institutions. Gibb's appreciation of the impact
of secular education on Muslim society is evident from his
following remarks: "It is important for us to appreciate the
breadth of this rift between religious and secular education In
Egypt and its far reaching consequences".23
The impact of secularization on the curricula of educational
institutions In the Muslim World, are discussed in the next
chapter.
36
REFERENCES
1 Reasoner, 3rd December 1851, X 1134 (Unpublished Article).2 Ibid, X 1162.3 AI-Attas, Islam, Secularism and the Philosophy ofthe future 1985, p.14.4 Ibid, p.17.
5 Ibid, p.20.
6 Femandez-Armestro, The Future ofReligion, 1997. pp 14 - 15.7 Nasr, S.H. Islamic Studies. Librairie Du Liban. Beirut, 1967, p. 15.8 ibid, p. 16.9 Moneer M. al-Otaibi & hakim M. Rashid, "The Role of Schools in Islamic Society: Historical andContemporary Perspectives" in American Journal ofIslamic Social Sciences 14 (4), Winter 1997,p. 11.10 Nasr, Islamic Studies, p. 23.II Rosnani Hashim, "Islamization of the Curriculum" in the American Journal ofIslamic SocialSciences, vol16 (2), Summer 1999, pp 34-35.
12 AI-Attas, Islam, Secularism and the Philosophy ofthe Future. 1985, p.23.
13 Mahmoud Dhaouadi, Reflections in to the Spirit of the Islamic Corpus of Knowledge and the Rise ofthe New Science in American Journal ofIslamic Social Sciences, vol. 10 (2), Summer 1993, p. 159.14 Hashim, p.36.15 Ibid, p. 37.16 Ibid, p. 38.17 Dangor, S E, Islamization of Disciplines : Towards and Indigenous Knowledge System inEducational Philosophy and Theory, vol. 37, no. 4.18 Nasr, 1991.19 Sharifi, 1979, p. 78.20 Husain, 1979, p. 38.21 Ibid, p. 44.22 ibid., pp. 34, 104.23 Gibb, H.A.R. Modern Tends in Islam, Chicago, 1947, p. 42.
37
Chapter 3
Education in Select Muslim Countries
In this chapter, I will discuss education in Saudi Arabia, Egypt,
Nigeria, Turkey, Pakistan, Malaysia and Indonesia.
3.1 Education in Saudi Arabia
The Ministry of Education and the Minister of Higher Education
have recently introduced new efforts to review the educational
system and the curriculum to improve the quality of education,
and prepare young Saudis for the demands of the twenty first
century. As an example of the Ministry's commitment, an
educational development program for electronics was set up in
1997 to provide ongoing educational programs for teachers and
instructors. Similar projects are being introduced to train
students to become instructors, and offer them scientific
seminars in electronics as an incentive. 1
3.1.1 Challenges and Achievements.
Since the 1920s, a small number of private institutions have
offered limited secular education for boys, and it was not until
1951 that an extensive program of publicly fully funded schools
was initiated.
In an article in the Youth magazine (2003), the first Minister of
Education appointed in 1953, the then Prince Fahd, accepted
the daunting task of laying the foundations of a modern
38
educational system in Saudi Arabia. At the time there were no
universities in the Kingdom. The broad objective of the
educational policy was to avail education to all citizens,
increasing the quality of education to meet the economic and
social needs, and to totally eradicate illiteracy.2
Within a short period, the ministry established a number of new
schools and founded the Kingdom's first university in Riyadh,
now known as King Sa'ud University.
According to an unpublished article, Country Studies: Education
in Saudi Arabia, publicly funded education for girls began in the
60s under the inspiration of Crown Prince Faisal and his wife
Iffat al-Thunayan. Initially opening schools for girls met with
strong opposition in some parts of the country, where non
religious education was viewed as useless. According to the
historian, Lacey, who spent four years living in Saudi Arabia
researching the story of the Kingdom "boys schooling was also a
challenge and Prince Faisal and his wife had to introduce it in a
courageous and slow manner. Not to cause a disturbance, the
couple located the school in the city of Taif. 3
While the first government school for girls was built only in
1964, of the thirteen thousand educational institutions in 2003
seventy-three were colleges for girls, and the female enrolment
comprised half of the students studying in schools and
universities. 4
The Department of Religious Guidance administered the
education of women at elementary, secondary, high and
university levels until 2003, while the Minister of Education
supervised the education of boys.
39
This was to ensure that the education of women would adhere
to the original purpose of female education which, according to
the religious department, would mould women into good wives
and mothers to prepare them for the "acceptable" calling such
as teaching and nursing that were believed to suit their nature. 5
It is clear that women's education, in the words of Smith was
designed to "ensure that at every level of competence and
leadership there will be a place for them that is inferior and
subordinate to the position of men".6
Inequalities of opportunities that existed in higher education
stemmed from the social imperative of gender segregation,
which was a requisite at all levels of education, but was also
demanded in public areas and businesses by the 'ulama 7 as well
as by social convention.
In 1970, the literacy rate of 15 percent for men and 2 percent
for women in Arabia was lower only to that of Yemen and
Afghanistan. For this reason the steep literacy rates-by
which1990 had risen to 73 percent for men and 50 percent for
women-must be seen as a substantial achievement. 8
The oil-generated revenue in the early 1970s introduced large
scale changes, including the opening of education to boys and
girls. The economic upheaval arising from the oil bonanza gave
rise to a trend of pursuing education abroad and a change in
life-style, and these two changes affected the whole structure of
society.9 This is in contrast to the Kuttab, which were attached
to the local mosque where education for both sexes in the
Kingdom first took place, comprising primarily of Qur'anic
recitation. Education for girls stopped at puberty, when strict
seclusion at home began and veiling in public became
mandatory.
40
It was Iffat, wife of King Faisal, who transformed her wish that
women be allowed to pursue science, language and other
subjects. Saudi Arabia was the last of the Gulf States to
introduce secular education, and the way the Kingdom was
dragged into the twentieth century alarmed the religious
scholars as well as ordinary Saudis.
During his first twenty years as a monarch, King Fahd had
advanced an educational revolution that established
undergraduate and postgraduate programs in most disciplines
which has led to an advanced quality of education. ID Fahd also
implemented a school computer project that sought to provide
each student with a computer and establish a network that
connected all schools and universities to facilitate teaching and
research. 11
Today, Saudi Arabia's nationwide educational system boasts
more than 26,000 schools, eight universities and a large
number of colleges and other educational and training
institutions. 12 Statistically, one of every four people attends an
educational institution, from nursery level to university, and
from adult education to vocational training. The educational
system boasts a teacher to student ration of 12.5 to one,
amongst the best in the world. 13
From the information previously cited, one can deduce
conflicting attitudes towards education in Saudi Arabia. Though
education is not compulsory, Saudi authorities emphasize
eradicating illiteracy amongst Saudis in general and women In
particular.
41
3.1.2 Public School Curriculum
An average of mne periods a week was devoted to religious
subjects at the elementary-school level, and eight per week at
the intermediate level.
This concentration on religious subjects was substantial when
compared with time devoted to other subjects: Nine periods for
religious subjects and twelve for geography, history,
mathematics, science, art, and physical education combined. At
the elementary level; six periods were devoted to the Arabic
language and nineteen to all the other intermediate level
subjects. At the secondary level, the required periods of
religious study were reduced, although an option remains for
specialization in religious studies. 14
3.1.3 Private Education
As the Kingdom developed and acquired the trappings and
infrastructure of a modern state, King Abdul Aziz' initiated
private education. He enhanced private education by
encouragmg charitable citizens to co-operate m the
establishment of private schools. Private schools spread to
several regions of the Kingdom and contributed as much as
government schools towards the Education Awakening.
The establishment of the Ministry of Education in the 50s and
the appointment of Prince Fahd as the Minister of Education
was a kick-start for the march of education in the Kingdom. He
continued to support, assist, supervise and guide private
education in order to achieve the pursued goals.
42
During the early days of the Ministry of Education the Popular
Culture Department was responsible for the supervision of
private schools, and this supervision was linked to the
Educational Directorates. A decade later a special department
for private education was established which fell under the
umbrella of the Director General of Education, which today is
known as the Directorate of Private Education, and is
responsible for the supervision, follow-up and planning of the
Private Education Departments m all the Educational
Directorates. IS Its major achievements were as follows:
1. Establishment of a modern mechanism for the procedure of
licensing private schools.
2. Maintaining a distinctive standard for private schools,
renewal certificate is offered every three years.
3. Generating the following documents:
~ The private school by laws
~ Requirements for the construction of private schools
~ The message, concepts and objectives of the school
~ Framework for night private schools
~ Specifying the organizational framework for language
institutes
4. Establishment of a Consultative Committee for Private
Education.
5. Awarding an annual pnze for the educationally distinctive
school. 16
3.1.3.1 Types of Private Schools
There are different types of private schools m the Kingdom.
They are as follows:
1. Day schools that include the three different stages (Primary,
43
Intermediate and Secondary)
2. Evening schools (providing education for the working class)
3. Qur'an memorization schools
4. Arabic language education schools (for non-Arabic speakers)
5. English language schools and institutions
6. Calligraphy institutes.
3.1.4 Integrated University Curriculum
Two of the universities founded for religious instruction have
integrated secular subjects and practical training into their
curriculum. The Imam Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic University,
established in 1974, produced qualified Muslim scholars,
educators, judges and preachers. In addition to the newer
approaches to the study of Islam, practical subjects such as
administration, information and mass media, library sciences,
psychology, and social services were offered. The Umm al Qura
University, originally a college of Shariah with an institute to
teach Arabic to non-Arabs, has grown to include colleges of
agricultural sciences, applied sciences, engineering, and social
SCIences.
King Faisal and his wife Iffat were committed to eradicate
illiteracy in addition to transforming their wish that women be
allowed to pursue science, language, and other subjects into a
reality. Such circuitous maneuverings were not devised to side
step the opposition of the religious sheikhs. The King and his
wife took into consideration the economic realities of the people,
prior to the oil boom. The government provided free education
in Saudi Arabia at all levels, though education was not
compulsory.
44
King Faisal saw the need to enlighten his people's
understanding of Islamic teachings regarding women's
education, and when faced with resistance, he would ask for
proof from the Qur'an that forbids the education of women.
3.2 Education in Egypt
We must analyze what Muslim thinkers such as Jamaluddin al
Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, Rashid Rida, Hassan al-Banna
and Sayyid Qutb have said about the impact of colonialism on
education in the Muslim world. Their concern was that the
Muslim ummah had succumbed to a process of colonization of
the minds. They traced this process at the societal level to a
dichotomy in the educational system, a fundamental cleavage of
the educational institutions throughout the Muslim world.
The divergent systems of education of the American University
in Cairo that were established in the latter part of the
nineteenth century, and the one thousand year old AI-Azhar
University bear testimony to this. While AI-Azhar promotes
traditional Islamic learning, Cairo University promotes a secular
type of learning.
3.2.1 Background to the education System
In Egypt, Christian education in the form of Coptic Christianity
was offered in public schools as early as 1907. The inclusion of
Christian education on a par with Islamic education was part of
the nationalist project in the first part of the twentieth century,
when Muslims and Christians fought together against British
domination and western missionary influence.
45
The religious subjects in school are called "Islamic education"
(al-tarbiyyah al-Islamiyya) and "Christian religious education"
(al-tarbiyyah al-masihiyya). 17
The subjects are taught by ordinary educators and trained
under the supervision of the Ministry of Education, which
produces the national curriculum, the textbooks, and the
examination questions. 18
Prior to the nineteenth century, the 'ulama and Coptic clergy
controlled Egypt's traditional education prior to the nineteenth
century. The country's most important institutions were
theological seminaries, but most mosques and churches (even
in villages) operated basic schools where boys could learn to
read and write Arabic, to do simple arithmetic, and to memorize
passages from the Qur'an or the Bible.
According to Y. Mahomed, traditionally the teacher would sit
the students in a semi-circle, while he delivers his commentary
from a given text. An assistant would repeat the lesson to assist
with the complexities of the text. 19
To summanze, Islamic learning in Egypt until the colonial
period, bore the hallmarks of traditional education, which was
relatively consistent from AI-Azhar University in urban Cairo, to
small rural mosques and other places of village learning,
although similar patterns could be found throughout the
Islamic World.
Muslim learning of the period often occurred as part of the
practice of a particular trade, profession, or craft and was
distinctly separate from institutionalized schooling.
46
The legal profession, for example, was centered on the local
mosque, while other professions and trades were studied within
their own context. Professional learning was not distinctly
separated into rigid categories of learners and educators.
Various relationships between educator and learner existed
between many members of the vocational or professional group.
Muslim learning at the time did not require overt acts of
organization, but found its sequence in the logic of the practices
themselves. 20
It is into this dynamic milieu of knowledge production and
transmission that the Western colonial powers stepped with
Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798. In the ensuing chaos,
induding rivalry between the French and English colonial
powers, a local ruler emerged in the form of Muhammed Ali,
who was originally sent by the Ottomans to fight the colonial
incursion, but who soon became the ruler of Egypt, and
succumbed to Western advice, especially in the field of
education.
Muhammed Ali, the Turkish commander was one of the first
modern rulers of the Muslim World to introduce the system of
modern secular education in Egypt in the early nineteenth
century, in order to provide technically trained cadres for his
civil administration and military.
According to Nadvi, Muhammed Ali after having succeeded in
his mission of expelling Napoleon founded his own Kingdom in
Egypt, independent of Turkey. The reconstruction of education
by Muhammad Ali and his successors was tantamount to the
replacement of the Islamic educational system by the French
and European systems. Egyptian culture was remodeled on
French lines for about three quarters of a century.21
47
By the 1940s, his grandson, Ismail, further entrenched modern
schooling. He expanded the system by creating a network of
public schools at the primary, secondary and higher levels.
Among the first educational institutions that he established
were military schools, which confined and restrained students
and which, were administered by both French and Egyptian
military officers and academics. The new school system
supplanted many of the traditional centers of learning,
impeding traditional learning. Muhammed Ali was concerned
with training a technocratic elite group that would reinforce his
power. He realized that traditional village learning and Islamic
education constituted a threat to his power. His wife
established the first school for girls in 1873. Between 1882 and
1922, when the country was under British administration, state
education did not expand. 22
In Egypt the new style of teaching was based on instilling
obedience and discipline in students and the memorizing of
centrally designed and distributed textbooks and curricula. The
British and their local proxies demanded this new regime of
obedience and discipline, primarily to build a servile class of
local clerks and administrators for the growing army of the
British Empire in the region. This is the legacy of the colonial
rulers prevalent up till today in the Islamic World.
Numerous private schools, including Egypt's first secular
university were established. After direct British rule ended
Egypt adopted a new constitution that proclaimed the state's
responsibility to ensure adequate primary schools for all
Egyptians. Nevertheless, education generally remained
accessible to the elite. At the time of the 1952 Revolution fewer,
than fifty percent of all primary school-age children attended
48
school, and the majority of the children who enrolled were
boys.23
From the year 1954 through to the 60s and 70s the enrollments
of primary and intermediate schools grew at an average of 4.1
percent annually.
Secondary education more than doubled between 1960 and
1976. The number of people with some university education
nearly tripled. Women also made great educational gains; the
percentage of women with pre-university education grew more
than 300 percent while women with university education grew
by more than 600 percent. 24
From Egypt's educational history one can deduce that it
produced two types of Muslim scholars. The traditional
orthodox 'ulama are well versed in Islamic History, Islamic Law,
and Islamic Jurisprudence (Fiqh). They are indeed authorities in
early Islamic scholarship, but have limited knowledge of modern
philosophy and science.
The other class of Muslim scholars has been educated in the
Western system of education. Their knowledge consists of the
modern social or natural sciences. Their knowledge of Islam is
restricted to prayers, fasting and various rituals for special
occaSIOns.
3.2.2 Public School Curriculum
The revised curriculum for Islamic and Christian education in
Egypt (initiated in 1993) is still confessional in nature.
Increasingly, schools are also expected to promote civic values
such as tolerance of the other, human rights and co-citizenship.
49
Furthermore, moral virtues and religious values are supposed
to be mobilized as a shield against extremism. 25
Indicative of the nationalist way of employing the Islamic
tradition in Egyptian textbooks, a section on the benefits of the
month of Ramadan draws a direct parallel between the
Muslims' historical victory over the Quraish at Badr 26 and
Egypt's successful October war against Israel in 1973.27
In 2001-2002 Egypt introduced a new inclusive subject called
"Values and Ethics" (al-qiyam wa'l-akhlaq) not instead of, but in
addition to religion education in public schools. In the
preparation of the subject, the Ministry of Education
established a committee of Muslims and Christians. Pivotal
values to be propounded are freedom, happiness, solidarity,
economIC awareness, humility and tolerance. 28 Regarding
Muslim-Christian co-existence, a lesson about peace used a
picture of a Priest an Imam holding a flag together showing the
crescent and the cross (the nationalist symbol of the Wafd Party
from the beginning of the twentieth century). 29
The introduction of this new subject provoked Islamists. They
organized a media campaign against the new subject and
several Muslim leaders argued that it is neither advisable nor
possible to separate moral education from religious
instructions. Allegations were also put forward that the new
subject had been introduced under foreign pressure. The
assumption is that, in the debate about citizenship education in
Egypt, both the World Bank and the USA have played a role. 30
According to the representatives of the Ministry of Education,
the new ethics subject must be understood against the needs
that have been felt in the Egyptian context.
50
The subject can also be seen as responding to international
criteria in civic and moral education and corresponding trends
in contemporary pedagogy.
In this process, UNESCO's ideals of moral education for the
future appear to have been an important trigger.
3.2.3 Focus on Ethics and Values
The way in which faith and values are taught in schools reflects
a certain attitude towards religion and ethics. Egyptian law
recognizes Islam, Christianity and Judaism as revealed religions
whose religious laws are applied in matters of personal status
and who enjoy the protection of the state.
In the educational sector, however, government policy has
tended towards marginalizing religion. This is partly due to the
fact that it was exactly the educational sector where Islamism
developed into a political force in the 1970s. The Ministry of
Education is often under attack from the Islamist and
conservative Members of Parliament because the number of
religious education lessons in schools is relatively low,
especially in the secondary schools and because the marks are
not relevant for exams.31
Another sensitive issue in the field of education is the
relationship between Muslims and Copts. The incidence of
violence between them has been downplayed with a tendency to
emphasize the peaceful co-existence between these groups.
Still, as far as the educational sector is concerned, there have
been complaints especially from the secular and human rights
oriented institutions, that Coptic history and culture are grossly
underrepresented in the curriculum, or not represented at all.
51
In 1999, the secular and human rights oriented Ibn Khaldun
Center for Developmental Studies submitted a proposal for the
reform of several curricula, including Christian and Islamic
religious education, Arabic, history and social studies. The
project was called "Making Egyptian Education Minority
Sensitive" and aimed at teaching pupils to value Coptic culture
and history as an integral part of Egyptian history and stressing
values of tolerance and peace in the respective religious
education classes. The Islamic religious educational curriculum
proposal emphasized justice, peace and tolerance as central
doctrines, and downplayed the importance of religious law.
Initially, the Ministry of Education had been in favor of the
project, but when it was finally published and received much
criticism, the ministry distanced itself from the Ibn Khaldun
center.
Another remarkable development was that the Ministry of
Education introduced a mandatory ethics class for the first
three grades of primary school in the year 2000/3 called
"Morals and values education" for Islamic classes or ethics at
primary level. Islamists have voiced fears that religious
education will suffer as a result of the introduction of ethics
lessons. Both parliament and the press condemned them for
their criticism of the ethics class.
Islamists argue that the ethics and moral values of Muslims are
different from that of Christians. They are concerned that pupils
are going to lose their identity, will be confused and in the
process lose all sense of morals. Unlike the ethics curriculum,
representatives of the respective religious communities develop
religious education classes. 32
52
In Egypt, religion is depicted as a general source of values, but
not the primary one - patriotism and the wish for development
feature more significantly in the textbooks. It is nationality, not
religion that is considered the main source of identity in school
literature. The introduction of ethics classes was a response to
the demands of the Ibn KhaldCm Center in 1999. However, the
Ministry of Education chose not to adopt the Center's proposed
lesson on Citizens rights and political participation as a
patriotic duty due to opposition.
After independence, the basic colonial infrastructure of
schooling remained, although in places it has been Islamized.
Scholars have elaborated upon the details of the interminable
education "reforms" since the nineteenth century, but most are
adjusting to a system that, at its foundation, is a colonizing
order.
3.3 Education in Nigeria
I have included Nigeria, which although not predominantly
Muslim, has a substantial number of adherents to Islam
(approximately 50% of the population), Shari'ah courts operate
in some provinces and eminent Nigerian scholars such as Dr.
Ahmed Lemu and his wife Aisha B. Lemu have made great
contributions to the Islamization of Knowledge project.
European colonialists introduced the idea of secularism into
Nigeria, a concept, which was perceived by Islamists as one of
the shrewdest devices to perpetuate western dominance of
Muslims.
53
During the trans-Saharan trade in the ninth and tenth
centuries, Islam spread amongst rulers and the urban people
and then made contact with the natives of the rural areas.
Scholars established Qur'anic schools in northern Nigeria,
which was predominantly Muslim and for many centuries these
were operational.
In spite of Islam's spread to the south, the education there was
distinctly different from the north, the reason being that
Christian missionaries were allowed to establish mission
schools by the British and the government schools were
Christian-oriented.
In the words of Dr. Usman Bugajee:
Some of us have our educational system dating severalcenturies, in fact older and richer than those of theBritish. The British however, thought they knew betterwhat was good for us and in their "civilizing" mission,they felt the "natives" needed to be given only thateducation which will prepare them for their role they hadreserved for us, the role of subordinates. Assubordinates, we had no history, culture orcivilization...we had to believe so and behave SO...33
According to Aisha Lemu, Muslim scholars had no choice but to
study Bible Knowledge and even attend church.
