IN ENGLISH LITERATUREwillingdoncollege.in/pdf/StudyMaterial/English/5_Marxism.pdfIn his essay...

M A R X I S M

IN ENGLISH LITERATURE

Presentation by

Prof. AKHALAQ TADE

M.A. B.Ed. SLET

COORDINATOR, NAAC and IQAC

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

WILLINGDON COLLEGE SANGLI – 416 415 (Maharashtra, India)

It was Karl Marx (1818-83) whose philosophical thinking caused the emergence of Marxism.

He was a German philosopher, political thinker, economist and revolutionist.

Prof. Akhalaq Tade,Willingdon College,

Sangli (Maharashtra, India)

His well known work, Das Kapital (1867) is considered as the Bible of the world’s communist movement.

It incorporates his principles regarding economic structure of society which is the core of Marxism.



Karl Marx made analysis of society from economic point of view and his theory left permanent impact on the world of thought encompassing sociology, philosophy and culture. According to Marx, the economic structure gives birth to culture, religion, philosophy, arts and literature. Thus Marxism helps in generating rich tradition of cultural as well as literary criticism.



The fundamental principles of Marxist Criticism are formulated by Marxism making it an internationally acclaimed discipline of realistic criticism. Marxism can be understood as a philosophy of history, an attempt to formulate the systematic theory of human societies. Its aim is to initiate political action in order to bring about intended changes in the society; especially liberating it from exploitation and suppression.



Marxist Criticism is based on the theory of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

FRIEDRICH ENGELS KARL MARX Prof. Akhalaq Tade,Willingdon College,


Marxist Criticism is based on the economic and cultural theory of Karl Marx and his fellow thinker Friedrich Engels with following claims: 1 - The history of mankind, its social groups and inter-relations; and its ways of thinking are extensively determined by the changing mode of its material production. 2 - The historical changes in the fundamental mode of material production cause changes in the class structure of a society, giving rise to two classes in each milieu - dominant class and subordinate class, that engage in economic, political and social struggle. Prof. Akhalaq Tade,Willingdon College,


3 - An ideology – beliefs, values, ways of thinking, feeling, perceiving etc.- helps to form ‘human consciousness’ of that particular period. Early Marxists denoted the term ‘base’ to refer to the economic system of given period at a given time; and the term ‘superstructure’ to indicate its politics, religion, art and philosophy. The concept was basically materialistic and the intention was to shift everything from the individual to society. Prof. Akhalaq Tade,Willingdon College,


According to Marx, ideology is a ‘superstructure’ and relevant socio- economic system is the ‘base’; whereas Engels described ideology as a ‘false consciousness’. An ideology is a product of the position and interests of a particular class; and in any historical period the prevailing ideology serves to legitimize and perpetuate the interests of the dominant class, the ‘bourgeoisie’, the owners of the means of material production, as against the working class, the ‘proletariat’.



Karl Marx adopted Hegel’s idea of dialectic but differs in the basic understanding that religious and philosophical ideas influence the social structure. Marx maintains that economic structure constitutes the social structure. According to him, the history of all previous societies has been the history of class struggles.



The history of the world is nothing but the development of the idea of freedom. HEGEL



‘Dialectical Materialism’ is a term used in Marxist Criticism which refers to the forces that bring about historical change. Karl Marx borrowed the term from Hegel. Dialectical Materialism gives preference to the economic and social ‘base’ in any given society and relegated beliefs, customs and ideas of a cultural unit to the realm of superstructure. Literature and culture are supposed to be determined by and reflect the relations at the base of the society. Prof. Akhalaq Tade,Willingdon College,


The German Ideology (1845-46) which Marx and Engels jointly wrote, became a key concept in Marxist Criticism of literature and other arts; but it was not much discussed by both of them in later period.



An ideology helps in examining, explaining and dealing with the surrounding world including religion, morality, philosophy, politics, law as well as literature and other arts. In reality it helps in legitimizing the status, power and economic interest of the ruling class.



The orthodox Marxist as a literary critic often tries to see how far any work of art reflects the interests and aspirations of the class; and how far any work of art may be considered as a guide to the understanding of the goals of a particular society. A revolutionary Marxist may use art as a weapon to expose the falsities of bourgeois culture. In short, Marxist critic tries to explain the literature of any given period not merely as a work created in accordance with artistic criteria; but as a ‘product’ of the economic and ideological trends of that period.



There are some liberal Marxist critics who demand that social realism should replace the bourgeois literary work in order to expose true reality of the particular period. It is known as ‘Vulgar Marxism’. However liberal and flexible Marxist critics grant that traditional works of literature often transcend the prevailing ‘bourgeoisie’ ideology in order to reflect the objective reality of their time.