Christians also used conversion as a prerequisite for admission
to these Christian-oriented schools. Also, these learners could
not study Islamic studies, as there were no educators to teach
the subject. The Muslim parents were faced with a difficult
choice-either to allow their children to pursue a modern
education at the risk of losing their faith, or prevent them from
attending school in a bid to maintain their faith at the expense
54
of not being able to enter the workforce in government or the
modern administration system. This ultimately gave rise to the
establishment of private Islamic schools for Muslims in the
South West. However, these schools came with their own
challenges. The medium of instruction was usually Arabic,
which made it difficult for the learners to join the mainstream of
these institutions after completing their schooling.
In Aisha Lemu's VIew, the north posed a subtler situation,
when the British subdued the northern region, and good
relationship was established between them and the Emirs. The
Muslims did not see the change in education and the
establishment of government schools as a threat. They were still
in control of the curriculum, which included most of the Islamic
subjects and were taught by educators who were products of
traditional Qur'anic schools.
3.3.1 Religious Education in Public Schools
The syllabi for Islamic knowledge designed by the Ministry of
Education in the 1950s consisted of subjects, which would
prepare the learners for the African School Certificate
Examination. The Muslim learners had to manage with Arabic
textbooks until 1968-1970. Fortunately for them, the educators
were conversant in Arabic, and could translate the lesson to the
learners.
The availability of the Islamic textbook in English made teaching
much easier and the Arabic speaking Mallams (educators), were
replaced at the secondary level by English-speaking educators
who were trained in the mainstream educational system.
55
Nigeria changed to a system 6-3-3-4 in 1984 which translates
into 6 years primary, 3 years junior secondary, 3 years senior
secondary and 4 years university, and subject panels
established by the Nigerian Educational Research Council,
affiliated with the Ministry of Education, reviewed all syllabi.
Aisha Lemu, who served on the panel for Islamic studies,
reiterates that they were allowed to draw up new syllabi with
well-planned lesson formats. The contents of the lessons, which
will be disseminated to the learners, according to her, should be
vibrant enough to make an impact on any young Muslim, even
if he does not receive any further Islamic education.
In her words:
We therefore gave much more time to issues such as therights of women is Islam, the rights and duties of thehusband and wife, and to the moral teachings of Islam.We gave less time to the historical details of battles anddynasties and more to the civilizational values of Islam,as well as its impact on West Africa. 34
It is more important, according to her, to teach learners how to
practice and uphold their religion and to be conversant about
their religion.
Usman Bugajee shares the same sentiments. In his words:
Giving Islam a prominent role in the educational system isthus both proper and practical. This for the sake of claritydoes not necessarily mean changing the existing syllabusor educators. It only means that Islam will not beconfined to the classroom, but will be allowed into theroutine and daily life of learners and their educators.35
56
The method of teaching Islam in Nigeria is expected to be
confessional. The emphasis is on the following:
(a) Practicing Islam
(b) Memorizing sections of the Qur'an and Hadith
(c) Learning historical information considered essential.
Breakdown of the Syllabus
1. Hidayah (Guidance)
Section A: The Qur'an
Section B: The Hadith
Section C: Tahdhib (Moral Education)
2. Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence)
Section A: Tawhid (Belief)
Section B: Ibadah (Worship)
Section C: Mu'amalat (Human Transactions)
This includes Shariah, Marriage, Divorce, Custody
of Children and Inheritance
3. Tarl.kh (Historical Development of Islam)
Section A: Sirah (Life of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH),
including the leadership of the Four Righteous
Caliphs.
Section B: The Spread of Islam to Western Africa.
Section C: Contributions of Muslims to World Civilization.
3.3.2 Private Schools: The Horizons College.
The Horizons College, Minna, established by the Islamic
Education Trust in 1994, functioned, as a dual system for the
first seven years teaching both modern and Islamic subjects.
57
In 2003, Aisha Lemu presented a paper at the National
Conference of Nigerian Association of Model Islamic Schools
(NAMIS) in Ibadan, where she explained her efforts to integrate
aspects of the curriculum in an attempt to develop a holistic
approach to knowledge. This new subject called "Islamic
Perspectives" is designed to assist learners to view the modern
world from an Islamic perspective, accepting what is good and
reject that which is harmful.
What is interesting is that, in the mid 1980s a group of
humanists in some of the southern universities attempted to
replace Islamic and Christian Religious Knowledge with a
syllabus called "Moral Education", in order to teach both groups
in the same class, cutting down on costs at the expense of
religion. 36
It also raised questions, such as who would determine what was
"moral" or "immoral" and what would be the belief of the person
who would disseminate the subject. For both Muslims and
Christians religion is the only source and ultimate yardstick of
moral values. Both parties made themselves heard and
suggested it would be fine for a minority of unbelievers, but the
vast majority of Muslim and Christian Nigerians want morality
embedded in the context and teaching of religion. The
government conceded to their request.
3.4 Education in Turkey
Turkey is one of the few countries, which have experienced
various alternative approaches to religious education.
In this section, I will discuss:
a) Religious education in public schools;
58
b) The new program "human rights education" in schools;
c) The new curriculum which developed out of the old Religious
and Ethic Culture Education for primary schools implemented
by the Ministry of Education in 2000.
d) The Imam Hatip High Schools, which have been frequently on
the agenda in Turkey in the context of religion-state relations.
Finally, I will highlight some pointers from the Education Policy
under the heading Duties of the Ministry of National Education.
3.4.1 Impact of Ataturk's Secularization project on the
Education system
Institutionalized education in general and religious education
in particular is highly centralized in Turkey. As a successor of
the Ottoman Empire, the Turkish Republic came into existence
in 1923.
The secular foundation was laid by Mustafa Kemal
Ataturk, founder of the modem Turkish state. He tried to
transform the country from a religious country to a
modem secular, European country. For him, secularity
was the guarantee of a modem, Turkish Republic.37
The centralization of religious education began with the Unity of
Education Law, which was first drafted in 1924 and preserved
in subsequent legal reforms and constitutional changes. Based
on this law, all educational institutions, including the military
and medical schools, were brought under the control of the
Ministry of Education. Additionally, all traditional religious
schools, or medreses, were abolished and a Divinity School was
established to educate scholars and experts in religious
subjects. 38
59
On February 03, 1923 Mustafa Kemal gave a clear indication of
the impending unification of education and announced his
views on the effacy of the medreses in his speech at Izmir
University:
When we inquire what will become of the medreses...of
Evkaf, we at once encounter a certain resistance. It is
proper to ask those who resist, by virtue of what right
and of what power do they oppose these questions?
Our religion is the most reasonable and logical religion.
For a religion to be natural, it must conform to reason, to
science, to knowledge and to logic...
But we should have higher institutions of education to get
distinguished and true religious men who would be able
to investigate the true philosophy of our religion, as we
should have highly professionals and specialists in every
case.39
In order to understand why the Unification of Education was
necessary, one must first look at the state of educational
institutions of the Ottoman Empire in the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries. The four types of educational
institutions were medreses, mekteps, minority schools and
foreign (missionary) schools. 40
Medreses were the places where traditional religious SCIences
were studied. They were the most common, but also the most
resilient towards modern developments. Mekteps on the other
hand were established by the Ottoman Empire and were
modeled after secular European educational institutions. There
were also schools, run by non-Muslim minorities of the Empire
and schools established and controlled by foreign missionaries.
60
Many Turks saw the closure of the medreses as an anti
religious action since there was no alternative (private) schools
to provide religious instruction. In response to this criticism,
the Prime Minister of the time (1925-1937), Ismet Inonu,
claimed, "This (practice) should not be considered anti
religious". He called for a program of "national education",
which was to be distinguished from "religious or international
education". However, it was clear that religion was given no
place in the new educational policy.41
With respect to religious education, many fluctuations in
religious education in schools can be observed in modern
Turkey. For a quarter of a century in the early Republican era,
the Turkish educational system operated strictly on a secular
basis, and all levels of religious education were officially
banned. The justification for the exclusion of religion from the
curriculum of Primary, Secondary and High school was that
Turkey was not an exclusively Muslim country.
3.4.2 Religious Education in Public Schools Since 1949
After a long debate on the political level, religious education in
state schools was introduced. In 1949 the Ministry of Education
allowed a course on religion in the 4th .and 5 th Grades of primary
schools. These courses were optional, on written request from
the parents.
In 1956, the new government led by "The Demokrat Parti', was
more sympathetic towards religious sentiments of the society
and introduced a religious course into secondary schools. After
nearly ten years, in 1967 the course was extended to the 1st.
and 2nd .grades of high schools.
61
It was further extended in 1975 and following the military coup
in 1980 the course became obligatory for all secondary level
schools. 42
After the 1980 military take-over, religious education
became a compulsory part of the school curriculum and
was then included in the 1982 Turkish Constitution as
the 24th.Article. The official name of religious education
was changed to "Religious Culture and Ethics
Knowledge ".43
Article 24- Everyone has the liberty of conscience, religious belief
and conviction... Education and instruction in religion and ethics shall
be conducted under state supervision and control. Instructions in
religious culture and moral education shall be compulsory in the
curriculum ofPrimary and Secondary schools. Other religious education
and instruction shall be subject to the individual's own desire... 44
The existence of compulsory religious education in state schools
may appear unexpected in a country that is officially secular.
Turkey has been a secular state since 1924. Since the law
prohibits religious groups from providing religious education in
both school and society and Turkish law has not recognized
religious groups, the state was compelled to provide religious
education.
The religious education curriculum for pnmary level was
changed in 2000 by the Ministry of National Education, which
issued new textbooks for the subject. The new religious
education curriculum supports the teaching of non-Islamic
religions and the purpose of teaching these is explained in the
new formulated curriculum as follows: Gaining basic knowledge
and understanding of other religions by pupils, will contribute
62
to the development of more tolerant attitudes towards the
followers of these religions. 45
3.4.3 Imam Hatip High Schools
The concept of Imam Hatip High School was a part of Ataturk's
project of the new Republic of Turkey and it can be viewed as
the Turkish solution for the issue of religious education in the
modern age.
According to the definition of laicism religious education at all
levels falls under the auspices of the state. To provide religious
education is one of the responsibilities of the state, and it is
illegal for individual religious groups to offer religious
education. According to the "Act of Tevhid-I-Tedrisaf' (The Act of
Unification of Religion), passed on 3rd . March 1924, the
separation between religious and secular education was
abolished. It was accepted that all religious persuasions were to
be offered by the Ministry of National Education.46
Discussions concerning these schools formed the agenda of the
universities on matters such as definitions of laicism and
freedom of religion. Apropos of, where the graduates of Imam
Hatip schools can enter university with equal conditions in
comparison to the other high school graduates.
Families, which encourage their children to pursue an all
inclusive religious education to become leaders in Islam, avoid
sending their children to the Imam Hatip schools. However,
families III favor of religious and cultural education in
conjunction with secular subjects do not have any qualms
about sending their children to these schools.
63
Besides, it is well known that the majority of Turkish people do
not have any objections to the religious education offered by the
state.
3.4.4 Human Rights Education
It is commonly accepted that human rights principles and
standards will increasingly play a crucial role in the making of a
global democratic society. Correspondingly, the United Nations
and other international organizations encourage member
countries to establish a national plan of action to promote
education in human rights.
Turkey was one of the first countries in Europe that established
a "National Committee on the Decade for Human Rights
Education". In 1998, followed by the formation of a "National
Action" in 1999, the most important step In human rights
education was taken by the introduction of a compulsory
"Citizen and Human Rights Education" course in the seventh
and eighth grades of basic education in primary schools and
optional courses in Democracy and Human Rights in high
schools.
Turkey pays attention to human rights education that
aims at developing the conscience of tolerance to the
"other}} and preventing discrimination. In line with the
decision of the United Nations Turkey was one of the first
countries that founded the "Ten Years National
Committee for Human Rights Education}> in 1988 and
consequently issued the national plan of action in 1999.
In this context} "Citizenship and Human Rights
Education}} course is given as compulsory subjects in
primary schools at seven and eight grades.47
64
Religious education is a compulsory part of the pnmary and
secondary curriculum. Traditional religious education In
schools had a long legacy in the RE-curriculum, textbooks and
pedagogical understanding. However, a shift occurred from
confessional towards a pluralistic (interfaith) religious
education. Religious education, depending on the present
government's policy, IS often optional, and IS more a
comparative study of religions rather than of Islam.
3.5 Education in Pakistan
This section will discuss Pakistan's orthodox and modern
education and will highlight President Pervez Musharraf's
campaign for the reform of the religious madaris.
3.5.1 Traditional and Modern Education
Pakistan has a system of religious education and a network of
secular institutions. The latter can be sub-divided as follows:
1. Institutions established in the public sector.
11. Schools managed by Christian missionaries.
111. Indigenous schools in the private sector designed on the
pattern of Christian Mission Schools such as the Beacon
House and City School systems.
IV. Private English Medium schools In the urban
concentrations managed strictly along commercial lines.
Religious institutions are distinctly divided on the basis of their
sectarian affiliations.
65
The preponderance of Pakistan's madaris is affiliated
with one offive Islamic school boards (Wafaq). There are
three Sunni madrassa boards (Deobandi, Ahl-I-Hadees,
and Barelvi), and one for the Shia and the supra
sectarian Jamaat Islaami (JI) madaris. 48
This is an indication that Pakistan does not have a single
uniform system of education at the national level.
3.5.2 Reform of the Traditional Madrassa
The Pakistani government approved one million US dollars
towards a program to reform 8000 religious schools, by
introducing subjects taught at normal schools. The Pakistani
executive committee of the National Economic Council approved
the funding to "bridge" the gap between normal and formal
madrassa education.49
The new program will entail formal subjects including English,
Mathematics, Social Studies and general science, which will be
introduced from the primary to the secondary levels, while
English, Economics, Pakistani Studies and Computer Science
would be introduced at high school level. Pakistani President
Musharraf has for some time campaigned for the reform of the
religious schools. The campaign largely failed after madrassa
leaders and Islamist organizations rejected government
legislation requiring the schools to register and broaden their
curricula beyond rote Qur'anic learning. The program was
drafted on the advice of the US government, which has also
advised other Muslim countries, including Saudi Arabia,
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Malaysia.
66
The Islamists categorically rejected the reform proposal, citing it
an American conspiracy to introduce secularism in Pakistan. 50
Given that the Islamists have consistently played a central role
in the Islamization of education since the 1970s, it is not
surprising that prospective liberal efforts towards curricula
reform have been met by resistance from proponents of the
theocratic vision, whose influence and interests has become a
mainstay of educational institutions.
There are those who insist that President Musharraf is serious
in his aim to bring the madrassa curriculum closer in
substance to that provided in non-religious schools, with the
long tern goal being a curriculum that is almost identical. There
are those who say that Musharraf is dragging his feet in this
reform, and speculate that his reluctance to enforce reform
efforts is rooted in his desire to remain in favor with Pakistan's
Islamist political parties, which are seen to be an important part
of his political base.
3.5.3 Citizenship Education
In the Pakistani national school system citizenship education is
imparted through a prescribed social studies curriculum, the
main thrust of which has been the Islamization of society since
the 1980s. Pakistan's national policy on the social studies
curriculum makes no distinction between religious education
and citizenship education, in that it seeks to create practicing
Muslims rather than democratic citizens. At the core of the
citizenship education curriculum debate is the relationship
between religion and the state. In this respect, two ideological
visions, theocratic and liberal-democratic, are competing for
hegemony.
67
Proponents of the theocratic approach seek to promote an
agenda for an Islamic state, defining good citizenship through a
religious framework. In contrast, the liberal-democratic vision
proposes a separation of religion and state, defining good
citizenship in pluralistic terms.
The liberal-democrats emphasize that citizenship is a secular
concept and the acquisition of religious knowledge IS neither
necessary nor sufficient for preparing good citizens. 51
Proponents of the theocratic vision justify their claim by
referring to the "ideology of Pakistan", stressing that Pakistan
was created for Islam. 52 Hence, they argue that a good citizen is
a person who adheres to Islamic teaching and seeks to
strengthen the Muslim ummah.53 The theocratic vision rejects
the secular conception of citizenship by declaring it ladiniyat, or
pagamsm.
Conversely, the liberal-democratic vision of a good citizen is by
and large comparable to the western philosophical vision, in
that it conceives the good citizen as a person who lives by
democratic ideals, such as religious freedom and equality. The
hallmark of the Pakistan model of liberal-democratic vision is
pluralism, stipulating non-interference of the state in citizen's
faith and the recognition of cultural diversity. 54
The mam responsibility for citizenship education lies with the
capstone courses of civics, Pakistan studies, and global studies.
Secondary students are required to take these three courses,
which offer a formulaic narration of the story of Pakistan
couched within a theoretical framework of "Islamic ideology".
68
Regarding the aims and objectives of the course on civics, the
national curriculum states that it seeks to promote unity of the
Muslim ummah and to inculcate a strong sense of gratitude to
the "Almighty" for making Pakistan an independent Islamic
state. In addition, it claims that it seeks to prepare future
citizens who are conscious of their positive role in Islamic
society and the world at large. 55
Critics of the curriculum Nayyar and Salim (2003) conclude
that the school textbooks on civics and Pakistani studies
contain "factual inaccuracy and omissions for ideological ends
encourage religious and ethnic prejudices, foster gender
stereotypes and intolerence and glorify war".56
Furthermore, they assert that the social studies textbooks
define citizenship in a manner that excludes non-Muslim
Pakistanis from either being Pakistani citizens or from simply
being good human beings. For example, the report suggests
that the textbooks equate patriotism with Islamic zeal and
describe good people as those "who read the Qur'an and teach
the Qur'an to others".57
3.6 Education in Malaysia
Malaysia's current mission statement in its education goals is to
develop a World Class education, which will realize the full
potential of the individual and fulfill the aspiration based on the
challenges brought about by globalization itself, in addition to
the target of achieving the goals of Vision 2020. In order to
materialize this goal, the government through the Ministry of
Education primed its education structures to produce well
educated, skilled and motivated professionals.
69
Malaysia's approach to educational growth and development
was seen especially in the Seventh Malaysian Plan where there
was a significant departure from the conventional government
propelled initiatives of previous years. This created a pathway
for the private sector to meet the needs for tertiary education by
offering degree, diploma and certificate level courses.
However, education should not only cater for the open market.
Having multi-national status enterprises complimented with
knowledgeable professionals does not guarantee a sustainable
growth and development if a nation's human resources are
poorly equipped morally and spiritually.
Mahathir has been one of the most vocal, frank and consistent
critics of globalization. He interprets globalization as the brain
child of obsolete capitalism. In his view:
The market fundamentalists and the globalization
theologians have elevated what they call "survival of the
fittest" and "economic efficiency", the maximization of
profits, the making of money as the most important moral
basis of religion. (2002:101). He calls for a "new
globalization" that works less In the service of the
wealthy and much harder in the service of the poor. 58
Realizing the impact of globalization on the youth, the Religious
and Moral Division of the Ministry since 2003 has been revising
the methodology of teaching-learning processes in order to
develop a more effective character building and moral
development learners. Having the Qur'an and Sunnah as the
basis of the teaching and learning processes reflects the value of
the religion of Islam.
70
All operators, whether public or private, adhere to the
curriculum guidelines provided by the Ministry of Education,
except for the international/ Expatriate Schools that follow the
British or US syllabus. The home-based religious pre-schools
used to operate separately from the government schools, but
were mandated to register, resulting in these schools no longer
operating autonomously.
3.6.1 Religion Education in Public and Private Schools
The majority of pre-schools are overseen by either the private
sector or non-governmental organizations. In addition to the
National Pre-school Curriculum, these schools are free to add or
adjust the curriculum to suit their individual purposes and
philosophy.
I Pre-School Education
The majority of parents prefer to send their children to a pre
school with a religious emphasis in the hope of inculcating the
respective religious values in their young. There is no public
examination at this level.
The National Pre-school Curriculum is divided into two:
~ Islamic education
~ Moral education (Curriculum Development Center, 1999)
The education system mandates that at all levels, Islam is
taught only during Islamic studies periods. By default, the
Muslim learners are taught Islamic education while the non
Muslims attend moral education classes.
7]
In companson to prevIOus home-based religious schools,
current pre-schools globally boast well-planned programs,
which consist of most subjects in primary level education
11 Primary level education
Primary schools usually cover a period of six years.
a) Public schools
Muslim learners in pnmary and secondary schools attend
compulsory Islamic studies classes several times a week, while
non-Muslim learners select another secular subject instead.
There are two categories of public-funded schools, with a 95%
enrolment:
~ The National Schools
~ The National-Type Schools
The medium of instruction III national schools is Malay
Language (Bahasa Melayu) and English is a compulsory
subject. The national-type schools use Chinese and Tamil as
the medium of instruction. Since 2003, English has been used
as the medium of instruction for Science and Mathematics in all
public schools.
b) Private schools
There are three categories of private schools at this level,
namely:
~ Private schools
~ Private religious schools
~ International/Expatriate schools.
72
III Secondary Level Education (Forml-Form5)
(a) Public secondary schools are divided into:
~ Lower secondary level (Forml-3, age 13-15) general
education.
~ Upper secondary level (Form4-5, age 16-17) learners are
guided into either, science, arts, religious, technical and
vocational studies.
(b) Private secondary schools
In the private sector, there are four types of school levels.
~ Private secondary schools that follow the Malaysian
Curriculum for Malaysian and foreign learners.
~ Private religious secondary school that follow the
Malaysian Curriculum.
~ International/Expatriate schools with an international
curriculum and language, which may only enroll foreign
learners.
~ Chinese independent secondary schools that follow the
guidelines of the Ministry of Education offer a three year
Junior Middle and a three year Senior Middle education
and use Mandarin as the medium of instruction in spite
of foreign learners being admitted.
The increasing demand for residential, religious and
technical/vocational schools; poor infra structural development
for rural secondary schools, which depend entirely on
government funding as compared to urban secondary schools
are some of the equity issues facing secondary education.
Religious schools in the past, which operated independently of
the government were now required by law to register and
73
subsequently are monitored by the Education Ministry in terms
of their curriculum.
In the regular subjects, educators consciously connect the
subject matter with Islam. For example, when teaching science
to the 5 year olds, pictures of trees, the sky and clouds, the
grass and flowers and animals and insects are attached to their
appropriate places indicating to the learners that Allah has
created everything. 59
3.7 Education in Indonesia
In the Arab world, the constitutions are either secular or
Islamic, whereas Indonesia is known for its unique, multi
religious conception of national identity known as the Pancasila
ideology. According to the Pancasila principles, Indonesian
identity is bound together by the five beliefs in:
~ The One and Only God
~ Just and Civilized Humanity
~ The Unity of Indonesia
~ Democracy guided by the inner wisdom deliberations
amongst representatives and
~ The Realization of Social Justice for all the people of
Indonesia.60
According to Tarmizi Taher, who served as the Minister of
Religious Affairs from 1993-1998, religious education has two
functions; first, to support the religious needs of the students
and strengthen their faith and secondly, to "promote respect
between followers of different faiths; inter religious harmony,
and national unity".61
74
In the general curriculum, enhancement of "faith and piety" and
of "moral and noble character" are stated as general aims of
school education that should apply to all subjects, together with
the recognition of "local religion and culture" and "the dynamic
of global development". 62
Similar to the Middle East, religious education in Indonesia is
confessional. In public schools, religious education (Pendidikan
agama) is offered to the adherents of the five recognized
religions, which are Islam, Protestant Christianity, Catholicism,
Buddhism and Hinduism. 63
The curricula are the outcome of a joint venture between the
Ministry of National Education and representatives of the
various religious communities.
The new Education Bill states explicitly that all learners at local
schools are entitled to religious instruction taught by an
educator who shares the same faith, on condition that the
mInImUm required number of learners of that particular faith
enroll. 64
In 2002, the vanous curricula for religious education in
Indonesia were revised in accordance with pedagogical ideals of
competence-oriented learning.
With regard to religious education in private schools, the new
Education Bill's provision of religious education in accordance
with the learner's faith might seem to imply that Christian
private schools, which often have many Muslim learners, will
now be required to employ Muslim educators.
75
Christian groups, secular nationalists, and the large (and
relatively liberal) Muslim network Nadhlatul'ulama opposed the
wording of the article, which was nevertheless included in June
2003.65
Since very few Muslim private schools have Christian learners,
the cited provision will not affect the way in which religion is
taught in Muslim schools. These schools are either pesantran
maddris that transmit classical Islamic learning, or religious
schools of a more modern kind.
Most of them are linked to the country's two large Muslim
networks, Nadhlatul 'Ulama and Muhammadiyah, which have
more than 30 million members each and encompass both
conservative and liberal tendencies.
In both networks, the ideals of gender equality, democracy and
religious pluralism loom high on the agenda among the national
leadership, and there are also examples of such issues being
introduced in the curricula of the Muslim private schools.66
My concentration in this section will be mainly on the religious
education in Indonesia in light of the long-established Pancasila
education, which is traditionally aimed at instilling in the
learners national values and obligations.
In terms of religious education, when trying to understand the
relation between religious and national identity, informal
religious education implemented by Muslim and Christian
organizations should also be considered. In countries
influenced by the Islamization of Knowledge program, non
Muslims will often have problems with the way Islam is
integrated into school subjects other than religious education.
76
Efforts of tolerance education In school may easily be
jeopardized by traditional stereotypes transmitted by faith
communities. Interestingly, the new Indonesian Education Bill,
(which was proposed in 2002 and passed in 2003) speaks of
formal, non-formal and informal religious education as a
national responsibility-shared by government and religious
communities.67
3.7.1 Mainstreaming Islamic Education
One of Indonesia's unique features since independence is that it
has adopted a dual system of education. To compete with the
West in the field of science and technology, the government has
developed a modern type of secular education, which is
administered by the Ministry of National Education (MoNE).
However, it also believes that traditional education must not be
abolished, since it contributes to the development of the
spiritual and intellectual life of its people.
Azyumardi Azra states:
According to the Indonesian Educational Act No. 2/2003,
Islamic education is an integral part of the Indonesian
national educational system. The Act has strengthened
and brought Islamic education into the mainstream of
national education, and has maintained the institutional
dichotomy of "secular" institutional institutions under the
supervision of MoNE on the one hand, and Islamic
educational institutions administered by the Minister of
Religion Affairs (MoRA). 68
77
In conformity with the Act, the madrassa at all levels is
recognized as "on par" with "secular" public schools, when the
national curriculum of 1994 issued by MoNE was implemented.
With this equivalency, graduates from institutions, secular or
religious, could opt to further their studies at any institution.
MoNE formulated the curriculum and textbooks for religious
subjects in both schools in co-operation with MoRA, who also
supplied a supplementary curriculum and textbooks on Islamic
subjects.
Azra reiterates that one of the most important ways in the
mainstreaming of Islamic education is improving the quality of
educators especially in the non-religious subjects. Retraining
and upgrading educators in various fields will allow them to be
better educators and be more effective.
In her words:
Mainstreaming madrassa should be decentralized. In
accordance with the decentralized program of local
government's public schools under MoNE have been
decentralized thereby making them the responsibility of
their respective local government. This is not so In
madrassa education, central government (MoRA) is still in
control. As a result, the madrassa have been treated in a
discriminatory manner by the provincial and local
governments, particularly In budget and facilities.
Therefore, (he argues), decentralization of madrassa
should also be conducted by MoRA otherwise madrassa
will remain on the margin of local government, never to be
integrated into the main stream.69
78
The gap between secular and Islamic education has been
narrowed by government efforts by providing religious
instruction at secular schools and by accommodating a portion
of secular knowledge in the curriculum of Islamic educational
institutions. Thus the strength of Islamic education is mainly in
the pesantren system.
The word pesantren stems from the root santri. Santri learners
are educated In a pesantren, which proffers them a
comprehensive understanding of Islam. Pesantren institutions
have existed in Indonesia, dating back since Islam's presence in
the Archipelago.
These institutions have disseminated Islam to Indonesians, and
are considered as the reservoirs of cultural values and morals.
Pesantren are not only distinctly Islamic, but are also
indigenous Indonesian institutions.
Pesantren is a traditional institution, which is the oldest in
Indonesia. Most of them have a built-in madrassa. There are
those that teach only Islamic subjects and those, which are
equivalent to public private schools.
The MoRA classified the pesantren into four types-A.B.C and D.
Type-A is characterized as the most traditional where the
learners board and lodge near to their kya's (educator) lodging.
It has no set curricula and the educator is responsible for the
subject matter as well as his teaching methods. The lesson
consists mostly of religious subjects and the Arabic language.
Type-B includes the traditional instruction of a madrassa where
both religious and secular subjects are taught.
79
The educator may opt to develop his own curriculum or adopt
the curriculum formulated by MoRA.
Type-C provides religious instruction similar to Type-B in
addition to a public school, which is administered by the
Minister of Education and Culture. Thus, it is a Type-B and
Type-C including a public school.
Type-D is a boarding school for learners who attend madrassa
or a public school elsewhere. There is no formal teaching except
counseling and spiritual guidance.
In an effort to serve the community, the government endeavored
to improve the national curriculum, which was produced in
1989. This caused some reactions from Christian leaders who
argued that the new policy does not reflect the educational
principles for all citizens to respond to the economic and
structural change, progress of information technology and
globalization. They further argued that in terms of the religious
education policy and Pancasila moral philosophy the system of
education could not be geared towards inculcating values.
The new policy is structured according to cultural value
systems and the Pancasila state philosophy. Since 1975, a key
feature of the national curriculum has been instruction in the
Pancasila philosophy where learners from the age of six onward,
learn its five principles by rote, and are instructed daily to apply
the meanings of the key national symbol in their lives.
Some Muslims who prefer to be educated in a pesantren or
residential learning center have resisted the pancasila
philosophy in public schools. Usually learners seeking a
detailed understanding of the Qur'iin, the Arabic language, the
80
Sharia and Islamic traditions attend the pesantren in rural
areas. Learners may enter and leave the pesantren at any time
of the year, and the studies are not organized with a
progression teaching to graduation. Although not all pesantren
are equally orthodox, the aim of all is to produce good
MuslimsJo
In order for learners to adapt to life in the modern, secular
nation-state, the Department of Religious Affairs advocated the
spread of a newer variety of Muslim schools, the madrassa.
In the early 1990s, these schools integrated religious subjects
from the pesantren with secular subjects from the western-style
public education system. Despite the widespread perception of
those who see the pesantren as orthodox, a madrassa was
ranked lower than the pesantren.
An examination of the development of madrassa Since the
1990's reveals that madrassa education is no longer limited to
religious subjects but includes so-called secular subjects.
Further mainstreaming of madrassa education means
improving the quality of teaching modern subjects needed not
only in broadening learners "Islamic perspectives", but also in
the modernization of the country.
Pesantren, in order to fulfill their role as an educational
institution, which aspires to complement secular education with
madrassa subjects, offer in principle both the government
curricular and traditional religious subjects. By providing
secular education and religious instruction, pesantren are
creating a new type of modern Indonesian, one whose values
are firmly routed in the pancasila philosophy. The pancasila
has become the main focus on education.
81
It focuses on the spirit of unity and democratization. At the
practical level, it would guarantee to build human beings to
have a respect for human rights, be patriotic, and have a sense
of social responsibility and justice.
3.8 Conclusion
An analysis of the educational systems detailed above reflects
the following:
(a) The different types of private schools in Saudi Arabia
dearly reflect the dichotomy between the Islamic
institutions offering Arabic and Islamic Studies and the
secular schools. While religious subjects are catered for
in the public school curriculum, there is no indication
that the other subjects in the curriculum have been
Islamized.
(b) The secular education system introduced by Muhammad
Ali in Egypt, which supplanted many of the traditional
Islamic centers of learning remains in force. The recent
attempt to introduce in the curriculum a subject called
"Values and Ethics" which is not based on Islamic texts is
evidence that the curriculum is not informed by the
Islamic weltanschauung.
(c) Nigerian schools are secular, except for the private
Christian and Muslim schools. But the only difference
between the public and Muslim private schools is the
inclusion of Islamic subjects in the latter.
(d) The traditional Muslim schools (medreses) in Turkey were
abolished under Ataturk's secularization policy. These
were replaced by Imam Hatip schools, which offered a
curriculum integrating secular and Islamic subjects.
82
Compulsory religious education has recently been
introduced in public schools, but it is approached from a
comparative religion perspective. In both the latter cases,
the contents and teaching methodology of secular
subjects are no different from those in Europe.
(e) Pakistan has both Islamic and secular educational
institutions. The recent introduction of secular school
subjects in the curriculum of religious schools does not
address the issues relating to Islamic epistemology which
we have discussed above. The dual system of education is
very apparent in Pakistan.
(f) The clear distinction between secular and Islamic schools
in Malaysia is evident at both the primary and secondary
levels. The public school curriculum includes Islamic
Studies. There IS some indication that educators in
Muslim private schools have begun to implement the
Islamized curriculum.
(g) Indonesia has retained both secular and traditional
(Islamic) educational institutions. Islamic Studies is an
integral component of the public school curriculum, and
secular subjects have been introduced in the curriculum
of Islamic institutions. But the dominance of the
philosophy of pancasila is an impediment to those who
attempt to Islamize the curricula and syllabi of Muslim
schools.
83
References
I Muslim Youth Magazine, 2003. Education: Preparing Young Saudis for theChallenges of the twenty first Century. http://saudiembassy.net. Vol. xv1 issue 108 p.l?
2 Ibid. p.16.
3 Lacey, R. 1981. The Kingdom: Arabic and the House ofSa'ud. New York University Press. P.363.
4Muslim Youth Magazine, 2003. Education: Preparing Young Saudis for theChallenges of the twenty first Century. http://saudiembassy.net. Vol. xvi issue 108 p.l?
5 Many Saudi women and men consider women's nature to be different from that of men: jobs such asteaching and nursing as opposed to engineering are open to women.
6 Smith, D. 198? The Everyday World as Problematic. Toronto: Toronto University.
7 The word Ulema is the plural for Alim, derived from the word ilm, which means religious knowledge.
8 UNDP. 2003 Saudi Arabia: Women in Public Life. In United Nations Development.Programme.Program on Governance in the ArabRegion pogar.org/countries/saudi/gender.htmI.2003.
9 Yamani, M. 1996. Feminism Islam: Legal and Literary Perspectives. New York: New YorkUniversity Press. p. 265.
10 Muslim Youth Magazine, 2003. Education: Preparing Young Saudis for the Challenges of thetwentyfIrst Century. http://saudiembassy.net. Vol. xv I issue 108 p.I?
11 Ibid. p.l?
12 Ibid. p.l?
13 Ibid. p.l?
14 ME-Schools Country Guide, 2005. Education ProfIle Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
http://www.me-schools.com p.2.
15 Ministry of Education-Departments and Services-General Management Private education. 2005. p.l.
16 Ibid. p.3.
17 Leirvik, O. 2004. Religious Education in the Muslim World. British Journal ofReligious Education.
Vo1.26, no. 3. p.227.
18 Ministry of Education, Damascus, 2002.
19 Yasien, M. 1989. Perspectives on Islamic Education: Education Crisis and Solutions. Chaper2.South Africa, Muslim World League. p.30.
20 Progler, Y. 2006. The Westernization ofIslamic education. IslamOnline-family.pA.21 Nadvi, Dynamics ofIslam. The Centre for Islamic, Near & Middle Eastern Studies.Planning & Publication, Durban. 1982. p.93.22 Unpublished Article-Egypt Education 2005. p. 1.
23 Unpublished Article-Egypt Education 2005. p. 2.
24 Ibid. p.2.
25 Christian Religious education Fourth Grade, Part One 2002-03. pA.
26 The Battle of Badr was the first war fought by the Muslims during the month of Ramadan and they
were victorious.
27 Islamic education Fourth Grade, Part Two 2002-03. pA.
28 AI-Qiyam w-al-akhlaq, 2001-02, Grades 1-3 cf. aI-Dab.
84
29 Pink, 1. 2003. Nationalism, Religious and the Muslim-Christian Relationship. Teaching Ethics andValues in Egyptian School. (Center for Studies on New Religions). www.censur.org/2003/vil2003~ink. htm. pA.
30 Lervik, O. 2004. Religious Education, Communal and Identity and National Politics in the MuslimWorld. British Journal ofReligious Education. Vol. 26, no. 3.
31 Pink, 1. 2003. Nationalism, Religious and the Muslim-Christian Relationship. Teaching Ethics andValues in Egyptian School. (Center for Studies on New Religions). www.censur.org/2003/vil2003~ink. htm. p.2.
32 Ibid, p.3.33 Bugaje, Dr. U.M. 1995. (unpublished article on) Education, Values, Leadership and the Future ofNigeria. http://www.webstar.co.ukl-ubugaje/edvalues.html.p.2.34 Lemu, A 2002. Religious education in Nigeria-A Case Study. (Report from the Preparatory SeminarHeld in Oslo, 2002). http://www.folk.ulO.no/leirviklOsloCoalitionlAisha Lemu.htm p.l.35 Bugaje, Dr. U.M. 1993. Observations on Islamic Education in Katsina,http://www.webstar.co.ukl-ubugajelkteduc.html. p.2.36 Lemu, A 2002. Religious education in Nigeria-A Case Study. (Report from the Preparatory SeminarHeld in Oslo, 2002). http://www.folk.uIO.no/leirviklOsloCoalitionlAisha Lemu.htm p.5.37 Schleifer, Y. 2004. Education bill deepens Turkey's secular-religious divide.http://www.csmonitor.coml2004/0517/plOs01-woeu.htmlp.1.38 Adanali, H. The Many dimensions of Religious Instruction in Turkey. International Association forReligious Freedom. p.l.39 Reed, H. A 1956. 'The Faculty ofDivinity at Ankara i,ii", in Muslim World. Vol. 46, p.299.40 Adanali, H. The Many dimensions of Religious Instruction in Turkey. International Association forReligious Freedom. p.l.41 Ibid. p.2.42 Ibid. p.3.43 Kaymakcan, Dr. R. 2002. Religious Education in Modem Turkey in the Context of Freedom ofReligion or Belief (Seminar held in Oslo),2002 .http://folk.uio.!leirviklOsloCoalitionlRecepKaymakcan.htm.44 1982 Turkish Constitution-Article 24
http://www.2.unesco.org/weflcountryreports/turkeylrapport I.html.45 Adanali, H. The Many dimensions of Religious Instruction ~ Turkey. International Association forReligious Freedom. pA.46 Aycan, Dr. 1. 2004. Teaching Tolerance and Freedom of Religion or Belief in Turkey.http://folk.uio.no/leirviklOsloCoalitionlPublicAuthorityReportTurkey0904.htm. p.l.47 Ibid. p.3.48 Fair, C.c. 2006. Islamic Education in Pakistan. United States Institute of Peace. http://www.usip.org.49 Shahzad, S.S. (n.d.) How charity begins in Saudi Arabia. Asia Times Online.http://www.atimes.comlatimes/South AsialFAl6DfD6.html.50 Sarwar, B.2004. Jehad and the Curriculum.Chowk.http://www.chowk.com/show_article.cgi?aid=00003311 &channel=univers ityO/0020ave&ordp.l.51 Nayyar, AH.2003. The Subtle Subversion: The State of Curricula and Textbooks in Pakistan.Islamabad: Sustainable Development Policy Institute. P.2.52 Brown, L.C.2000. Religion and State: The Muslim Approach to Politics. New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press. p.2.53 Government of Pakistan, 2002a. p.5.54 Sheik, M.H.1995. Civics: Grades 9th
. And iOth. Peshawar: Shafiq PrinterslPublishers. P.19.
55 Government of Pakistan, 2002a. p.5.56 Nayyar, A.H.2003. The Subtle Subversion: The State of Curricula and Textbooks in Pakistan.lslamabad: Sustainable Development Policy Institute. P.6.57 Ibid. p.12.
58 Mahathir, M. 2002. Globalization and the New realities. Subang Jaya: Pelanduk Publications (M)Sdn. Bhd.59 Borhan, L. 2004. Teaching Islam: A look inside an Islamic pre-school in Malaysia. Contemporaryissues in Early Childhood, Vol. 5, no. 3. University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpar, Malaysia p.384.
85
60 Leirvik, O. 2002. Report from a delegation visit to Indonesia by the oslo Coalition on Freedom ofReligion or Belief. http:///www.oslocoalition.org/html/project indonesialindonesia projectreport.html
r-228.1 Taher, H.T. 1997. Aspiringfor the Middle Path Religious Harmony in Indonesia. Jakarta, Center for
the study ofIslam and society. P.60.62 Ministry of National Education (MNA). 2002a Bill of the Republic ofIndonesia on NationalEducation System. (Jakarta Home of Representation of the Republic of Indonesia.63 Ibid.64 Leirvik, O. 2002. Report from a delegation visit to Indonesia by the oslo Coalition on Freedom ofReligion or Belief http:///www.oslocoalition.org/html/projectindonesialindonesiaprojectreport.htmlp.228.65 Ibid. p.229.66 Ibid. p.229.67 Ministry of National Education (MNA). 2002a Bill of the Republic ofIndonesia on NationalEducation System. (Jakarta Home of Representation of the Republic of Indonesia.68 Azra, A. (Rector of the State Islamic University, Jakarta, Indonesia and a Professor of history at thesame institution). Mainstreaming Islamic Education is an abridged version of the paper, originallypresented at the USINDO lOth. Anniversary lecture series, Washington DC, 2004.69 Ibid.70 Indonesia: Education. (Unpublished paper). http:///countrystudies.us.us/indonesia56.htm
86
Chapter 4
The Pioneers of Islamization of
Knowledge
4.1 Introduction
Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, Muslim
reformers and/ or revivalists have actively challenged the notion
that there were only two paradigms of thought, Capitalism and
Communism, and posited Islam as a viable comprehensive
Weltenschauung (worldview). Jamal aI-Din al-Afghani,
Muhammad Abduh, Rifa' at At-Tahtawi, Rashid Rida, Hasan al
Banna, Sayyid Qutb and Abu'l Ala Maududi were prominent
amongst the reformers of that era.
The most influential revivalist movement was the Salafiyah
Movement led by al-Afghani and Abduh and later joined by
Rida. Seeking to invigorate Islam, they stressed the need for
exercising reason and adopting modern natural sciences, apart
from agitating against tyranny and despotism, resisting foreign
dominance, and promoting Muslim solidarity.l
However, the scope of this movement remained limited and
elitist until 1928 when Hasan al-Banna initiated Al-Ikhwan Al
Muslimun (Society of Muslim Brotherhood) that embodied the
revolutionary vision of Afghani, the revivalist jurisprudence of
Abduh and the enlightened salafism of Rida. 2
The seeds of Islamization of knowledge are contained in the
ideas propounded by Abdu, al-Banna, Maududi and Qutb as
will be illustrated in the following pages.
87
However, it was not crystallized as a project until the emergence
of more recent scholars such as Isma'il Raji al-Faruqi, Naquib
al-Attas, AbdulHamid AbuSulayman, Sayyid Hossein Nasr, and
Fazlur Rahman. These scholars were deeply concerned about
the consequences of the dichotomy within education and
undertook to reconstruct the theory and methodology of the
educational disciplines. They argued that all pre-tertiary and
tertiary disciplines must be located within an Islamic paradigm.
Muslims had lost their identity because of secularization. They
started to write about the impact secularism had on the culture
of the Muslims. They highlighted the contradictions between
Islamic values and norms and what students were learning in
educational institutions that had been secularized.
Faruqi and AI-Attas started to critique the education being
taught in the institutions, and developed a "Tawhidi' paradigm,
which provided a framework for this knowledge. This came to be
known as "Islamization of Knowledge". In essence, this was a
challenge to the secular paradigm of education, which had come
to dominate the majority of educational institutions in the
Muslim world as is clear from the last chapter.
Fazlur Rahman was highly critical of the "neo-revivalists", as he
labeled them. His criticism in Islam and Modernity according to
Yasien Mohamed is:
Directed specifically at Maududi who is supposedly
representative of the neo-revivalist tradition. He founded
no educational institution and never suggested any
syllabus for a reformed Islamic education... Not one of
Maududi's followers ever became a serious student of
Islam. 3
88
My focus in this chapter will be on the pioneers of reform in
order to identify the seeds of Islamization in their thinking as
well as on the founders of the Islamization of knowledge project.