Franz Mehring from Germany and Georgy Plekhanov from Russia were the first practitioners of Marxist Criticism. The development of Marxist Criticism, in real sense, as a coherent theory took place only after the Great Revolution in Russia. Georgy Plekhanov


Sangli (Maharashtra , India)

It was Georgy Lukacs, a Hungarian critic, who popularized Marxist Criticism in Germany. His enthusiasm was fired by the revolution of 1917. He was in Russia during the regime of Stalin.



In his essay Ideology of Modernism (1963), Lukacs suggests us to consider the ideology underlying the work of art irrespective of whether the work of art is for art’s sake or for society’s sake. According to him, it must be seen whether the work of art is created keeping the man at its focal point or no. His views about the role of ideology in Marxist Criticism are flexible.



Lukacs thinks that no literature is created keeping in mind any particular ideology though, sometimes, it expresses some of the ideological concepts of that particular period. According to him, every great work of art creates ‘its own unique world’ quite different from common ordinary reality. Lukacs believes in totality of art; and thinks that publicizing cannot be the only function of literature. He is totally against the view of evaluating works of art merely on the basis of politics or social values.



Lukacs stresses on realism, i.e. wholesome presentation of total human personality with all its contradictions. According to him, environment has powerful impact on personality; and this objective reality is not adequately represented by the modernist writers. Lukacs criticizes modernist experimentalists for highlighting social fragmentation and the subjectivity of alienated characters under capitalism. Prof. Akhalaq Tade,Willingdon College,


But other Marxist critics from Frankfurt School - Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer appreciated the efforts of modernist writers like James Joyce, Marcel Proust and Samuel Beckett for exposing dark aspects of capitalist society. Lukacs’ comments on Scott, Tolstoy and Balzac focus on real issues; that is, the inner tensions of the capitalist society. Lucien Goldmann develops Lukacs’ ideas further by examining the structure of a literary text by finding out the world it encompasses. Prof. Akhalaq Tade,Willingdon College,


Marxist Critics like Bertolt Brecht and Walter Benjamin had considerable impact on the contemporary criticism.

Their opposition to the anti-modernism and realistic art was but natural because they feel that revolutionary art should divorce from the traditional thinking. BERTOLT BRECHT WALTER BENJAMIN Prof. Akhalaq Tade,Willingdon College,


Brecht discarded ‘Aristotelian’ theory of art, that art is an imitation of reality. According to him, illusion of reality should be purposefully broken to produce an ‘alienation effect’ in order to

shock the sensibilities of the readers.

Brecht feels that it will help in enlightening readers about the short comings of capitalism and further involving them with

the forces of change. Prof. Akhalaq Tade,Willingdon College,


The worst illiterate is the political illiterate. He hears

nothing, sees nothing, takes no part in political life. He doesn’t seem to know that the cost of living, the price of beans, of flour, of rent, of medicines, all depend on political decisions, sticks out

his chest and says he hates politics.

He doesn’t know, the imbecile, that from his non-political participation comes the prostitute, the abandoned child, the

robber and, worst of all, corrupt officials, the lackeys of exploitative multinational corporations.

BERTOLT BRECHT



ART IS NOT A MIRROR HELD UP TO REALITY, BUT A HAMMER WITH WHICH

TO SHAPE IT. BERTOLT BRECHT



There has been a revival of Marxist Criticism, marked by frankness and flexibility, since 1950s. It has been acknowledged since then that Marxist critical theory is, to some extent, an evolving historical process, a process diluting the concept of ideology; and at the same time a sort of tendency giving more importance to non-ideological determinants in process of literary criticism.



Famous critic, Louis Althusser has been very influential in developing theoretical Marxist view

about literature. Prof. Akhalaq Tade,Willingdon College,


Louis Althusser, a French Marxist critic, incorporated the Structuralism to devise his views about the structure of society constituted by various elements like religion, law, politics and literature. Althusser says that each element is interrelated with the other in a complex manner; and in the end comes the ideology of a particular institution determined by the material base of its era.



Althusser examines more closely the relationship between the art and ideology; and further says that art, by giving the experience of a particular situation which is equivalent to a particular ideology can help us to understand it completely. Althusser challenges the very definition of the nature of ideology as “false consciousness”; and says that ideologies vary according to the form and practices of each mode of state machinery. He further claims that the ideology of each mode operates as per the position of an individual in a given society with certain pre-established views and values which serve his ultimate interests.



LOUIS ALTHUSSER



Another well known critic, Pierre Macherey also has been very influential in developing theoretical Marxist view about literature.



Pierre Macherey, in his A Theory of Literary Production (1966), claims that a literary text divorces itself from its ideology with the help of its fiction and form; and also discovers the inherited contradictions that are present in the ideology. These contradictions represented in the form of ‘silences’ or ‘gaps’ are nothing but symptoms of ideological repressions. According to him, it is the duty of Marxist Criticism to make these silences ‘speak’; and to expose the unconscious content of the text, that is to reveal the conscious intention of the author.



In Italy, Marxist Criticism flourished because of the contribution of Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937), who,

during his imprisonment by the fascist government, wrote immensely on social and political issues.