4.2 Muhammad Abduh
Muhammad Abduh (1844-1905) is
regarded as an architect of Islamic
modernism III Egypt and the
Muslim world. 4 He IS also
described as a nationalist, who
influenced and inspired the
reformers and graduates of the Al
Azhar University, Egyptians and non-Egyptians, as well as
Muslims and non-Muslims. His reformatory efforts are evident
in the Arabic language and the educational system. 5
Abduh was influenced by Jamal aI-DIn al-Afghani, who urged
Muslims to unite in order to resist the influence of Europe and
the west. 6 He reflected Afghani's political views in his writings,
criticized the growth of foreign influences, and the corruption of
local rulers, which resulted in his dismissal from his teaching
post at Dar-al-'UlumJ However, he continued to use his literary
influence III articles on the social and political order,
particularly on national education.8
In collaboration with AfghanI, Abduh became involved in press
writings and gained ground on the political and intellectual
scene. His educational reform focused on the training of society
to combat ignorance and standing firm against occupation.
89
For Abduh, the modern-educated society was extremely
mesmerized with European civilization and easily accepted that
all things that come from the west are good. For him, traditional
and modern education, were in need of evolutionary change
and, therefore, he sought to bring about reform in Egyptian
education. According to Yasien Mohamed:
Abduh was particularly critical of the foreign schools
because of the alien Christian and secular values being
imposed upon the Muslim child... to him, the primary aim
of education is the cultivation of the mind and the
uplifting of the character. 9
Abduh also questioned the method of disseminating knowledge.
He argued that the problem with transmitters was that they
were only able to act according to the knowledge they had
received without having the means to integrate it with their own
traditions and sources of knowledge. They were not masters (of
the knowledge) but only the carriers and transmitters. lO
He observed the schools that had been established according to
the European model, including the students who were sent to
Europe to bring back knowledge, science, arts, literature and
civilization. He questioned whether, with the passing of time,
their condition had improved, and they had saved themselves
from penury. Had they bolstered their defenses to withstand the
enemy assault? His answer to these and similar questions was a
definite "no" .11
Abduh's call for reform was one of the factors that motivated the
al-Urabi Revolution of 1882. The al- 'Urabi rebellion was
crushed by the British who then occupied Egypt, and Abduh
joined his mentor Afghani in Paris and the two collaborated in
90
the publication of a popular journal al 'Urwa al Wuthqa (The
Firmest Bond), which was eventually banned. 12
Abduh's call for reform was based on three mam aspects.
Firstly, religious reform aimed at liberating thought from the
shackles of conventionalism. Secondly, language reform, in
terms of styles and usage aiming at evolving a modern, powerful
medium and expression of an element for unifying and
integrating the nation. Lastly, political reform, where he believed
that a democratic line should be struck between the state's right
to obedience by the ruled and the latter's right to justice by the
state.
At the end of his career, he turned away from political activism
and focused on intellectualism. In the words of Yasien
Mohamed:
Abduh states in unambiguous terms that the aim of his
educational program is to enrich religion into the hearts of
students so that it may become the source of all their
actions. In this way, they will be united spiritually and
morally in the service of Islam and the Amir al-Muslimeen
(commander of the Muslims). 13
Abduh stood for the reformation of higher education with a view
to bringing harmony between science and religion.
Abduh led this school of thought and Rida amplified it in his
journal al-Manar, published from 1898 until 1935. Neither
Abduh nor Rida succeeded in converting many Egyptians to
their vision of Islam. Most Egyptians continued to observe their
faith by following the traditional scholars of AI-Azhar.
91
Abduh adopted a much more reconciliatory attitude towards the
British after his return to Egypt. He was appointed a judge, but
his preference was to resume as lecturer at the AI-Azhar.
Abduh was a great influential figure in the Islamic reform
movement who left behind an intellectual legacy in addition to
his contributions of literature and as a lecturer at AI-Azhar, and
his search for a better education. His achievements and
contributions afforded him the honorary title al-Ustadh wal
Iman (The Master and the Guide) by Muslim scholars and
thinkers. 14
4.3 Hasan al-Banna
At the end of the First World War in 1919,
a popular nationalist movement for
Egyptian independence emerged. Hasan
al-Banna, then just thirteen years old,
actively participated In demonstrations
demanding an end to British
occupation. IS Thus, foreign domination
and resistance to it marked the political climate surrounding al
Banna's early years of social awareness.
Hasan al-Banna went to Cairo where he enrolled In the
Teacher's College. It was here that he was exposed to British
colonialism and Egyptian nationalism.
His first commitment involved the formation of a society under
the leadership of religious authorities, who would inspire an
Islamic revival. The Syrian Islamic reformer Muhibb aI-Din al
Khatib, responded to al-Banna's call. AI-Khatib, who oversaw
the Salafiya library, published a weekly journal devoted to
92
Islamic reform called Al-Fath, and contributed to the
establishment of the Young Men's Muslim Association (YMMA)
in 1927.
The agenda of the YMMA called for the application of religious
laws, and banning of alcohol, gambling and prostitution. The
association also condemned the spread of western culture, the
missionary's criticism of Islam and the lax morals of the
Egyptian society. It favored modest dress for women,
supervIsIOn of public behavior at summer resorts, and
restrictions on gender intermingling. 16
Towards the end of his stay in Cairo, al-Banna composed his
senior essay, in which he compared the social roles of educators
and Sufi Sheikhs. While he expressed appreciation of the Sufis'
sincerity, discipline and devotion, he regretted that their
withdrawal from society limited their influence. 17
As for educators, they associate with people in general and
learners in particular, on a daily basis, thus allowing them to
influence society through the educational system. This in al
Banna's view makes educators superior to Sufi Sheikhs and
better able to attack the fundamental malady afflicting Egyptian
youth. 18
AI-Banna was posted as a teacher to Isma'iliyya. It was here in
1928 that Hasan al-Banna founded al-Ikhwdn al-Muslimun (the
Society of Muslim Brothers). Within a span of four years it
spread to other areas of the Egyptian Delta. His aim was to
orientate Muslim societies to what he regarded as a pure Islamic
order. He transformed this intellectual passion into a popular
phenomenon that would profoundly influence the interaction
93
between religion and politics not only In Egypt but also
throughout the Arab and Muslim worlds. 19
When the Ministry of Education transferred him to Cairo, the
Muslim Brotherhood was poised to grow into a nationwide
movement. The center of the movement's activity moved with
him to Cairo and spread throughout Egypt. During the next ten
years, the society established its own press, periodicals, and
cultural programs.
The strength and influence of the Brotherhood and al-Banna's
own public mission resulted in his involvement in politics. In
1936, he sent letters to the King, Prime Minister, and other Arab
rulers, encouraging them to promote an Islamic order. The
Brotherhood also participated in the Egyptian resistance against
British occupation.
AI-Banna articulated the causes of decline and backwardness of
Muslims in ways that added qualitively to the contribution of
the pioneers of reform.
Among these causes he included:
~ Intellectual disarray;
Muslim intellectuals forming the avant-garde of the
educational systems, while firmly professing to be
Muslims, they openly advocate a secularized
educational system.
~ Blind imitation of the West;
Muslims appropriated and initiated what modern
secular western civilization has created. Instead of
94
converting the world to Islam, they were converting
Islam to the world.
~ Confusion in educational programs;
The secular, scientific world conception influenced
many branches of formal and empirical sciences
extending beyond philosophy, such as arithmetic,
physics, geometry, biology and psychology, and the
social sciences.
Hasan al-Banna shared with early Muslim reformers like Jamal
aI-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh the belief that Muslim
weakness and vulnerability to European domination stemmed
from Muslims deviation from "true" Islam. In order to revive
Egypt, Muslims had to commit themselves to understanding
and living according to Islam as defined by its scriptures. 2o
4.4 Sayyid Qutb
Sayyid Qutb has been one of the most notable
writers of Islamic revivalism and has inspired
many Islamic movements of the 70s and 80s in
the Middle East and Northern Africa. He wrote
most of his influential political works in the
50s and 60s. Frustrated with the Third World
state of Egypt, he sought to reinvent Egypt
within the context of Islam. He considered
Islam (especially political Islam) to be the only alternative to the
ills of contemporary Muslim societies. 21
His writings incorporated educational reform and philosophy.
He utilized his power and influence with the Muslim
Brotherhood to promote his agenda.
95
According to an unpublished article, The Islamic Resurgence:
Sayyid Qutb has labeled contemporary Muslim societies
Jahiliyah, a term used to describe the "Age of Ignorance"
in the Arabian Peninsula prior to Muhammed (PBUH).
Their jahiliyah is to me more sinful because it is not
based on ignorance, but a deviation from the revealed
path. The way to remedy this situation is to cease using
western models in the organization of society, and to
return to the ordering of society in the immediate
aftermath ofMuhammad's (PBUH) revelation. 22
Qutb felt that the problems of modern Egypt stemmed from the
secular systems, which have resulted in removing Islam from
the context of life. 23
Furthermore, Qutb espoused the idea that religion is not an
opiate of the masses but is potentially a force of liberation. In
other words, he believed that religion is not simply a philosophy
or metaphysic, but it is also a concrete social force. He argued
that Islam is a universal ideology and philosophy of life that
does not separate politics from religion. This separation took
place under lamentable circumstances, leaving its destructive
traces in Europe, and from there to the whole world wherever
western views, institutions, and ways of life have conquered
other human societies.24 Qutb declared that his foremost
objective was to eradicate the very roots of the jahiliyah
(ignorance) order from society.25
The Brotherhood In the 1950s had great political and
intellectual influence. Qutb proclaimed that its goal was to
stand firm against corruption of the King and foreign British
intervention in the political and economic affairs of Egypt.
96
The Brotherhood sought to implement revival and was to be the
vehicle for establishing an Islamic moral society and a truly
Muslim government.
Qutb's criticism of the state for falling prey to jahiliyah landed
him in jail. He utilized his remaining years in incarceration in
writing several books.
4.5 Sayyid Abu'l Ala Maudiidi
Sayyid Abu'1 Ala Maududi, founder of
Jama'at-i Islami of Pakistan, a legal
thinker, usually called a
"traditionalist", has been the pnme
source for activism and revivalism in
Muslim countries. 26
Professor Anis Ahmad claims:
The roots of Islamic reawakening in the twentieth century
can be traced in the Muslim response to the western
colonialism in Asia and Africa (He further states) the
global Islamic assertion is evident even in countries,
which were not colonized by the western imperialists. 27
The crisis the Muslim World faced in the twentieth century was
encountered in a profound manner by Maududi (1903-1979). He
pioneered a movement called Ijtihad at the level of thought and
institution building and offered an ideological alternative to the
modern world. Maududi's focus in his writings was to combat
the challenges of modernity in the nineteenth and twentieth
century.28
97
His major contribution was the articulation of an Islamic vision
of a society, economy and state. He criticized European
ideologies, such as Capitalism, Socialism and Fascism and
offered an alternative Islamic ideological framework. 29
According to Ali Hasan Zaidi:
Neo-revivalists such as al Banna, Qutb and Maududi
were more critical of modem ideologies and, though they
were not philosophers but intellectual-social activists, it is
possible to extrapolate from their writings criticism of
modem ontological and epistemological presuppositions.
For example, Maududi (1990 [1940]) criticism that the
liberal notion of popular sovereignty detracts from the
sovereignty of Allah amounts to a criticism of a humanist
ontology and its consequent exclusion of
Transcendence. 30
Maududi holds the VIew that western ideologies can only be
defeated at an intellectual level. With his deep understanding of
the Capitalist, Socialist and Fascist ideologies, he highlighted
the Islamic system of thought in his literary works. 31
The ideological contribution made by Maududi is regarded as
one of the major factors behind the global Islamic reawakening.
His writings were translated from Urdu into Arabic, Persian,
Turkish, English, French and German languages within the first
two decades of the Islamic revival movement in Pakistan.
Not only did Maududi provide a vision of an Islamic system, he
also launched the Islah Movement, which (unlike the
traditionaL.) focused on a comprehensive change in society.
98
The movement attracted members from the educated class and
its primary objective was the transformation of the individual
through a social action program resulting in a change in the
institutions of society, economy and state.
While reformers such as Iqbal and Afghan! spoke about the
need for Muslims to unite politically, no one was able to provide
a blueprint for change, as did Maudlldi, who provided a step
by-step process for change. 32
The intellectual and institutional contribution of Maudlldi in
the Islamic thought IS sometimes compared with the
contribution made by some secular scholars in the European
intellectual tradition such as Karl Marx and Sigmund Freund. 33
Maudlldi was not a person who confined his ideas to one
discipline. His writings covered a large spectrum of knowledge
than the above scholars who did play a role in shaping the mind
of modern Europe.
Turning to Maudlldi's VIews on education, he considered the
compartmentalization of education into religious and secular as
artificial. In his words;
"... compartmentalization of religious and secular
education based on a fictitious division of life into
spiritual and temporal is not sanctioned by Islam"34
He proposed that human and physical sciences be brought into
an Islamic framework. 35
99
Questionnaire(For interviews with principals and educators at schools in Gauteng,Western Cape and KwaZulu Natal)
Name of School _Province ---------Respondent: Principal __ Educator __
1. Are you in favor of the Islamized curriculum? Yes __ NoGive reasons for your response.
2. Have you received sufficient training in implementing the Islamizedcurriculum? Yes NoIf Yes, what type of training have you received?
3. Is enough time allocated to allow educators to become familiar withthe necessary materials before they can implement it in theirlessons? Yes No
4. Is scholarly literature on Islamization available at your school?Yes NoIf Yes, what type of literature is available?
If No, where do yo obtain the literature?
5. Is there a network in place that allows educators from variousschools to share or disseminate information on Islamization?Yes NoIf yes, describe the network that exists
6. Are discussions with colleagues and other resource persons held toreflect on practice, to arrive at shared meanings and to understandthe new material on their own terms? Yes No
7. Are you reflecting on your present approaches and methods topractically meet the need to Islamize your lessons? Yes _ No _
8. Have you comfortably adjusted to the Islamic ethos of your school?Yes No
9. How are problems relating to the implementation of the Islamizedcurriculum resolved?1 _2 _3 _4 _5 _
10. What type of support is necessary to assist educators with theprinciples, processes of and procedures for Islamization of theirsubjects and teaching methodology?
11. How well are parents informed about the Islamized curriculum?Not informedWell informed
12. Have you benefited from attending the Association of MuslimSchools regional subject committee workshops/meetings?Yes No
2
13. What have you gained from participating in the AMS conference inDurban from 2-5 July 2004?
14. Is there any criticism from educators or parentsimplementation of the Islamized curriculum? YesIf yes, what is the nature of the criticism?
against theNo
15. How are non-Muslim learners accommodated within the Islamizedcurriculum?
3
4.6 Isma'il Raji al-Fariiqi (d.1986)
The Islamization of Knowledge was first
proposed by the Palestinian thinker,
Isma'il Raji al-Faruqi In 1982, In
response to what he called "the malaise
of the ummarr'. His analysis, called the
"Islamization of Knowledge: General
Principles and work Plan" remains the primary source
for this program.
Al-Faruqi, in his thesis, Islamization of Knowledge
highlighted two factors as being responsible for the
present condition of the ummah. He termed the ((Malaise
of the ummah"-namely, the current secular-religious
duality of education systems in Muslim societies and the
lack of a clear vision with which to guide and direct
Muslim action. The rejuvenation of the ummah, he
argued, is contingent on the integration of the Islamic and
the secular sciences-in a word, on ending duality in
education. 36
Faruqi's concern was that Muslims' behavior and thoughts were
altered by the secular educational system and in the process
they lost their identity.
4.6.1 The Problem
AI-Faruqi argues that Muslims have been subjected to
comparable defeat and humiliation, like no other people. They
have been colonized, exploited, stereotyped as aggressIve,
terrorists, fundamentalists.
100
After having failed to efface Islam in the battlefields, attempts
were made by anti-Islamic forces to distort the image of Islam in
the academic and intellectual arenas.
The colonizers realized that the most effective instrument for
the de-Islamization of the Muslim society was the network of
colleges and universities.
The secularized education system was gradually imposed on the
Muslim world
4.6.2 The Task
The answer to the educational problem confronting Muslims is
to revamp and reconstruct the entire educational system. As
proclaimed byal-Faruqi:
The educational system must be endowed with a
mission; and that mission cannot be other than that of
imparting the Islamic vision, of cultivating the will to
realize it in space and time. Such a task is indeed difficult
to perform and may be costly.
But the ummah in its totality spends a far lesser
percentage of its "Gross National Product", of its annual
budget than most other Umam in the world today.....
The ummah must spend far more on education than it
presently does, in order to attract the best of minds, to
help them maintain the dignity Allah (SWT) has bestowed
upon them as "men of knowledge" or "seekers" after it. 37
The task of Islamizing knowledge is to re-launch Islamic
education on its proper track, leading to its predestined goal.
What is needed is a university, which acts as headquarters for
Islamic thought where the disciplines undergo Islamization and
101
the process is monitored and tested in the class and semmar
rooms of the undergraduate and graduate programs of study. As
al-Faruqi put it:
Until the Islamic university of Islamabad entered into
collaboration with the International Institute of Islamic
Thought, not one educational institution in the Muslim
World had moved a finger to Islamize knowledge, to
produce Islamic textbooks for college use in the
disciplines, or the tools of research necessary for the
writing of these textbooks. And yet, everywhere in the
Muslim World one hears of the need to Islamize
education, its new institutions, its curricula and
textbooks. On the official level where the power to decide
lies, one finds little more than lip service made by the
ignorant or designed to mislead the masses.38
Being concerned mainly with the Islamization of knowledge, al
Faruqi introduced five general principles, which, he argued,
constitute the basic framework for guiding the process of
Islamization. Arising from his five principles of Islamic
methodology are eight epistemological principles.
4.6.3 The Work Plan
AI-Faruqi's objectives of his work plan are to master the modern
discipline and Islamic legacy and to establish the specific
relevance of Islam to each area of modern knowledge. To realize
these objectives, a number of steps were developed and the
order of priority defines the layout of their logical order in each
step. The twelve-step plan commenced with the mastery of the
modern discipline and culminated with the dissemination of
Islamized knowledge.
102
According to Yasien Mohamed:
Faruqi developed a twelve-step work-plan for the
Islamization, each step involving a critical assessment of
the modem discipline from an Islamic point of view.
In this respect, Faruqi was much more critical of western
disciplines and much less apologetic than Abdu was.
This was Abdu's weakness but Faruqi's strength.
Faruqi's Islamization of Knowledge is indeed a positive
contribution towards bridging the gap between the
modem and the traditional Islamic legacy, but it is not
devoid of shortcomings. Firstly, Faruqi seems to have
excluded the natural sciences from his Islamization
programme because he does not find it problematic to
Islam. 39
AI-Faruqi has presented an elaborate strategy for dealing with
the problem facing the Muslim ummah. However, Fazlur
Rahman like Al Buti disagrees with his Islamization of
Knowledge project, for reasons different to those scholars such
as AbdulHamid AbuSulayman. Fazlur Rahman argues that the
only hope for Muslims to bring about Islamic knowledge is to
nurture the Muslim mind. This and useful knowledge have to go
side by side for the successful achievement of the human
mission on earth.
103
4.7 Sayyid Hossein Nasr
Nasr spent the best part of the last
half-century wagIng a solo campaign
against Western scientism and humanism
as well as against Muslim apathy and
complacency.
The m8Jor concerns of his works revolved
around the theme of the dichotomy between the sacred and the
profane and the crisis this has generated, or as he would say,
the plight of modern man.
The thrust of Nasr's comment and contribution has been to
restore a unified epistemology in which both physics and
metaphysics will not only compliment each other but also, and
most importantly, lead to the ultimate reality, which is at once
absolute and infinite. In his words:
The sensualist and empirical epistemology, which has
dominated the horizon of Western man in the modem
period, has succeeded in reducing reality to the world
experienced by the external senses, hence limiting the
meaning of reality and removing the concept of "reality"
as a category pertaining to God. The consequences of this
change, is the very meaning of reality has been nothing
less than catastrophic.... The most catastrophic effect
being on the self, as he continues to argue, in a society in
which the lower self is allowed to fall by its own weight,
in which the Ultimate Self and the way to attain it are
forgotten, in which there is no higher principle than the
individual self. ..40
104
Nasr has made severe criticism against Western epistemology,
criticism that cannot be ignored. He continues to warn the West
not against refusing Islam but against resisting and opposing
the sacred and the consequences of the spiritual crisis that this
generates, and of the toll this will take, not on the West alone,
but on humanity.
Nasr's solution is embedded III a two pronged attack in which
both the Islamic as well as Western epistemology have to be
thoroughly revised and restored so that the balance between the
sacred and the mundane can be achieved. It is significant that
Nasr's concerns reach out for humanity as a whole, rather than
just Muslims.
According to Nadvi:
S.H. Nasr challenged the Western world, which had been
teaching so far that Muslims were the borrowers of all
sciences either from the Greeks or from the modem West.
Muslims, he asserts, have never been the slavish
imitators of any science, Greek or otherwise.
They, on the contrary, were the masters, ulum (sciences)
and the innovators of almost all medieval sciences, which
were passed onto the West through Muslim Spain. Being
an objective research scholar he does not hide certain
borrowings from the Greek or other sources, which
according to him, were in order to promote and preserve
human knowledge....He apposed the movements of
westernizing the Muslim society.
On the contrary, he became one of the pioneering leaders
like Jamal and Iqbal who launched the movement of
Islamization of the Muslim Society. His books on Islamic
105
cosmology, science and civilization, Idealism and Realism
of Islam, the Plight of Modem Man and Sufi Essays are
only a few among other monumental works which have
led to the resurrection of creative instincts.41
Nasr may not be as unique to his generation as Iqbal was, but is
certainly a cut above many of his fellow Muslim scholars.
He is among the pioneers of the current drive for Islamization of
Knowledge.
According to Nasr:
The direction of life of contemporary man itself will be
determined by the degree to which he is able to
distinguish once again, with the help of metaphysics and
sacred science, between the immutable and the changing,
the permanent and the transient, and between the
apparent in contrast to the real progress available and
possible for man as a being who no matter how much he
changes remains in the depth of his being the same
creature he has always been and will always be, a being
born for the immortal empyrean of the Spirit. 42
4.8 Sayyid Muhammad Naquib al-Attas
AI-Attas, born September 05, 1931 in Bogor,
- Java, is a prominent Muslim thinker. He is one
of the few contemporary scholars who is
thoroughly rooted in the traditional Islamic
, sciences, and is equally competent in theology,
philosophy, history and literature.
His philosophy and methodology of education
have one goal: Islamization of the mind, body and soul and its
effects on the personal and collective life on Muslims as well as
106
others, including the spiritual and physical non-human
environment.
He is the author of several authoritative works on vanous
aspects of Islamic thought and civilization, particularly on
Sufism, cosmology, metaphysics and Malay language literature.
Al-Attas traveled widely, drawn especially to Spain and North
Africa.
4.8.1 Response to the Challenge of Knowledge
Al-Attas has spent the best part of his life addressing the
problem of dichotomy in knowledge, and has provided an
unusual insight into what he preferred to call "westernization"
which to him is the source of secularization. One of the gravest
consequences of secularization, he believes, is the loss of Adab,
what Nasr calls desacrilisation of knowledge. The main
characteristic symptoms of loss of Adab within the ummah
according to Al-Attas, "is the process of leveling, the leveling of
everyone, in mind and the attitude, to the same level of the
leveler.43
This mental and attitudal process, which impinges upon action,
is perpetrated through the encouragement of false leaders who
wished to demolish legitimate authority and valid hierarchy so
that they and their ilk might thrive.
This jahili streak of individualism, of arrogance and obstinacy,
as he calls it, led the Modernist and reformers of our times,
including those who masquerade as 'ulama, to censure the great
'ulama of the past and men of spiritual discernment who
contributed much to the knowledge of Islam.
107
AI-Attas views western civilization as constantly changing and
"becoming" without ever achieving "being". He analyses that
many Muslim institutions and nations are influenced by this
"sport" of the west and they continually revise and change the
basic development goals and educational objectives to follow the
trends from the west.
He makes no attempt to accommodate modern western
scientific spirit through a reinterpretation of Islam, or to naively
import western technology skills and products while
simultaneously keeping intact the traditional understanding of
religion. According to him, religion is in harmony with science,
but it does not mean that religion is in harmony with modern
scientific methodology and philosophy of science. Since there is
no science that is free of value, we must intelligently investigate
and study the values and judgments that are inherent in, or
aligned to, the presuppositions and interpretations of modern
science. We must not indifferently and uncritically accept each
new scientific or philosophical theory without first
understanding its implications and testing the validity of values
that go along with the theory.
Since the role of science is to be descriptive of facts, and facts
undergo continual change by virtue of their underlying reality,
which are process, modern philosophy and science, in a secular
way, consider change to be the ultimate nature of reality.
AI-Attas maintains that reality is at once both permanent and
changing; not in the sense that change is permanent, but in the
sense that there is something permanent whereby change
occurs. Change according to AI-Attas does not occur at the level
of phenomenal things, for they are ever perishing, but at the
108
level of their realities, which contain within themselves all their
future state.
4.8.2 Al-Attas' Proposal
Al-Attas proposes a return to what he refers to as Addb, which
with the Islamization of a larger part of the world during the
Abbasid period, was further evolved to extend itself beyond Arab
literature and culture to include the human SCIences and
disciplines of other Muslim people, notably the Persians, and
even to draw into the ambit the literature, science and
philosophies of the civilization such as the Indian and Greek.
According to AI-Attas:
During the Abbasid period, the restriction of the Islamized
meaning of Adab, which was in the process of unfolding
itself, had begun-due to the urbanity that prevailed and
the attendant officialdom bureaucracy.44
This may mean that the concept of Addb itself has to first be
Islamized. It is under the ambience of this re-Islamized Addb, as
it were, that the "Islamization of Knowledge" is to be
undertaken.
Since the university represents the highest level of learning,
designed to reflect the universal, al-Attas true to his Sufi
background, believes the unusual must be a reflection of not
just any man but the "Universal Perfect Man" (al-ihsan al
kamil), which in Islam is realized "only in the sacred person of
the Prophet" (PBUH). 45
109
AI-Attas advocates that the categories of knowledge, which were
fundamental to Islamic tradition, are fundamental to any real
modern education. In the traditional Islamic worldview,
knowledge was of two kinds.
With man at the center, he suggested the familiar dual
categorization of fard 'ayn and fard kifayah.
I Fard 'Ayn, this refers to the absolute nature of knowledge
pertaining to God and the spiritual realities and moral truths.
The religious sciences fall under this category. Knowledge of
these sciences is required in order to enable individuals to fulfill
their religious obligation.
The fard 'ayn knowledge is not static, but dynamic, and it
Increases according to the spiritual and intellectual abilities
including social and professional responsibilities of a person.
11 Fard Kifayah
It is this latter category that needs to be Islamized, and each
branch AI-Attas insists, "must be imbued with Islamic elements
and key concepts ... this process constitutes its Islamization".46
The open-ended fard kifayah knowledge includes the natural
physical and applied sciences.
Contemporary modern knowledge needs to be delivered from its
interpretations based on secular ideology. This requires a
critical examination of the methods of modern science' its,
concepts and symbols, its empirical and rational aspects, and
those impinging upon values and ethics; its interpretations of
origin; its theory of knowledge, its theory of the universe and its
classification of the sciences.
110
Al-Attas' holistic and spiritual approach to knowledge
demonstrates just how foreign the philosophy of secularism is in
the Muslim Weltenschauung.
4.9 AbdulHamid A. AbuSulaymin
AbuSulayman was the President of the
lIlT and one of the founders of the
International Islamic University m
Malaysia and served as its rector for
ten years. (1988-1998).
According to AbuSulayman:
The sidelining of religion in schools was a dangerous
phenomenon. The problem with schools in Muslim
countries is that they do not sufficiently deal with Islam
in a successful way.47
According to Louay Safi:
Among those who have made regular contributions to
clarification of the Islamization thesis and have
championed its course for the last decade is AbdulHamid
Abu Sulayman. In his writings, he has consistently
criticized the classical methods of Usul al-Fiqh and called
for their reform and restructuring. His basic critique and
his most specific proposal for their reformation are
summarized in an article published under the title
"Islamization of Knowledge with Special Reference to
Political Science".48
Unlike al-Faruqi, who has presented an elaborate strategy for
dealing with this problem, AbuSulayman identifies more
focused, and hence more manageable, areas for the immediate
111
attention of Muslim scholars. According to him, the resolution of
the intellectual crisis of the Muslim has to proceed along three
lines.
First, the relationship between reason and revelation should be
redefined. He argues that it is no longer sufficient to state In
general terms that both reason and revelation are sources of
knowledge. One has to go a step further and specify, in concrete
terms, how each relates to the other.
Second, the meaning of ijtihad and the role of the faqih in the
process of intellectual reform should be redefined.
This redefinition, he contends, is necessitated by the fact that
ijtihad has been limited to linguistic reasoning. The faqih is
trained exclusively to deal with legal issues.
This understanding is basically wrong because it rests upon an
assumption that is no longer valid in the realm of modern
knowledge, namely, that the faqih possesses the necessary
knowledge capable of providing Islamic alternatives through
rational effort. Historically, this understanding was largely true
because the faqih was a merchant, philosopher, mathematician,
physician, and chemist. In addition, he was well versed in
vanous branches of Islamic Shari'ah and jurisprudence.
AbuSulayman contends:
We must realize, however, that modem knowledge has
expanded immensely and has become so complex for a
single person to acquire a command of the multiple
aspects of even one branch of knowledge. This means
that the ability necessary for ijtihad in anyone of the
various branches of knowledge requires specialization in
and absolute mastery of that branch. In view of the this
multifacedness of knowledge, and the multifariousness of
112
the fields of specialization, it is clear that ijtihad, insights,
solutions, and alternatives, in the domain of social and
scientific knowledge cannot be provided by the specialists
in legal studies alone. Both the task and the expectation
are impossible.49
Third, each field of specialization must include in its curriculum
a sufficient number of textbooks of knowledge to mould and
guide the mentality of the learner, next, it would be imperative
that every aspect of the curriculum affects the objectives and
values of the teachings of Islam In a harmoniously
comprehensive manner so that the essential unity of the nature
of Islamic knowledge and culture not be lost. Only then can the
ummah claim to possess knowledge that corresponds to the
Islamic objectives. This approach will not leave any room for an
Islamic university and a secular university to co-exist at the
same time and in the same place.
According to AbuSulayman:
The immediate duty for Muslim intellectuals and
educationists is to sift the Muslim culture and heritage
from all wrong suppressive and negative aspects of the
culture.
It is unwise to ignore the power of these shortcomings in
our Muslim dominant culture. The oppressive and
superstitious elements in the culture are seriously
destroying the Istikhlaf spirit of Islam and Muslim
civilization. The cultural and educational reforms should
no more stop at general and vague remarks and advices.
Muslim educational reforms should produce educational
literature and tarbiyah teachers in their successful efforts
to raise the new psychological and mentally healthy
Muslim generations. 50
113
4.9.1 Islamization of Science and Technology
According to AbuSulayman, the project of "Islamization of
Knowledge" has identified and distinguished Islamic sources of
knowledge and established a comprehensive, analytical and
systematic methodology, free of time-space problems in dealing
with historical and contemporary challenges.
It is clear that the heart of the Western challenge to Muslims is
scientific and technological while the crux of the Muslim
challenge to the west is spiritual, moral and social. The West
has no reliable, holistic, and authentic source to know and draw
the boundaries of human freedom and social life. The Muslim
dilemma lies in the fact that the West and the rest of the world
will not heed Islam's moral and spiritual message until Muslims
respond adequately to their scientific and material challenge.
From the point of view of Islam, the western challenge of science
and technology poses problems. In terms of material resources,
Muslims have all the necessary resources to develop SCIence,
technology, and build their economies and industries.
According to AbuSulayman:
The truth of the matter, however is that Western
civilization, like all other nations and civilization, sprang
from its own particular set of beliefs, psychological
elements, and historical factors. Its development was also
influenced by its loss of confidence in revelation sources
when it discovered that these had been tampered with
and altered... All ties to spiritual life were severed. It is
for this reason that while Western society provides its
people with an abundance of material goods and
comforts, it is plagued by psychological problems and
114
social strife that constantly destabilizes society and
threatens it with destruction. It is therefore extremely
important for Muslims to realize that not all of Western
knowledge and science is objective in nature. If it is not
difficult to see how the social sciences are clearly
subjective, it should not be difficult to see how the hard
sciences are really any different in this respect. 51
The reforms Muslims are attempting to achieve reqUIre
Islamization of Knowledge in general and that of political science
in particular because without proper insight into its field, the
reconstruction of the ummah and the preparation for leadership
is impossible. This can be done by founding research centers
and holding discussions in the hope of clarifying the vision and
defining the objectives on a more systematic basis. Those in
charge of such activities should be specialists, committed to the
cause of Islam.
AbuSulayman emphasizes:
The problem lies m the fact that Muslims lack of an
istikhlaf attitude and mentality to pursue creative
scientific Islamic development. They have given up the
pursuit of knowledge and civilization as important Islamic
lifelong duties. Therefore, if mentality and attitudes is the
underlying problem then reform of education is the
answer. Education is the important means to change the
psychology of Muslims who will be the future members of
society. ... Together we should start this tremendous
civilizational mission for the sake of the future generation
of a peaceful global village.52
115
The challenge confronting Islamization is that it presents to
humankind a vision in which science is put to the service of
humankind and "Khilafah" in order to fulfill the responsibilities
of reformation and constructive custody of the earth.
4.10 Fazlur Rahmin
Fazlur Rahman was born on September 21,
1919 Pakistan. He graduated with
distinction m Arabic from Punjab
University, Lahore and then went to
Oxford, where he wrote a dissertation on
Ibn Sina's Kitdb al-Najat. He joined
Durham University in 1950 and taught
Persian and Islamic philosophy before moving to Canada where
he taught Islamic studies at McGill University, Montreal.
Fazlur Rahman returned to Pakistan in 1961 and became the
director general of the newly established Central Institute of
Islamic Research, which was given the mandate of reviving
Pakistan's national spirit through political and legal reform by
implementing an Islamic vision.
4.10.1 Grappling with the Problem
Fazlur Rahman is another scholar who cannot be ignored, even
though he has not been at the forefront of the debate as his
colleagues, preferring to be a detached observer taking liberty to
differ with others on the subject "Islamization of Knowledge",
which he has always taken to heart.
116
He spent most part of his career addressing the issue of
revitalizing or rethinking Islamic thoughts very much in the way
Iqbal attempted. He was of the opinion that there was no short
cut and any such efforts are simply escapists but was still
nonetheless ready to examine them. In his view, all the efforts
from the time of Abduh to date fall into two categories:
One approach is to accept modem secular education as it
has developed generally speaking in the West and to
attempt to "Islamize" it-that is, to inform it with certain
key concepts of Islam". The other approach, combining a
variety of developments, "can be summed up by saying
that they all represent an effort to combine and integrate
the modem branches of learning with the old ones.... The
Most important of these experiments are undoubtedly
those of al-Azhar of Egypt and the new system of Islamic
education introduced in Turkey since the late 1940s.53
In examining both these approaches, Fazlur Rahman did not
disagree much with the principle as with the methods adopted
and the results achieved. In respect of the Islamization of
Knowledge for example, he says, this can only be really fulfilled
if and when "Muslims effectively perform the intellectual task of
elaborating an Islamic metaphysics on the basis of the Qur'an".
He argues: "An overall worldview of Islam has to be first, if
provisionally, attempted if various specific fields of intellectual
endeavor are to cohere as informed by Islam". For the sake of
clarity, metaphysics "is the unity of knowledge and the meaning
and orientation this unity gives to life".
To further illustrate his point, he pointed to how Ash'arite
theology, wayward as he believed it was, was able to
permeate, with remarkable efficiency, intellectual
disciplines of Islam, like law, Sufism and even the outlook
on history.
117
He observed, while there is no dearth of conferences and
books on "Islam and this" and "Islam and that", which he
admitted occasionally contained valuable insights and
ingenuity, these feverish activities, as he called, are often
apologetic and do not add to much. 54
As for the other approach, one of integration, this too, has not
worked according to Rahman, because of the largely mechanical
character of instruction and because of juxtaposing the old with
the new.
The decline of Muslim power was closely linked to the decline of
the intellectual vigor of the Islamic civilization and its revival,
therefore, could only happen through an intellectual revolution.
His insistence that the distinction between "historical Islam"
and "normative Islam" must be drawn both in regards to Islamic
principles as well as Islamic institutions and his view that a
large part of the Qur'an was revealed "in, although not merely
for, a given historical context", has been criticized on various
grounds.
4.11 Conclusion
There are a number of other scholars who have made a
significant contribution to the field of "Islamization of
Knowledge". This include Adullahi Smith, a historian of the
Sokoto Caliphate; Khursid Ahmad, Nejattullahi Siddique and
Umar Chapra in the field of Islamic economics; Ahmad Ebrahim
Umar, and Abdul Karim Souroush both in epistemology and
philosophy of science, the relatively younger but promising
others like Pervez Manzoor, Ziauddin Sardar and Abdulwahab
el-Affendi who produced a plethora of writing on the subject.
118
To conclude, it may be said that most of the thoughts and ideas
of these pioneers, especially in respect of what is popularly
called today the Islamization of knowledge, are widespread.
It is the International Institute of Islamic Thought (lIlT) which
recently popularized the idea, taking it far and wide, not only
through its conferences held in many corners of the Muslim
world, but also by the numerous writings it has generated on
the subject. They have done this essentially by moving the
subject from academic circles to the popular arena thus
pushing it on the agenda of vanous Islamic groups and
movements. It is necessary, therefore, to examme the ideas of
lIlT, the IISTD, and the IIIST on this subject.
The lIlT in Herndon, Virginia, USA was established as a direct
consequence of the original research of al-Faruqi, who was the
founder President of the lilT.
In early 1988 lIlT directed its concern on Islamization of the
social humanistic sciences to a colleague of al-Faruqi, Dr. S.
Waqar Husaini, who was at the time its guest. Accepting Dr.
Husaini's suggestion, lIlT asked him to establish a new
organization to concentrate on Islamization of the natural
sciences and technology.
Consequently, The IIISTD (Institute of Islamic Sciences,
Technology and Development) was founded and registered in the
State of California in December 1987 as a religious, Non-
Profit Organization. The IIIST (The International Institute of
Islamic Sciences and Technology) was registered in February
1988 in Washington D.C. Its "Initial Trustees and Corporaters"
were: Professor Sayyid Hossein Nasr, Dr. Jamal M. al-Barjani
and Dr. S. Waqar Husaini.
119
There were other members who were on the Board of Directors
of IIlST and also held positions in the lIlT. lIlT supported IIlST
financially and by other means for approximately two years.
Due to lack of further financial support, IIIST has been dormant
since 1990.
The goals and purposes of IIIST and IlSTD were the same as per
their "Articles of Incorporation".
The action plan for lIlT was to Islamize Socio-Humanistic
Sciences and Education through Secular Colleges and
Universities in North America and Globally.
An important aspect of this action plan was to Islamize existing
secular colleges and universities, not to establish new ones,
Ideally, Islamization had to be pursued in Islamic States by
scholars and institutions as was done during the early centuries
of Islam, through cooperation with ruling elites of Umayyid,
Abbasid and other dynasties.
120
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. AnnualConference Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana.31 Ahrnad, Professor, A. Young Muslims. Unpublished Article Retrieved in 2005 fromhttp:///www.youngmuslims.ca/biographies/display.asp?ID=5 p.2.32 Ibid. p.2.33Ibid. pA - 5
34 Mawdudi on Education, trans. And ed. By SMA Rauf, Karachi : Islamic Research Academy, 1988,pp. 63-64.35 Mohammad Mumtaz Ali, 1998. Mawdudi's Philosophy of Education: The Dynamics of Change andLeadership. Muslim Education Quarterly 15 (4), p. 36.36 Lee, R. 1997. Overcoming Tradition and Modernity. Colorado: Harperls Press. p.89
121
37 Louay, S. 2003. The Quest for an Islamic Methodology: In Smit, lA. Research Method, Universityof Durban Westville. Pp.95-9638 AI-Faruqi, I.R. 1982. Islamization ofKnowledge: The Problem, Principles and the Work Plan.Washington, International Institute of Islamic Thought. p.ll39 Ibid. p.1940 Mohamed, Y. 1999. Islamization: A Revivalist Response to Modernity. Approaches to the Study ofIslam and Muslim Societies. Department of Religious Studies, University of Cape Town. p.3741 Nasr, S.H. 1993.The Needfor a Sacred Science. Albany, State University of New York Press.
pp.7-20
42 Nadvi, A.H. 1982. Dynamics of Islam. The Centre for Islamic Near and Middle Eastern Studies.
Durban Planning and Publications. p.87
43 Nasr, S.H. 1993.The Needfor a Sacred Science. Albany, State University of New York Press. p.157.
44 AI-Attas, M.N.1985. Islam, Secularism, and the Philosophy of the Future. London and New York:
Mansell Publication.p.104
45 Ibid. p.19646 Ibid. p.19947 Ibid. p.20348 AbuSulayman, Save Islamic Ummah with Children Education (n.d.)http://www.iberr.co.za/savemuslims.htm p.l of 3.49 Louay, S. 2003. The Questfor an Islamic Methodology: In Smit, lA. Research Method, Universityof Durban Westville. Pp.95-9650 AbuSulayman, A. (nd) Islam: Source Purpose ofKnowledge. p.l 0251 AbuSulayman, A. (nd) From Islamization ofKnowledge to Islamization ofEducation.http:///www.wponline.org/vil/article/education/fromislamizationofknowledge.htm. p.3 of 452 AbuSulayman, A. 2003. The Crisis of Muslim Mind. http://www.amse.net/research 2003 Drabdulhamid.html.p.1 of 253 AbuSulayman, A. (nd) From Islamization ofKnowledge to Islamization ofEducation.http:///www.wponline.org/vil/article/education/fromislamizationofknowledge.htm. p.3 of 454 Rahman, F. 1999. Islam and Modernity: Transformation ofan Intellectual Tradition. p.130-8
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Chapter 5
The Sixth International Conference
on Islamic Education and the
Generation of Islamized Syllabi
5.1 Introduction
The first World Conference on Muslim education was organized
by King Abdul Aziz University in conjunction with the
Government of Saudi Arabia, and was supported by several
Muslim countries, universities, and Islamic organizations.
After the First World Conference was held in Makkah in 1977,
six more conferences took place.
The Following is a Summary of the Themes of the First
Five Conferences:
a) 1977 (Makkah): Basis for an Islamic Education System.
Principle of Islamizing education as a whole.
b) 1980 (Islamabad): Curriculum Design. The ideal pattern of
Islamized curriculum.
c) 1981(Dhaka): Textbook Development. The best method of
preparing textbooks on the basis of the curriculum.
d) 1982 (Jakarta): Teaching Methodology. The problem and
principles of teaching education in order to evolve an Islamic
approach to the teaching of all disciplines.
e) 1987 (Cairo): Endorse recommendations of the prevIOUS
conferences. An assessment of what had been achieved and,
what more had to be done.
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5.2 The sixth World Conference on Islamic education
In spite of the commitment, action and planning, during and
after the first five conferences, several role players were very
concerned about the progress of Islamization in Muslim schools.
They met in Dubai to discuss the issues relating to the
effectiveness and success of present endeavors at Islamization
and met again in Toronto and Washington to gain better insight
from the experience of Muslim schools in America and Canada.
The next meeting was held in Cape Town to look at ways and
means of making Muslim schools as effective as possible, with
the main aim of an "Islamized Education" for Muslim learners.