Though Gramsci admits the primary Marxist distinction between economic base and cultural superstructure, discards the older concept of considering culture as a disguised reflection the material base. Gramsci speaks most highly about the concept of ‘hegemony’- a particular social class establishes its own power and influence over subordinate class, not directly but through its ideological view of society in such a way that, the subordinate class unconsciously accepts and participates in its own suppression and exploitation.



Gramsci, through his Prison Note-books, has influenced great literary critics like Terry Eagleton, Fredric Jameson and Edward Said.



Raymond Williams, Terry Eagleton, Christopher Caudwell and Fredric Jameson are some of the important Marxist critics of recent period.



Raymond Williams (1928-88), an important Marxist critic from England, links literature with the lives of the people.



Books written by Raymond Williams : Culture and Society 1780-1850 (1958), and The Long Revolution (1961) became famous in England. Prof. Akhalaq Tade,Willingdon College,


Williams in his critical essay, Realism and the Contemporary Novel, uses his concept of Marxist Criticism to define realism. According to him, socialistic realism differs from bourgeois realism in its ideology and affiliation. Williams thinks that Marxist Critics have delinked economics from culture; and have ignored individualism. Hence Williams prefers culture to ideology and coins the term ‘Cultural Materialism’; and thus modified Marxist thinking.



Williams thinks that all significant human quality is communal and it is nothing but a Marxist derivation. According to him, different cultural forces are always in action with the dominant forces unable to gain complete power because of the resistance by reactionary or progressive forces. He suggests that the complex nature of the social formation should be taken into account while analyzing materialistically the relation between literature and its relevant social elements.



In his Marxism and Literature (1977), Raymond Williams stresses the need of an amendment in the determinism of Marxism that literature reflects reality.



In England Christopher Caudwell created his major work of Marxist criticism, Illusion and Reality (1937).



Caudwell thinks that literature, especially poetry, has a function to perform- that is of adapting men’s fixed instincts to society’s welfare by changing their ways of thinking. But he didn’t express his concern for extremism of the nineteenth century English left-wing poets.



Caudwell’s book Illusion and Reality (1937). deals with anthropology and psychoanalysis. According to Caudwell, form is an attempt to impose order on the content which is formless and turbulent. But Marxist criticism always looked upon the relationship of form and content as dialectical, though it gave preference to content.



Terry Eagleton, another powerful theorist of Marxist criticism in England, has elaborated the concepts put forth by Althusser and Macherey.



Terry Eagleton explains his notion about the relation between literary text and ideology in his book Criticism and Ideology: A Study in Marxist Theory (1976).



Eagleton thinks that a literary text is a creative product of an ideology in the form of a literary discourse but definitely not an expression of it. Moreover ideology of the text is not which antedates the texts; instead it is identical with the text. Eagleton’s Criticism and Ideology is a response to the works of Raymond Williams. Eagleton is of the view that history enters texts in different forms - ‘general’, ‘authorial’ and ‘aesthetic’ ideology. Prof. Akhalaq Tade,Willingdon College,


Fredric Jameson is a modern American Marxist critic.



Fredric Jameson writes about his notions related to Marxism in his book, Marxism and Form (1971).



Jameson comments on the complexities of structuralism and post-structuralism in his work, The Political Unconsciousness: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (1981) with the help of dialectical criticism.



According to Jameson, Achetypal Criticism, Psychoanalytical Criticism, Structuralist Criticism, Semiotics and Deconstruction are various modes of criticism which are applicable at various stages of the critical interpretation of a literary work; but Marxist criticism integrates all of them by retaining their positive findings within a ‘political interpretation of literary texts’. This political interpretation, Jameson feels, exposes the concealed role of the ‘political unconsciousness’.



The theory of Deconstruction has been attacked by Marxist critics for ignoring the social and historical aspects of texts. But Frederic Jameson, Raymond Williams and Terry Eagleton deal with it in their own manner. Marxist criticism has split into several other schools of criticism. Marxism is also linked with post-colonialism.



Aijaz Ahmad’s book In Theory (1992) is a systematic study of post-colonialism from Marxist point of view.



AIJAZ AHMAD Prof. Akhalaq Tade,Willingdon College,


According to Bart Moor-Gilbert, Marxism is already ‘inside’ post-colonialism, even ingrained in post-colonial theory to a much greater degree than has been thought. The early Marxist critics took greater interest in the term ‘ideology’; whereas the neo-Marxist critics are showing more interest in the term ‘cultural materialism’.



Marxist Criticism has now adopted an interdisciplinary approach to literary studies. The insights of Marxism, which often originated in the philosophy of Hegel, have inspired many branches of modern criticism – including historicism, feminism, deconstruction, post-colonial and cultural criticism.



KARL MARX Prof. Akhalaq Tade,Willingdon College,


KARL MARX



THANK YOU FOR WATCHING !

I T’ S

Prof. AKHALAQ TADE’S

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