Maulana Ali Adam, the principle of Habibiya Islamic College,
took up the challenge of hosting a conference, which was to
focus on independent Muslim schools operating in South Africa.
5.2.1 Planning the Sixth Conference
Members of the Steering Committee tasked with organizing the
Sixth World Conference on Islamic education were:
~ Dr. A.a. Naseef:
~ Sheikh M.A. Yamani:
~ Sheikh A.S. Jamjoom:
~ Professor S.A. Ashraf and
~ Maulana Ali Adam.
They met on the 11 tb.July 1995 in Jeddah to brainstorm and
plan the Sixth International Islamic Educational Conference.
The brief for the conference was very precise:
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What is critically needed... is an International workshop to
make sure that the work done by experts in the various
World Conferences and the practical work emerging
under the auspices of Muslim schools is brought together
and a new dynamic work plan is created. The Conference
is vital but it must not be a platform for speeches.
It must not become a talk shop but must be a workshop
from which a practical and financially viable work plan
can emerge. 1
Maulana Ali Adam established a Technical Planning Team to
organize the Sixth International Conference. Based in Durban,
the team was entrusted with the responsibility of a hands-on
and interactive workshop prior to the conference.
5.2.2 Focus of the Sixth International Conference
The focus of the conference was firmly fixed by the following
parameters:
~ The scope of the conference was to be confined to Muslim
independent or (Private) schools operating in South Africa;
(which I will concentrate on in the next chapter).
~ The emphasis was to be on pre-tertiary levels of
education; that IS the primary and secondary phases of
formal education for learners between the ages of
approximately six and eighteen years;
~ The specific brief was to formulate Islamized syllabi for a
range of subjects taught at Muslim schools and to devise
teaching guidelines for such Islamized syllabi.
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5.3 The Islamized Syllabuses
After the five conferences on Islamic education (1977-1992)
many academic publications were produced, indicating the
direction Islamic education must take, which led to a worldwide
rekindling of interest in Islamic education.
The 1980s and 1990s saw the simultaneous establishment of
Muslim schools, which was followed by the need to compile an
Islamized curriculum to be utilized in these schools.
The objectives of the conference were to design syllabuses,
teaching guidelines and In-service education Training of
Teachers (INSET) programmes. It became imperative to involve
primary and secondary educators who would prepare a draft
Islamized syllabus for the various subjects.
Maulana Adam and the technical planning team were
confronted with a mammoth task. They decided to establish a
subject task team for every subject taught at Muslim schools.
The following criteria were used to select educators who would
serve on the subject task teams and be responsible for
preparing discussion documents:
~ Strong commitment to Islamic education;
~ Proven successful track record In teaching the
specialist subject;
~ Ability to work co-operatively as a team-member and
discipline necessary to reprioritize work schedules to
meet deadlines. 2
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After a senes of workshops the Subject Task Teams reached
consensus on the format and contents of the Discussion
Documents for the various subjects. These documents were
presented at the Cape Town conference as a basis for
deliberation. 3
Muslim educators from public and Muslim independent schools
in South Africa were invited to participate in the workshop
sessions to discuss Islamized syllabuses and lesson plans. A
specialist chaired each subject session and also present were
academics and practicing educators who evaluated the outcome
of the syllabuses and sample lessons. 4
The syllabi as well as the sample lessons were reformulated and
streamlined on the basis of insights gained from the group
discussions and comments by the specialists, resulting in the
final subject guidelines. The eleven subject-task teams
produced Islamized syllabuses and teaching guidelines for
independent Muslim elementary, middle and high schools in
South Africa.
The Eleven Subjects are:
~ Islamic studies
~ Arabic
~ English
~ Mathematics
~ Natural Sciences
~ Biology
~ Geography
~ History
~ Arts and Crafts
~ Junior Primary subjects and
~ Commercial Subjects.
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The twelfth task team INSET (In-Service Education and Training
of Teachers), which comprised educationists was entrusted with
the task of producing guidelines for teaching the Islamized
syllabi. Educators need to be trained adequately to approach
and implement the new syllabus, and infuse Islamic concepts
into their lesson plan.
In the next section, I will outline the proposed syllabus and
lesson plans for the subjects in the Islamized curriculum. This
outline is based on the documents generated after the Sixth
International Conference.
Since our focus is on Islamization, we will discuss those
subjects for which Islamized syllabi were generated at the
conference.
5.3.1 Islamic Studies Syllabus
Naturally, Islamization does not apply to Islamic studies.
Therefore, the Islamic studies task team concerned itself with
the production of a comprehensive syllabus that would provide
learners with a sound Islamic basis for a rational and reflective
understanding of the world around them.
5.3.2 Arabic Syllabus
The basic skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing
taught to learners should ensure that they would be able to
communicate with fellow Muslims globally, and in this way
contribute to unifying the ummah.
128
In semor grades, Arabic literature is to be introduced to
learners, via the original language. The study of Arabic should
lead to a more comprehensive understanding of Islam.
Additionally, the language should also serve as an introduction
to the Muslim Arab World of economics, journalism, politics,
religion and education.
Mastering the Arabic language will enable the learner to study
the primary sources of Islam in Arabic, and should increase the
learner's awareness of Allah.
How Lessons may be Islamized
To Islamize the Arabic syllabus, resources to utilize in the
lesson plans are the:
~ The Qur'an;
By selecting appropriate ayahs, select simple sentences
and refer to the sentence structure.
~ The Sunnah;
Use simple sayings of the Prophet (PBUH). Use Hadith in
an oral lesson.
~ Periodicals and Publication;
Prompt the learners to translate into Arabic.
~ Resource Persons;
Invite specialist Arabic teachers as guests to address
learners.
~ Audio Visual Resources
Use kiddie's Arabic videos and DVD's, posters depicting
Islamic places and events.
~ Publications
Learners are encouraged to work together in producing
monthly / quarterly newsletters depicting events,
achievements, Islamic social activity of the school, thereby
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allowing learners and educators to participate jointly to
exchange ideas. s
The preparation of a lesson must revolve around the mam
objective, bringing the learner closer to Allah.
5.3.3 English Syllabus
The teaching of language offers profuse opportunities to
inculcate Islamic concepts and values in an integrated manner,
which will compliment and support not only the English lessons
but also across the curriculum. The success of the practical and
applied levels, hinges on the soundness and depth of the
methodological matters at the fundamental level.
The Oral Communication aims to develop in learners the ability
to speak with addb (humility) and to differentiate between what
IS acceptable and appropriate to speak according to
circumstances.
Reading and comprehension skills should remind learners
about the first revelation to the Prophet (PBUH) «Iqrd" (read!).
Muslims have an obligation to develop reading skills as well as
extracting meaning from and responding in an acceptable
manner to the written word.
In keeping with the maturity of the learners, educators need to
develop the skills of critical reading with emphasis on how
easily the unsuspecting reader can be misled by un-Islamic
literature.
The school thus becomes a training ground for learners to make
the proper choices and reflect on the characters studied.
130
Their conscious appraisal of the events and characters from an
Islamic perspective serves as an antidote, which will increase
their ability not to embrace everything at face value. The
guidelines to learners are the three types of reading:
~ Preferred reading
~ Negotiated reading
~ Oppositional reading
1. Preferred Reading
This refers to the reader accepting and believing
everything without question. The Qur'an is a perfect
example of this type of reading. Muslims would opt for a
preferred reading of the Qur'an.
2. Negotiated Reading
This refers to text, which reflects both values that are
commendable and values that are unacceptable in terms
of Islamic teachings. This is crucial to learners, as they
will have to apply their knowledge and understanding,
which are continuously inculcated through a holistic
curriculum to differentiate between what is accepted and
what should be rejected.
3. Oppositional Reading
This is utilized when faced with text that are patently un
Islamic or propaganastic. This will require a negotiated
reading to counter the promotion of values alien to Islam.6
The responsibility of educators is to encourage learners to read
literature by Muslim authors. Whilst the books may reflect
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Islamic values, such books should be subjected to a critical
evaluation.
The method of Islamizing the English lesson is in the teaching of
the novel/play. Many questions are posed to learners as a
comprehension test. For example, learners are asked about the
positive attributes of the main character, and how from an
Islamic perspective he / she is worthy of emulation.
In every lesson, (whether it is reading, communicating, acting,
poetry) the educator brings in the moral values of Islam by
raIsmg issues such as the identity crisis of a society,
emphasizing the law at the expense of morality (legalization of
same sex marriage, which is presently under debate), the
concept of human rights in terms of Islamic teaching, and what
Islam says about rights and duties of parents and children,
rights and duties of husband and wife, accountability and moral
responsibility.7
5.3.4 Mathematics Syllabus
Muslims scholars believe that the Qur'an contains the roots of
all knowledge, though it does not specify or supply details.
Thus, the Qur'an is not a textbook of any particular subject.
However, the Qur'an has direct references relating to
mathematical content. Examples of this is, payment of Zakah,
timing of daily prayers, fasting in different geographical regions,
performance of Umrah and Hajj, as well as inheritance.
Other Qur'anic references relate to the four main operations in
calculations (+,-, x, ~). For example, the Qur'anic verse referring
to Prophet Noah (as), "And he stayed among them a thousand
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years less fifty years (1000 - 50
believe in the Oneness of Allah".8
950 years) inviting them to
Verse 2:267 speaks about the likeness of a grain with seven
ears and each ear grows a hundred grains (1 x 7 x 100 =700).
The verse relating to inheritance may be utilized to teach
percentage and ratio. The examples from Islamic texts are used
in the mathematics lessons to conscientize learners about
Islam.
As previously stated, the contribution of Muslims in the field of
mathematics is well known. The Qur'an inspired Muslim
mathematicians and every branch of higher mathematics bears
traces of Muslim genius. The achievements of Muslims In
mathematics are included In the syllabus as a form of
inspiration to learners.
An example of an Islamized lesson would be to use the number
of raka'ahs, Rukils and sujilds for each of the five daily prayers
for a period of one week/month and plot them onto a graph.
5.3.5 Science Syllabus
The teaching and learning of science aim to assist the
learner to achieve both concepts of Istikhlaaf (vicegerent)
and Taskhiya (subservience) so that they can play their
essential role in controlling, developing and guiding
human civilization. 9
As opposed to modern western SCIence, Islamic SCIence IS
conceived from within the worldview of Islam. It is recommended
that in the classroom an atmosphere that is conducive to
133
teaching and learning should be displayed. Posters or charts
with Qur'anic verses with their translations, ahadith of the
Prophet (PBUH), contributions of Muslim scientists to the
subject and general Islamic etiquette must adorn the classroom
walls.
Contentious issues within the syllabus should be approached
with the intention of imparting the Islamic perspective and
motivate learners to further investigate. To eliminate the
possibility of ambiguity or contradictions, educators are advised
to consult with Islamic studies resource persons or the 'ulama
(Scholars) .
It is expected that educators obtain minimal knowledge of Usill
ul-Fiqh, Qur'an and Hadfth methodology. This would be the
enabling factor to identify deviations from the Islamic Principle
of Tawhfd and reconstruct the basic paradigm of the subject
using Islamic universal guidelines.
The following approaches have been identified:
~ The insertion of Qur'anic verses and Ahadfth into scientific
text;
~ "Bucailism"-the tendency to search for every scientific fact
in the Qur'an; (The term Bucailism is derived from
Maurice Bucail, the French author who wrote a book on
Islam and science)
~ Searching for Qur'anic proof of scientific facts; and
~ Searching for Qur'anic scientific miracles. IQ
For the process of Islamization to be successful, educators are
advised to always keep in touch with other resource persons,
educators and exchange ideas, share success stories of teaching
134
methodology and always create new and innovative lessons
based on the Islamized syllabus.
To cite and example, for the lesson on air, learners should
reflect on the mercy of Allah who created air for all living things
to survive. The section on plants and humankind, should teach
that humans use plants as food, clothing, medicine, furniture,
paper and decorations use plants. The concept of subservience
can be introduced to emphasize that the plant and animal
kingdom are for the survival of humanity, which derives its
sustenance from nature in accordance with the laws of Allah. It
is recommended that chapter 6:99 be discussed in this context.
The section on water is also considered very important to a
Muslim. Learners could be asked to conduct research on the
verse, which states that everything has been created from water.
The continually repeated water cycle which starts with the
evaporation from the seas and rivers until it falls as rain back to
earth could be used to discuss the wonderful design of Allah to
provide this important commodity for survival. The educator
could refer to S71rah 30:48 and incorporate it into the lesson.
For the section on reproduction (animals) and adult support
and care, learners should identify the different kinds of animals
and the needs of their young. They should be encouraged to add
their own experiences by observing the adult animals with their
young. Family life according to Islam could also be discussed.
Learners are expected to identify different species of animals,
how the mother cares and suckles her young as an indication of
the support and care of the natural instinct Allah created in
them. l !
135
While learners are introduced to the different types of mammals
viz. herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores, foods permissible
and those prohibited for Muslims to consume should be
discussed. The etiquette of eating should be included.
It does not matter which section of SCIence IS being taught,
whether matter and measurement (time), food relationships
(food chain), the cell, light or Newton's first law, every topic can
be discussed using the Qur'an as a reinforcement of the subject
matter, rendering it a sacred science.
5.3.6 Biology Syllabus
The Qur'an teaches that all living and non-living things are
created and sustained by Allah. In Islam human beings are
considered (by the majority of scholars) as a special species and
not a product of evolution from any other species.
The basic tenet of Darwinism holds that living beings came into
being spontaneously as a result of coincidence. This view is
contrary to the Muslim belief in Creation. That life is an
arbitrary by-product of the compound formed by time, matter
and coincidence, is unacceptable to Muslims who believe that
Allah is the sole Creator of all living beings that creation was
purposeful and deliberate and that human beings constitute a
special species of beings.
An Islamic approach to biology would be to prepare lessons that
emphasize the extraordinary complex examples of design in life
and the complexities of a living being, when teaching the cell.
This would negate the concept of "coincidence" as promulgated
by Darwin.
136
The supenor design and plan of life as indicators of Allah's
unique and matchless creation, of His eternal knowledge and
might, should be highlighted.
New developments m vanous scientific fields such as
paleontology, microbiology, genetics and comparative anatomy,
as well as many new discoveries in the field of medicine, which
challenge the theory of evolution and confirm the view that
living beings are created in their distinct and perfect form, must
form the core of the syllabus.
Under human anatomy the Islamic perspective on organ
transplants, blood transfusion and culling may be discussed
with references from the Qur'an and Sunnah.
Teaching learners about the special status of human beings in
creation will afford the educator an opportunity to promote and
develop Taqwa (Allah consciousness).
Presented below IS a list of the Islamic concepts and
relationships that educators may incorporate into their lessons:
Islamic view of the Creator
~ Tawhfd (Unity of Allah);
~ Attributes of Allah
~ I'man (faith)
137
Creation of man and His purpose
~ Worship of Allah;
~ Allah's representative on earth;
~ Promoting good and forbidding evil;
~ Spreading the message of Allah.
Man's relationship with Allah
~ Accountability to Allah;
~ To do good deeds;
~ Worship and supplication.
Man's relationship with fellow human beings
~ Establish justice;
~ Respect for life;
~ Respect for property;
~ Respect for dignity and honor;
~ Developing character;
~ Religious tolerance.
Man's relationship with the environment
~ Man's role as representative;
~ To work in harmony with all Allah's creations;
Self-development
~ Self reformation;
138
~ Learning from ones mistakes and from those of others.
Man's destiny
~ Promoting accountability by role evaluation;
~ Method of preparation for death;
~ The last day;
~ The akhirah (life after death).
Development of Islamic ethos
~ Create an environment conducive to Islamic behavior and
practice;
~ Promote contributions made by early Muslims to biology;
~ Reflect on the period of Islamic Renaissance;
~ Recognize the role of Muslims in biology.
5.3.7 Geography Syllabus
The Earth is a gift from Allah to humanity, which is the
custodian of this gift. Geography from an Islamic perspective
comprises a study of the relationship between two components:
The vertical relationship between Allah and man, and the
horizontal relationship between man and the environment. The
study of this complex relationship will enable man to
comprehend and appreciate the significance of his existence in
any time-space perspective and that the spatial-time panorama
extends between the realms of dunyah (earth) into the akhirah
(Hereafter). The role and purpose of life on earth, is explained
through concepts such as Tawhfd (Oneness of Allah), khiliifah
(vicegerent) and ibadah (worship) whilst the central objective is
139
to promote justice on earth and serve the needs of creation
within the boundaries of the Islamic ethical framework.
The major features of the syllabus are to pivot around the power
of critical thinking, logical reasoning, and opportunities for
learning through self-discovery. All learning opportunities are to
become extensions of relevant references to Qur'an and ahadith.
The goals for teaching geography, apart from enabling learners
to acquire skills such as measunng, charting, analysis,
synthesis, observation and problem solving, are to create
nearness to Allah and recognize and appreciate His attributes
through the study of the landscape of the world and the reality
of the Hereafter.
Outcome-Based Education (OBE) encourages learners to
become active learners (opposed to the passive learners of the
past) where the educator introduces group work and a variety of
resources to enhance the learning process.
A lesson on farming as an economic activity could be broadened
to include Islamic concepts. Learners could be made to
understand the Islamic principle of Rizq (sustenance). Also,
learners could be taught how Allah endowed humans with the
ability to plant and sustain them and also provides the soil, the
air, water, sunlight and crops, without which nothing would
exist.
In the section on Map work, learners could be taught how to
find the direction of the True North and ascertain the direction
of Qiblah (Direction for the five daily prayers).
140
When teaching the section on Climatology, rainfall must be
described as a Rahmah (mercy) from Allah and learners should
be made aware that every living thing has been created from
water, (Q23: 18 and 19). The story of Prophet Noah (as) and the
flood can also be included in this section. The educator could
emphasize how the believing people were spared, save the
Prophet's son who did not heed the message of his father.
According to Islam, human beings have been entrusted with the
affairs of this world, which IS an Immense collective
responsibility on them.
Learners must be educated about:
~ Individual responsibility in life;
~ Relationship to other creatures;
~ Responsibility towards human community-social
relations;
~ Relationship to the UnIverse and universal phenomena
and exploration of natural laws in order to utilize and
explore them;
~ The Creator's creative wisdom apparent in the creation, to
ponder and reflect on.
They should be made aware that planet earth with its resources
need to be managed responsibly. They must learn to appreciate
planet earth, which is given to humankind as a gift from the
Creator. 12
5.3.8 History Syllabus
There are many possible ways in which history can be
interpreted, and they are as varied as their vantage points.
141
There are the materialistic readings of history, notably the
dialectical materialist which Karl Marx popularized; there are
the mystical readings of the Spenglerian search for an essence,
there are the Freudian inspired psycho-analytical approaches
whose dictum the "Id", the "Ego" and the "Super Ego", and
projecting these onto history and society.
In the Islamic VIew history is taken as the outcome of an
interactive process where three essential elements that provide
the parameters for the action have to be borne in mind. The first
is Allah, who is the Creator and Sustainer, whose will and
command act in history. Then there is His creation, conceived in
the best of moulds for a pre-ordained vocation of inhabiting the
earth and cultivating its resources in the way of truth. The third
element is that of nature itself that is created within the
framework of cosmos subscribing to the laws together with the
material sources of the planet.
The reason given by this reading of history of Allah's creation of
the universe, is to instill in learners the understanding that He
should be the focus of worship, that humankind was created for
this purpose and that nature was created for the purpose of
sustaining life for humankind who should be engaged in the
vocation of settling the earth and establishing umran
(civilization) within the framework of a revealed guidance.
The ultimate alms of learning about history include the
understanding of Allah's laws concerning the rise and fall of
nations and civilizations, realizing that life has a purpose and
appreciating the niche Islam carved in human history. The
Qur'anic perspective of history compels one to recognize divine
intervention in history.
142
The syllabus presents world/universal history throughout the
various grades in chronological sequence, and the motivation for
embracing this model is to acknowledge the role of Islam in
universal history.
History itself is a study of humanity, thus the initial grades
syllabi comprise the creation of the first man (Adam as), the role
of Angels and Prophets, the study of the rise and reasons for the
fall of various civilizations. Included is the study of other
cultures with the emphasis on developing ta'aruf
(understanding), thereby creating acceptance and tolerance in
learners towards mores of other communities.
In the higher grades the rise of Islam is covered in detail,
emphasizing the spread of Islam and the creation of various
dynasties. The syllabus concludes with the study of recent
global events such as:
~ World wars;
~ Rise of new powers;
~ United Nations Organization (UNO)
The Islamized history syllabus' ultimate goal is to highlight the
impact of moral decadence and declining spirituality, which is
the consequence of a secularized educational system.
Islamized History Lessons
In order to prepare the Islamized lesson, it is crucial that
educators of history familiarize themselves with the Qur'anic
concept of history, which requires the related capacity to
distinguish between the institutionalized historical concepts and
a wide range of Qur'anic information in this regard.
143
The premise and underlying theme of all Qur'anic historical data
is to re-direct man towards Allah and reconstruct its own
history, which is not lost in a misty and unrecoverable past. The
Qur'an should be utilized as a direct source for the study of the
Prophets and the civilization they contributed to. In addition the
educators are encouraged to make use of historical information
in the authentic ahadith compilations.
Many classical Muslim scholars have also made contributions
towards our understanding of world history. Ibn Khaldun's
Muqaddimah: an Introduction to History, translated by Franz
Rosenthal into English is a valuable source of information on
Muslim civilization from an Islamic perspective.
Various approaches to the teaching of history can be adopted:
~ Thematic;
~ World History (French Revolution, Revolution in Iran);
~ Regional History (Apartheid);and
~ Outcome-based.
Engaging the chronological World History approach, which is
closest to the Qur'anic treatment of history, at the same time
disseminating Islamic history accurately, will manifest the
appropriate approach to the civilizational contribution to Islam.
To enhance the sections reflecting the rise and growth of Islam,
educators are encouraged to team up with Islamic studies
colleagues.
In terms of South African history, it is important to steer away
from the Euro-centric approach.
144
Important factors to be discussed are the contributions of
indigenous people, the rise and spread of Islam in South Africa
in great detail as well as the establishment of mosques, from the
first (Aw-wal in Cape Town), madaris and the contribution of
Muslims in the struggle against the Apartheid regime and their
contributions in general.
5.3.9 Commercial Subjects
The Qur'an's economic perspective has been summarized in a
number of places. In economic terms, its key element is its
stress on moderation (7:31-2; 18:46; 17:29). Consumption is
permitted (2: 168)-while niggardliness (35:29), wastefulness
(6: 141), and extravagance (17:27) is condemned.
The Qur'an also deals with a number of specific economIC
issues: private property is protected (2: 188) the fulfillment of
contracts is commanded (2: 177; 5: 1) and is accompanied by
details of contract law (2:282-83) fraud is prohibited (26: 181)
and establishment of clear standards of weights and measures
are ordered (55:9), and the paying and charging of interest are
expressly forbidden.
5.3.9.1 Ways to Islamize Commercial Subjects
Islam recognIzes the importance of material well-being.
However, the urge for material enjoyment must be constantly
tempered by the need for moderation (5:90). Therefore, lessons
pertaining to Business Management need to be cognizant with
the Qur'anic injunction. Numerous examples from Islamic texts
and history can be used to illustrate and explain concepts such
145
as the earning of livelihood, labor and economic risk, the dignity
of work, and industrial production. 13
Learners should be made aware that hoarding (9:34) IS
unacceptable in Islam whereas charity in all its forms is an
integral part of the Islamic way of life.
Important aspects of the syllabus highlight the fact that
Muslims should relate their consumption to their income, which
will save them from borrowing and debt must only be incurred
out of necessity (2:282). This is in harmony with Qur'anic
injunctions, which emphasize the need for moderation and
abstention from extravagance and wastefulness.
Certain concepts in the Commercial subjects are universal.
However, commercial matters have been specified in the Qur'an
as guidelines in respect of Accounting, Economics and Business
Economics.
One has to be mindful of the fact that Western Economics
sometimes prescribes methods that are totally un-Islamic.
It is an accepted fact that the learner will be faced with
these types of western systems. Thus it is necessary to
teach them Western Economics in order that the learner is
able to differentiate between Islamic values systems as
contained in Islamic scriptures and the western concept of
rationale of individual and social welfare. 14
The Prophet (PBUHj and his companions' methods of
management should be utilized in the study of Business
Management so that the learner is imbued with Islamic values,
which can then be carried forward into his adult life.
146
Learners should be made aware that revenue transactions must
be documented (2:282). When dealing with credit purchases
transactions, learners should be able to heed Islamic
implications.
When discussing the presentation of the financial position of a
business at the end of a financial period, and the importance
and accuracy of the balance sheet, the educator is prompted to
refer to the recording of an individual's deeds and their
presentation on the Day of Judgment as a balance sheet. Is
Also suggested in the syllabus is the need to reVIew and use
computer based programmes such as "The 'Alim" and "The
Islamic Scholar" in the teaching of Commercial Subjects.
Finally, it emphasizes the need to compile Qur'anic verses,
ahadith and other Islamic references relating to commerce and
to incorporate relevant Islamic concepts in order to give
educators and learners the correct Islamic perspective on the
diverse issues / topics being studied.
5.3.10 Visual Arts Syllabus
Islamic art founds its pnmary means of expression In the
decorative arts, contrary to western art, in which painting and
sculpture are pre-eminent.
The Islamic Empire, consisting of varied and distant peoples,
such as Spaniards, Africans, Persians, Turks, Egyptians and
Indians produced a wide variety of art forms. Coptic plaster
workers and weavers in Egypt, and silversmiths in Iran
produced a new art with its own straits.
147
Arab nomads treasured the minor arts of textiles and weapons,
and embellished them with geometrical decoration, impinging
on Islamic art. The history of Islamic art should be included in
the syllabus in order that learners are able to identify the
distinctive features of Islamic art and appreciate the
contribution of Muslim artists over the centuries.
Manual art can be a means through which a human being is
better able to contemplate his/her Lord. The artisan recognizes
his/her capabilities and limitations when comparing his/her
work to the work of the Greatest Artisan.
Any attempt to capture an image of God or show a divine
subject is completely forbidden as idolatry: shirk, is the act of
equating anything or anyone to God, according to the Qur'an, no
vision can grasp God. God is above all comprehension (6: 103).
5.3.10.1 Primary Objectives of the Syllabus
~ To expose learners to diverse art forms and techniques;
~ To instill in learners artistic and aesthetic appreciation of
natural and artistic symbols;
~ To provide learners with a basic understanding of the
symbolism of religious and sacred arts;
~ To expose learners to cross-cultural art, with the aIm of
facilitating understanding between communities and
nations;
~ To imbue learners with knowledge of cross-cultural
symbolism in search of the Divine thread, which still
permeates the arts.
~ To foster an understanding of Islamic Art as the vehicle
for the quest towards Divine love;
148
~ To direct learners to produce functional artifacts, this will
encourage people to reflect upon the blessings of Allah.
5.3.10.2 Sample Lesson
Objective: Strengthening the ability for Dawah VIa the
knowledge of the common symbolism in all cultures.
Aim: Spiral, peacock, ellipse as features of all cultures-proof of
the mercy of Allah who sent guides to all humanity.
Apparatus Used: Learners have a choice of using their own
suitable materials for their projects
References: Inward Odyssey (Schanapper) this is a guideline,
learners may opt to use other references to compliment their
art.
Country Reference: China, India, Tibet, and Islamic World. In
conjunction with the country selected, knowledge of the
country's history, religion, and lifestyle is of paramount
importance.
Cognitive Content and Implementation: The spiral reflects
in cultures of India, China, and Tibet, symbolizing the upward
effort of man and the reaching levels to arrive at the Tranquil
Self-the learner explores the inherent spiral in the structure of
minarets and design their own.
149
All cultures have "rites" which they observe for spirituality.
The Hajj is admired by all as the reminder for mankind to
return to Divine origin. Learners design a perspective map and
3Dimensional model of the rites of Hajj.
Learners may also use the tail of the peacock to present lively
artwork and incorporate the spiral.
The ellipse is the linear progress of the circular unity, showing
the servant in submission to the Divine and this submission
carries him along the Siratul Mustaqfn (straight path) to success
in this world and the next-learners reflect on the Tawaj
(circumbulation of the Ka'bah) and present their imagination of
the beauties that emanate from it internally and cosmically.
Islamic knowledge was always imparted in an ambiance of
beauty, for this reason the Masajids (Mosques) and the Madaris
(traditional Islamic schools) were the most notable architectural
masterpieces to be found in the Islamic World.
Islam stands for life-fulfillment and induces its followers to seek
the best of both worlds. Our education, therefore, prepares
learners for the struggle of life. It proffers the young generation
an education to earn an honest and decent living, train them in
the arts and crafts of living and caters to the multifarious
economic, social and scientific needs of the community.
5.3.11 Junior Primary Syllabus
Subjects covered in the junior primary syllabus include English,
Mathematics, Study of Environment, Writing, Health and
Physical Education, with emphasis on the 3R's for a solid
foundation.
150
Islamic Studies and Arabic are also part of the junior primary
curriculum. However, information with regard to these two
subjects is in their respective documents and not discussed in
the junior primary syllabus.
5.3.11.1 Position Statement for the Various Subjects
Grades 1-3
English
The Key to mastering a language is to understand its structure.
The teaching of English must involve the appreciation of the
behavior expected in writing, and the appropriateness of the
language. Language must be taught as one of the signs of Allah
and the faculty of speech a gift endowed to man, Allah's highest
creation. Such an approach will promote learners'
understanding of concepts such as Tawhfd, Muslim, Sunnah,
and ummah.
Mathematics
The thinking faculty can be developed to a high degree through
the study of mathematics. Educators' role is to work from the
known to the unknown, from the concrete to the abstract, using
oral and writing skills to assist learners with mathematical
concepts. These concepts assist to determine via calculations
the seasons, phases of the moon, and times for daily activities of
Muslims, for example, Saldh (prayers), fasting, day and night,
Hajj (pilgrimage) and the Islamic lunar calendar. Calculating the
direction of the Kd'bah and calculating accurately the
proportions and percentage with regard to inheritance and
Zakdh are an essential part of Islam.
151
Handwriting
The task of writing during the period of QurJanic Revelation was
regarded as an important skill, and the scribes were honored
with this task. Writing as a means of communication is one of
the bounties of Allah with reference to the first revelation
(Q96: 3-5).
Study of Environment
This study assists in promoting the concept of Tawhfd and the
uniqueness of His creation. The way the resources are used for
the benefit of man creates and develops Taqwa, which is akin to
the remembrance of Allah. The study places emphasis on the
commitment to work effectively with diverse people and to
understand the differences and respond to cultural, social,
political, and religious issues in the light of the QurJan and
Sunnah, teach respect for flora and fauna and respect for man
and to develop the concept of conservation as an Amanah.
Health and Physical Education
From an Islamic perspective the individual has the responsibility
to care for the health and development of the body. A holistic
approach, in keeping with ShariJah, is to make learners aware
that the body has rights, which should be adhered to. We often
hear the phrase "it is my body and I have the right to do with it
as I please" is contrary to Islamic teaching. The body is an
amanah, the individual has the responsibility to care for the
health and development of the body spiritually, must be the
eventual goal. Emphasis is placed on the harmful effects of
excessive eating and the benefits of eating in moderation.
Develop the link between body, mind and food and the
responsibility a Muslim has towards his own health and
development.
152
5.3.11.2 Islamic Objectives in the Junior Primary Phase
~ Spiritual; to make learners Allah-conscious. No effort is
spared to uphold and maintain values under all
circumstances;
~ Moral; To develop character according to following saying
of Prophet (PBUH) "I am sent to perfect all moral values";
~ Social; To develop skills for inter-personal relationships in
order to attain Ihsan (goodness, thankfulness and
gratitude) and foster self-respect;
~ Physical; To develop physically strong believers for they
are better and more beloved to Allah. To develop the
respect for the body with all his physical and mental
capacities and power-for it is the Amanah from Allah;
~ Cognitive; To develop cognitive knowledge of Allah and
respect fro the environment, and appreciation for the
beauty visible to learners. To foster the understanding
that Muslims were responsible for studying and
transmitting mathematical knowledge from ancient
civilizations (Greek and Hindu), to the new world;
~ Aesthetic; To nurture the concept of self in relation to
personal growth, and to appreciate the beauty of Allah's
creation.
The basic traits of character are formed in the early stages of
life, and the Junior Primary Phase plays an important role in
153
developing and nurturing the character of the learner.
Therefore, the education the learner receives should be designed
to mould and stimulate the learner's moral character and
incidence of the Prophet's (PBUH) life should be quoted at all
stages of the Junior Primary Phase.
To echo the words of Ebrahim Hewitt:
Education is a partnership between parents, pupils,
teachers and religious leaders. All have a responsibility for
and interest in the development of young Muslims
educationally, spiritually and morally. If education is to be
successful, all four groups must work together. 16
In Islamic education, the nature and content of its curriculum
and syllabi are ideologically oriented. Learners are taught:
~ Tawhfd; Allah is the Creator of the Universe. All human
beings are His servants and, therefore, subject to His
laws;
~ Risiilat (Prophet hood); Messengers were sent for the
guidance of man-Muhammad (PBUH) IS the last
Messenger of Allah;
~ 'Akhirah; (Hereafter); All human beings are destined to die
and one day stand trial before their Lord. There will be
reward and punishment according to man's behavior on
earth;
~ Concept of Khiliifah (Vicegerent); the earth and the
universe and all that is in it belongs to Allah, and man is
His Vicegerent on earth. Therefore, the right attitude and
154
course for man is here as His obedient servant and obey
His commands. Encouraging good, forbid evil and
establish justice on earth.
The curriculum and syllabi are designed on these lines, and the
basic doctrines of Islam are taught to give meaning, purpose,
and bearing upon learners to fully understand their social
responsibilities as learners and later as adults.
The Hadfth, the life of the companIOns, Islamic textbooks,
periodicals and journals are other useful resources to Islamize
lessons.
Islam stands for life-fulfillment and induces followers to seek
the best of both worlds. Our education, therefore, prepares our
young generation for the struggle of life. It gives learners the
education to earn an honest and decent living, train them in the
arts and crafts, and caters to the multifarious economic, social
and scientific needs of the community. A future without
education is a future without hope.
5.4 The International Board of Educational Research
and Resources
The International Board of
Educational Research and
Resources, (IBERR), was founded in
1993 by Yusuf Islam, to address the
needs of Muslim schools. The
concerns of a group of Muslims gave
birth to five major educational
conferences, to re-establish the lost
155
drive for Islamization into the classrooms, and IBERR provided
the research and publications for strategic direction.
According to Ali Adam Nadvi, Trustee of IBERR (Cape Town) the
"Manual for Muslim Schools" (Vol.l) had an overwhelming
response, which was most pleasing. The manual afforded all the
role players in the educational paradigm with hands-on
guidelines for a well-structured educational system.
Volume 2, "Vision for Muslim Schools", published in 2004 is a
comprehensive guideline for all the stakeholders to an Islamic
approach to education. The book focuses on the need of society
as well as the individual and stresses the concept of owning the
"vision" for the cause of Islam.
The goal of IBERR is striving towards the "vision of nurturing
our children into true ambassadors of Islam".17
To further strengthen IBERR'S VISIOn, Yusuf Islam (current
chairperson of IBERR) reiterates:
If our schools and other educational institutions are to
become places of light which nurture love of learning,
then we must closely analyze the process of education
and synthesize the aim of Islam-submission and service
to the Ever-Living God and Master of the Universe.
For this, we need a clear "vision" of the role of the
teacher, the school, the home, the society in which we
live. 18
156
- - - &RJ:50UK~'~ \1.,., tl
~~~~~~H ,lIW~lWt~ I Conference
7tb Internatlona OHA. YUsu. ISLAM IN D •.~ 25 ' 30 otCEM8El 2004, DOHA SHERATON Hont
""",,tit...
Yusuf Islam addressed a press conference where he reiterated
that the reason for IBERR'S presence in Qatar was to open a
center in Doha to share its experience and expertise in the field
of Islamic education with academicians, educators and
institutions. A workshop for educators and all those involved in
education was organized at Doha Sheraton on 28th December
2004 as part of the 7 th International Conference (25-30
December 2004).
An unpublished report on the conference cited Yusuf Islam as
having said:
We are looking forward setting up a centre of IBBER in
Doha in the near future with the support of like-minded
people in Qatar. The centre will boost our activities not
only in the region but also the world over. 19
He said that the success of IBBER in establishing links with a
chain of schools in the west and countries like South Africa and
Nigeria, which provides a harmonious combination of Islamic
and modern education, assumed its own momentum.
157
Referring to the criticism that faith schools would create
divisions in the community, Naseem Bhatt responded:
Life has become a series of episodes without a connecting
thread. The purpose offaith schools is to provide this vital
link, something beyond the self.20
IBERR is the brainchild of a group of dedicated Muslims, who
shared the vision of an education system rooted in classrooms
within Muslim schools committed to the development of full
time Islamic education. Their intention is to seek practical ways
of improving the quality of teaching and learning within the
framework of the Qur'an and Sunnah.
158
References
I International board of Educational Research and Resources (lBERR). Interim Report on the SixthInternational Conference on Islamic Education. 1996. Cape Town, South Africa.http://www.iberr.co.zaJresearch.htm. p.12.2 Interim Report on the Sixth International Islamic Education Conference. 1996. First InternationalWorkshop. Islamia College, Cape Town. p.6.3 Ibid. p.7.4 Ibid. p.5.5 First International Workshop. 1998. Arabic Syllabus. p.23.6 First International Workshop. 1998. English Syllabus. p.36.7 Ibid. pAl.8 First International Workshop. 1998. Mathematics Syllabus. p.30.9 First International Workshop. 1998. Science Syllabus. p.5.10 Ibid. p.35.11 Ibid. pA5.12 First International Workshop. 1998. Geography Syllabus. p.7.13 First International Workshop. 1998. Commercial Syllabus. p.2314 Ibid. p.23.15 Ibid. p.26.16 Hewitt, I. 1998. Evaluation of Muslim Schools. Article in AI-Madiiris. AMS, Leister, U.K. p.5.17 Nadwi, A. Adam. 2004. Editor's note. Vision for Muslim Schools. IBERR Manual voU.18 Islam, Y. 2004. (foreword) Vision for Muslim Schools. IBERR Manual VoU. p.i19 Islam, Y. 2004. Addressing press conference at the i h
. International Conference in Doha, Qatar. p.l.20 Bhatt, Naseem. 2004. One of the delegates present at the conference. p.3.
159
Chapter 6
Muslim Private Schools as Agents of
Islamization in South Africa
6.1 Introduction
This chapter explains the rationale for the establishment of
Muslim private or independent schools. It also explores the
implementation of the Islamized syllabi, which were discussed
in the previous chapter.
The data for this chapter was obtained through fieldwork.
6.2 Muslim Independent Schools in South Africa
Let us take a brief look at the development of Muslim
independent schools in the three provinces with major
concentration of Muslims, Western Cape, KwaZulu-Natal
and Gauteng.
The first Muslim school to be established in South Africa
was Madrassatul Falah in 1912. I This "Muslim Mission
School" became a precursor of many such schools. The
curriculum of these schools included secular subjects as
well as Arabic and Islamic Studies. 2 However, the Islamia
College (formerly Habibya Girls College) established in
1983 in Cape Town is recognized as the first Muslim
independent school in South Africa.
160
In the former Natal, Muslims established several schools
with the aid of the state. These state-aided schools
where Islamic Studies was included in the school
curriculum - have been discontinued and at least two
have been transformed into fully-fledged Muslim private
schools. The Ahmedia state-aided school became the first
Muslim independent school in Natal in 1985 and is now
known as al-Falaah College.
In the former Transvaal, Muslim learners had no option
but to attend public schools. Though Muslims
contributed to the establishment of schools III many
towns, unlike at the Cape and Natal, the curriculum did
not accommodate Islamic studies and all learners had to
attend the madrassa after school.
Currently, there are over seventy Muslim independent
schools in South Africa. Almost every major town and city
has at least one such school.
The original purpose of establishing private schools was to
provide an Islamic environment to learners, which was absent in
the public school sector. This was established from an interview
with Ebrahim Ansur, Chairperson of AMS (KwaZulu Natal) and
principal of Orient Islamic School, Durban:
The purpose had originally been to provide for Muslim
youth an alternative environment to that offered by state
schools. The state schools do not have the ethos which
the Muslim parents wanted their children to be educated
in. (He continues),at the heart of every school mission
statement is the Islamic value system, an Islamic code of
conduct according to the Qur'an and Sunnah, which no
Islamic school would attempt to ignore.3
161
In ensumg years, as educators from Muslim schools became
aware of the project of Islamization, the goals of these schools
were expanded to include revision of the secularized syllabi
obtaining at these schools. Subsequent to the Sixth
International Conference on Muslim Education, the Association
of Muslim Schools - representing Muslim independent schools
agreed in principle to implement the Islamized curricula and
syllabi.
This new objective of Muslim schools is reflected in the VIews
expressed by Ali Adam Nadwi, coordinator of the Sixth
International Workshop on Islamization of Education:
The sprouting of Muslim schools internationally is a clear
indication that Muslims no longer wish to subject their
children to a purely secular academic programme. A
curriculum that is anthropocentric rather than theocentric
will have a negative impact on the heart and minds of our
loved ones... It thus becomes our responsibility to ensure
that the curriculum is dynamic and that a true Islamic
culture is evident at our schools. 4
In the remainder of this chapter, we will assess the
implementation of the Islamized syllabi discussed above.
6.3 Analysis of Interviews Conducted with Principles
and Educators at Selected Independent Muslim
Schools in South Africa
162
6.3.1 Selection of participants
The sample for this study was selected from seven Muslim
independent schools (nine if we consider the division between
Primary and secondary levels at Islamia and al-Falah as
separate entities) from three regions in the country with the
largest concentration of Muslims.
A total of 10 principals and 16 educators participated III the
research.
The following table gives a breakdown of the schools visited, and
indicates the number of principals interviewed and the number
of educators who filled in the questionnaire in each school.
Breakdown of Regions, Schools, principles and educators
Region School Visited DateParticipants
Principle Educator
Western Cape Islamia College (High) Aug,05 1 1Islamia College
Western Cape (Primary) Auo,05 1 2
Western Cape Iqra Academy Aug,05 1 2Western Cape Darul Islam (High) Auq,05 1 1
Azaadville MuslimGauteng School Sept,05 1 2Gautenq Roshnee Islamic School Sept,05 2 1
KwaZulu Natal Orient Islamic School Aug,06 1 3KwaZulu Natal AI-Falah Colleqe (Hiqh) Auq,06 1 2
AI-Falah CollegeKwaZulu Natal (Primary) Aug,06 1 2
Total 10 16
163
KwaZulu Natal Crescent Girls High denied access to principle & educators
All the schools approached to participate in the study, via the
office of the principal, agreed. The primary reason for selecting
this sample is that these are among the more established
Muslim schools in the country and was assumed to be
implementing the Islamized syllabi.
6.3.2 The Research Instrument
Questionnaires and interviews were the mam instruments for
this study.
A structured questionnaire was used for this research. The
questions were open-ended. Respondents were free to express
their agreements/ disagreements.
The interviews were not recorded.
6.3.3 Data Collection and Analysis
Schools participating in the survey were contacted by telephone
and by email to explain the aims of the study and to set up an
interview. All except one (indicated in the table above) agreed to
the interview.
The interviews took place in August 2005 (Western Cape),
September 2005 (Gauteng) and April to June 2006 (KwaZulu
Natal). Though the researcher had indicated that she was to
conduct interviews with the principals as well educators, she
ended up meeting only with the principals of these schools. The
principals indicated that the educators were too busy with
teaching and other duties to make them selves available for an
interview and undertook to have the questionnaires filled in by
164
the principals only but not the educators. These interviews took
place at the respective schools. The average duration of the
interviews was one hour.
The qualitative method was used for analysing the data.
According to Neuman5 , this is more appropriate when dealing
with a small sample.
6.3.3.1 Analysis I Results
The analysis to follow will depict the responses for each
question. Where interviewees were asked to expand on an
answer, the results will either be tabulated or represented in
terms of a graph.
Question 1: Are you infavor of the Islamized Curriculum?
100%92%
90% --"- -----------._---
80%
70% ---------------------
60%
50%
40%
30% -----.-.--._--_ .. _-----
20%
10%
0%
Yes
8%
No
Figure 1
Figure 1 illustrates that 92% (24) of respondents were in favour
of the Islamized curriculum and only 2 (8%) were not in favour.
Of the 24 in favour, 9 were principles and 15 were educators, of
165
an educator.
Question 1a: Give reasons for your response.
YES
>- Contributes and increases consciousness of Allah.>- Both secular education and Islamic education are necessary.>- Prepares youth for life challenges and Hereafter.>- Children should be made aware that everything exists due to
the will of Allah and Qur'an should be seen as a book ofguidance.
>- Aims to provide holistic education which can be done byproperly implementing Din into every facet of life
>- We believe that Islam is the basis of all education and shouldtherefore be the framework for our curriculum.
>- Islamic cannot be separate to knowledge. All aspects ofknowledge should form part of the educational paradigm.
>- The principles and ethos of an Islamic school are based onQur'an & Sunnah - so is the fabric of our every day lives.
>- Inculcates a sense of responsibility to good behavior, characterand understanding of Din.
>- Holistic development of learners.>- Gives learners a balanced perspective.>- Remind learners of Islamic duties.>- Gives learners an Islamic identity.>- Curriculum must be inclusive of secular and Dini knowledge.>- Helps create dichotomy in child's mind between Islamic studies
and secular education.>- Brings Allah consciousness to the fore in our learners. Inspires
them to tread a path of righteousness.>- Inculcates secular as well as Islamic knowledge.>- All knowledge comes from Allah.>- Provides opportunities to bring out Islamic values.>- Islamic values inculcated in secular subjects.>- Holistic development of learners.>- Better understanding of Islamic ethos and way of life.>- Provides good foundation.>- Schools should have an Islamic perspective to maintain identity.>- Allows for goal of Islamic institution to be realized.
Table 1
166
~ All knowledge comes from Allah & should not becornpartmentalized.
~ Orientation towards Islamization of the individual.
Table 2
The reasons provided for questions 1 are tabulated above. The
reasons provided by the respondents that answered 'yes' are
tabulated in Table 1 (above) and those that answered 'no' are
tabulated in Table 2. One respondent that replied 'yes' to
question 1 did not provide a reason.
Question 2: Have you received sufficient training in
implementing the Islamtzed Curriculum?
70% r
62%
60% ~---- ..-
50% -+ . .._. __ .. .__ .. __ . _
38%40%
30%
20%
10%
O%~;__~
Yes No
Figure 2
Figure 2 illustrates that the majority (62%) have not received
sufficient training and only 10 (38%) respondents felt that
they had received sufficient training. It can be clearly seen
(Table 3 below) that the majority of training received was as a
result of attending Conferences / Courses and Workshops.
167
lL ~~ U~~1.U.~UJ.~J.5 LV J.J.Vl.\.,. l.~~CAl. V.1. 1..1..1.'-' \J.&...l/V \..1..\J} VV.L.L\J .L.LVl,.Y'-' .L.L\Jl".
received sufficient training 60% (10) were principals and 40%
(6) were educators.
Question 2a: If yes, what type of training have you
received?
Type of training Number (responses)
Workshops / Own initiative / 3
Courses
Higher education 1
AMS Curriculum 1
Conference 2
Alim 1
No Response 2
Table 3
Question 3: Is enough time allocated to allow educators to
become familiar with the necessary materials before they
can implement it in their lessons?
60%
50%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0% -1-__
Figure 3
Yes
38%
No
12%
Did not answer
Figure 3 suggests that 50% (5 principles and 8 educators) of
respondents indicated that sufficient time was allocated to
168
indicated that there was not sufficient time allocated. However
the absolute numbers indicate that it is almost a 50% split
either way (yes / no). Three respondents did not provide an
answer to this question.
Question 4: Is scholarly literature on Islamization available
at your school?
80% ., .7.~'!L
70% ( .
• II 60% ~ ..
~ 50% L ..rE 40% l
30% 120% ~ ....
f
10% .L ..
0%.;...1_-
..··· ..· ··24% ···.. ·· .. · ·· ·
..········· ·..·.. ·.. ·4% ·
Yes1FFigure 4
No Did not answer
Figure 4 illustrates that 76% (7 principles and 12 educators) of
respondents indicated that the necessary literature was
available at their schools. At least 24% (2 principles and 4
educators) did not think so, and 1 respondent did not answer.
Table 4 indicates that the 63% that answered yes to question 4
utilized either the IBERR Syllabus or resources such as Books,
CD's etc that was available at their respective schools.
169
Type of Literature available Number (responses)
IBERR Syllabus 7
Resources (Books, CD's etc) 5
Qur)an translation, articles/books on 1
SCIence
Conference / Workshop material 1
Jamiatul Ulema literature 1
Minimal 1
No Response 3
Table 4
Question 4b: If no, where did you obtain the literature?
Other sources of Literature Number (responses)
Internet, Library, Own literature 1
Copies made of material 1
Islamic Library, Bookshop and Internet 1
Qur)an, Hadith, Computerized programs 1
Discussion documents 1
Workshop, Conference, AMS' 1
Table 5
Question 5: Is there a network in place that allows educators
from various schools to share or disseminate information on
Islamization?
170
600/0 ------------.--------------------.- ------------------...-----------54%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Yes No
4%
Did not answer
Figure 5
As illustrated in figure 5, 54% (9 principles and 6 educators)
indicated that a network did exist to facilitate sharing /
dissemination of information, 42% (1 principal and 9 educators)
indicated that a network did not exist.
Question 6: Are discussions with colleagues and other resource
persons held to reflect on practice, to arrive at shared meanings
and to understand the new material on their own terms?
................................21"1•...............
0%
40%
70%
60%
80% , 'JT.: .................................. ...............••••••......••.•.•
30% ~ .
50%
20%
10%
Yes No
Figure 6
73% (9 principals and 10 educators) were in agreement that
discussions are held to arrive on shared meaning and to understand
new material on their own terms. 27% (1 principal and 6 educators),
indicated that no such discussions are held.
171
~&&OtO." ..v,.. •• ~, ~ S"'" • Wi#J .~"'''•••:I " •• :I"". r· ..,........,.. ...v -rr- ---- ._- -_.-
methods to practically meet the need to Islamize your lessons?
100% ~ .
90%1... .,
80% ~ -
70% 1-!
60% 1-. -_.i
50% l---·40% J
i
30% ~ .. -
20% I10% 1._ _.._.._.. _.
!
0%+-----Yes
8%
No
Figure 7
Figure 7 illustrates that as many as 92% (10 principals and 14
educators) of respondents are reflecting on their present methods
to practically meet the need to Islamize their lessons.
Question 8: Have you comfortably adjusted to the Islamic ethos
of your school?
100% 96%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10% -----·_···-----0--
0%Yes
--_··_-_····_-4%
No
Figure 8
Figure 8 illustrates that 96% (10 principals and 15 educators) of
respondents have comfortable adjusted to the Islamic ethos of
their respective schools. Only one has not.
Question 9: How are problems relating to the
implementation of the Islamized curriculum resolved?
172
How are problems resolved? Number
(responses)
Workshops/Consensus/ Training and 11
Development
Consultative approach 7
Ad-hoc basis 1
Not addressed 1
Timetable makes provisions for Islamic 1studies. Teachers implement Islamic
content on regular basis
Verification with available literature
Staff development programme
No problems 2
Did not answer
Table 6
Table 6 indicates that 69% (18) utilize either
Workshops/Consensus/Training and development or a
consultative approach to resolve problems relating to the
implementation of the Islamized curriculum. Interestingly 1
interviewee indicated that there were no problems at his/her
school.
Question 10: What type of support is necessary to assist
educators with the principles, processes of and procedures
for Islamization of their subjects and teaching
methodology?
How are problems resolved? Number
(responses)
173
f\ssessmenI, 1 raInIng L,
Workshops , Training, Material 11
Resource material 2
Support 2
Library 1
Common understanding of Islamized 1
curriculum 1
Support / Learning Committees 1
More structured approach, Workshops, 1
Books 1
Lesson plans 1
Workshops, Literature and qualified 1
Ukma 1
Regular meetings with stakeholders
Group consultation
None
Table 7
42% (11) indicated that Workshops, Training and Material are
necessary to assist educators. Interviewee's answers indicated
large overlap with regards to workshops, training, resources and
literature.
Question 11: How well are parents i.nformed about the Islamized
curriculum?
174
60%
50%50%
40% 4------.-- ..----~~.,_-----· -.---.----.----.-.------
30%
20%
10%
0%
12%......... 11.......4•....
----,----Figure 9
Well Informed Not Informed Did not answer Both
Figure 9 illustrates that 50% of parents were not informed about
the curriculum. Interestingly 1 respondent indicated that parents
were both 'well informed' and 'not informed'.
Question 12: Have you benefited from attending the
Association of Muslims Schools (AMS) regional subject
committee / workshops?
90% _---------------
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
77%
Yes
12%8%
=-=--~%---------------------------=No Did not attend Did not answer
Figure 10
The majority 77% (8 principles and 12 educators) of respondents
indicated that there was value in attending the AMS regional
workshops. The remaining 6 are those who did not benefit or did
not respond. However, amongst those who responded positively,
indicated that there is a need for more regional workshops. One
175
lC;::;1JUllUCllL WIIU UIU I1VL Uc;;llL.11L, 111 111.::>/IIL.l
meeting in the last 7 years".
VVV~\...l0. ~ .1.1\,,;.1\...- VVCl.1.:l .1.1V
Question 13: What have you gained from attending the AMS
conference in Durban from 2 - 5 July 2004?
What have you gained from the Number
Conference (responses)
Inspired 4
Informative 2
Fresh Impetus 2
Very relevant 1
Heightened Spirituality; Sense of 1
direction; information will be used;
Reaffirm Niyah to please Allah
Understanding of strengths/
weaknesses and where one can be of 1
benefit to the Muslims community1
Good network2
Not much1
Importance of sharing ideas and need to1
Islamize curriculum1
Greater awareness of preparing learners5
Intensify curriculum towards
Islamization
Not Responsive4
Did not attend
Table 8
31% of respondents indicated that the conference was either
inspiring, informative or provided a fresh impetus. On the other
hand, 35% (9) either did not attend the conference or did not
respond to the question. Understandably, only a certain number
of educators attend these conferences.
Those who do attend are principals, heads of department and
those directly involved with AMS.
176
Question 14: Is there any criticism from educators or parents
against the implementation of the Islamtzed curriculum? Yes
or no?
90% .,--.---.--.-.- -.------.---- ---.- ..---------------.-.--.-------------.- -.. ---------- •.. -----.--- ..-..---------.------------- -.-------.-.-.----81%
80%
70% ~..------ .. ._._. .__ . ----------------.- - ---.-----------.--------.
60%
50%
40%
30% - --- ..-..-- -.19%
20% + - - ---.
10% +--- -.. --.
0%+-----Yes No
Table 9
As table 9 indicates 81% (8 principals and 13 educators) of
respondents indicated that there was no criticism from educators
or parents. However, 19% (2 principals and 3 educators) said
there was, for the reasons indicated in Table 10 below.
Question 14a: If yes, what is the nature of the criticism?
Nature of criticism Number
(respoDses)
Some subjects do not lend themselves to 1
Islamization e.g. mathematics
Isolation from other cultures 1
Educators not adequately empowered 1
Don't want to mix curriculum 1
Taught mainly as theory and not in 1
practice
Table 10
177
V'w.~~••V'•• ... 'I•••"..,. ~ - ~ .,., .., .,., _ ••_. _
within the Islamized curriculum?
Nature of accommodating non-Muslim Number
learners (responses)
Non-prescriptive methodology 9
Accommodating 4
No / Very few Non Muslims 3
Islamic studies only 1
Learners are conscientized about Islam 1
Depends on individual teacher 1
Integrated into all aspects of school 1
All students must follow curriculum 1
Did not answer 5
Table 11
Table 11 indicates that 46% either have a non-prescriptive
methodology or are accommodating to non-Muslim learners.
Only 1 respondent indicated that all students in their school
must follow the curriculum.
6.4 Conclusion
The findings of the research are as follows:
(a) There is substantial support for the Islamized curriculum
(b) An overwhelming majority of respondents 92% (9
principals and 15 educators) indicated their interest In
the Islamic approach to education
(c) Most respondents 76% (7 principals and 12 educators)
claimed that there is sufficient material in the school to
implement the Islamized syllabi. This includes the Qur'an,
Hadith (Prophetic Tradition), IBERR syllabus, books, CDs,
journal articles, conference/workshop material, Jamiatul
'U1ama literature. Notwithstanding, only seven were aware
of the IBERR syllabus. Those who felt that there was
insufficient material relied on the Qur'an, Hadith, library,
bookshop, Internet, workshops, conferences,
178
vV.1..1..1.PUl.\,..,.1. .1.LJ\,..,\...l 1".1. v5J. CAJ.J.J.J.J.J.vU, '-A...L.UV\....l.UU..L.\J..L...L. \"A.\J'-'''''''''..L...L...L.'-'..L...L. .... U, .L .L..L ...............
literature.
(d) Educators seem to have established a reasonably efficient
system of networking. Nearly half the respondents
indicated that they relied on networking for information.
(e) At least eleven respondents resolve problems through
workshops, and training and development programmes.
Seven rely on consultation and two indicated that the
school had a staff development programme
(f) As many as 62% (6 principals and 10 educators) declared
that they received no training in implementing the
Islamized curriculum/ syllabus. The remainder claimed to
have received training through courses, workshops,
conference material, scholar, higher education, AMSS
curriculum.
(g) The secular educational system introduced by the
Apartheid Regime remains in force. Whilst an attempt to
introduce the Islamized syllabi in the Muslim independent
schools, have been emphasized there is no indication that
this vision has been realized. It is clear the INSET, (In
Service Education and Training of Teachers) which was
compiled for the purpose as the name suggests, has not
been utilized for the training of educators. Thus, the
implementation of the new syllabi, to infuse Islamic
concepts is still on the distant horizon. This is based on
the researcher's findings especially of question 2. The
evidence that 6 of 10 principles and 10 of 16 educators
did not receive training to implement the syllabi, confirms
the hypothesis stated in chapter 1.
(h) It is clear that not sufficient time is allocated to
familiarize all educators with the teaching material. At
least eleven requested more training, workshops and
material. Others requested a library, support committee,
workshops, lesson plans, books, regular meetings with
stakeholders, group consultation.
179
benefiting from the AMS workshops, though responses
varied greatly as to the specific benefit of attending the
AMSS workshop in Durban in July 2004.
Only one confirmed that hel she had received information from
the AMS.
Only seven knew about IBERR syllabi
Reliability of Research
The one senous limitation was that the researcher met only
with principals of schools but not with educators in their
schools. Personal interviews were, therefore, conducted only
with the former. As for the latter, they were gIven
questionnaires to fill in and return which they did promptly.
However, one cannot help wondering whether personal
interviews might not have yielded more information or
clarification.
The fact that the researcher did not meet with the majority of
respondents means that she was restricted to directing probing
Questions only at the principals, and had to assume that the
educators comprehended the questionnaire and that their
responses were well-thought out. The most that she could do is
to ensure that the research instrument was reliable (Marlow
1998).
180
I Muhammed Haron & Yasien Mohamed, The Theory & Practice ofIslamic Education with referenceto South Africa in Y Mohamed, S E Dangor & AM Mahomed (eds.), Perspectives on IslamicEducation, Lenasia : Muslim World League, 1989, p. 12.2 Ibid, p. 13.3 IBERR, 2004. Vision for Muslim Schools. Article in IBERR 'S Manual Vol.2. IBERR Publications.p.11.444 IBERR, 2004. Vision for Muslim Schools. Creating an Islamic Culture. IBERR "S Manual Vo1.2.IBERR Publications. p.l?
181
Chapter 7
Conclusion
7.1 Discussion
The separation between the church and the state in Europe led
to the secularization of all institutions in society, including
education. This effectively ruled out any reference to what is
considered as "sacred" or "revealed" texts as a source of
information or for determining societal values. The polarization
resulting from this approach is evident in the current
educational systems of most, if not all, countries of the globe.
Colonization facilitated the introduction of the secular model of
education in Muslim countries that were under colonial
occupation. While the traditional Islamic institutions were not
completely replaced, secular institutions soon came to dominate
the educational landscape. This dual system of education, VIZ.
the traditional Islamic and the modern secular, prevails in the
Muslim World to this day.
The majority of Muslim scholars and academics, whether living
in the west or in the Muslim World, have until recently
uncritically accepted the epistemology and methodology of
secular education.
One of the greatest challenges to the Islamization of Knowledge
project is that there are substantial differences amongst Muslim
scholars in their approach and attitude to the issue. One major
criticism against the project is that despite the fact that the
Islamization project commenced about four decades ago, no
textbooks on "Islamized" social SCIences have yet been
produced. Several scholars regard Islamization as an irrelevant
exercise. Others, while supporting Islamization in principle,
182
remam skeptical about the success of the project. They doubt
that the objectives of Islamization are achievable or that Muslim
scholars have the capacity to produce an alternate paradigm for
the social or natural sciences.
While AbuSulayman and al-Fanlqi advocate the development of
a new methodology, Muhammad Sa'id al-Buti argues against
this. Fazlur Rahman, despite acknowledging that much of
contemporary knowledge reflects a western ethos, disagrees
with the Islamization of knowledge approach. In his view it was
not possible to devise a methodology for achieving Islamic
knowledge. "Islamized" knowledge could only be produced
through a "nurturing of the Muslim mind".
Nonetheless, those involved in the Islamization project are
convinced that it is the only solution to the intellectual dilemma
confronting the Muslim world.
Abolishing Islamic education from the school curriculum is not
acceptable to the majority of Muslims who view this as a
marginalization of Islamic norms and values. This explains the
emergence of state-aided schools in South Africa, which
provided what was termed an "integrated curriculum"
incorporating traditional Islamic and secular disciplines.
However, adding the curriculum of Islamic schools to the
curriculum of secular schools cannot simply bridge the chasm
between the two systems that differ in respect of ongm,
worldview, objectives, methodology, and epistemology. This is
the context in which the concept of "Islamization of Knowledge"
evolved.
The pioneers of Islamization of Knowledge, having identified the
divergence between the Islamic and secular approaches to
183
knowledge and education, proposed that the syllabi of all
disciplines offered at tertiary institutions be Islamized. They
encouraged the production of scholarly publications on the
concept of Islamic Education as well as on Islamic perspectives
to various disciplines. Ismail AI-Faruqi's Tawhfdi paradigm
became the framework for Islamization.
It was after the Fifth International Conference on Muslim
Education that the focus of Islamization shifted from the tertiary
to the pre-tertiary level. The attempts to Islamize curricula at
universities in the Muslim World or to establish Islamic
universities met with limited success. Muslim schools then
came to be seen as the primary vehicles of Islamization.
Consequently, the Sixth International Conference held in Cape
Town focused on the production of Islamized syllabi for
independent Muslim schools. The Association of Muslim
Schools - the umbrella body of Muslim independent schools
undertook to promote the Islamized syllabi.
The primary objective of this study was to determine if and to
what extent Muslim independent schools in South Africa have
implemented the Islamized syllabi, particularly since the
Association of Muslim Schools (South Africa) had, in principle,
endorsed the project of Islamization of the curriculum.
Islamia College was the first Muslim independent school in
South Africa to introduce field-testing of the Islamized syllabi.
Pilot testing at individual schools with a relatively lower number
of learners participating that would provide further evaluative
feedback from intensive trials was placed on a future agenda.
The purpose was to refine the syllabi through regular
improvements. Through the years of conducting research, the
researcher has noted no further progress on pilot testing.
184
7.2 Summary of Findings
The findings from the field work indicate that:
(a) There is substantial support for and interest In the
Islamized curriculum among respondents.
(b) There seems to be a reasonably efficient support system,
including workshops and training and development
programmes, to assist staff with general educational
matters though a programme for staff development
appears to be lacking.
(c) While the majority of respondents claimed that there is
sufficient available material to implement the Islamized
syllabi, less than a third was aware of the Islamized
syllabus.
(d) The majority of respondents indicated that they received
no training In implementing the Islamized
curriculum/ syllabus and that the time allocated to
familiarize educators with the teaching material was
insufficient.
The overall findings from the analysis are that the efforts
towards implementing the Islamization process are fragmented
and sporadic.
The researcher's study revealed that in the schools visited in the
three regIOns, the Islamized syllabi are not uniformly
implemented amongst schools as well as not uniformly
implemented within a particular school.
A very serious drawback the researcher identified was that the
INSET programme, which was developed specifically to train
educators to teach the Islamized syllabi, has not been
185
implemented. This may partly explain the reluctance of
educators to experiment with the new syllabi.
These findings support the researcher's hypothesis that,
notwithstanding the obstacles and challenges to implementation
of the Islamized curriculum, Muslim independent schools in
South Africa does provide an alternate to the secular system of
education. What we need to understand is that it is not easy to
untangle the complex knotted network of the educational
system of the past.
7.3 Recommendations
Muslim schools which desire to increase their efficiency in the
implementation of the Islamized model of education should
consider the following:
(a) More training, resources and academic support should be
provided to educators to enable them to implement the
Islamized syllabi;
(b) The AMS workshops which appear to be popular should be
more action-orientated, gIvIng educators hands-on
experience in Islamizing lessons;
(c) The INSET programme generated at the Sixth International
Conference on Islamic Education should become mandatory
for all educators at Muslim independent schools.
The above recommendations anse from the participants' own
observations and the findings of the survey.
186
In my opIlllOn, this study raises enough questions for further
research into what I consider to be an important area of study,
particularly when viewed III the context of indigenous
knowledge systems.
187
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