In Darkest Africa (9) ~ A Masai Army

8/12/2019 In Darkest Africa (9) ~ A Masai Army

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Even today, the Masai are among the best known of the tribes of Africa. The elegant, almost classical silhouettes of the warriors, with their togas andspears, are familiar from any number of books and TV documentaries about the East African plains. A hundred and thirty years ago, at the beginning of theperiod of European exploration, they already had an unsurpassed reputation as a warrior people. And yet from a wargaming point of view, they are still

virgin territory. In a way this is not surprising: they never fought a full-scale battle against the British colonisers, and so their military profile is inevitablylower than that of, say, the Zulus; and no one else looks anything like Masai, so substitution or conversion of other figures would be difficult if notimpossible. Fortunately, though, this is yet another army which is due to be covered in Guernsey Foundrys 25mm. Darkest Africa range, sculpted asusual by Mark Copplestone. At the time of writing their Masai figures have yet to be released, but several different packs are in the pipeline, reflecting theenormous variety of costumes worn by these individualistic warriors. So for those who may be interested in producing and playing with one of the mostspectacular and colourful armies imaginable, this article aims to provide some background.

SPLENDID FELLOWS A MASAI ARMY FOR DARKEST AFRICABY CHRIS PEERS

Origins and HistoryLike a lot of African peoples the Masai have only vague traditions of theirearly history, making it impossible to reconstruct a coherent narrative.Physically, they tend to be tall and slender, graceful rather than muscular,like many of the cattle-herders of the upper Nile. They speak a languagedistantly related to those of tribes from the southern Sudan like theLatooka and Bari, and more closely to the Samburu of northern Kenya.Certainly both the appearance and language of the Masai are distinctively

different from those of their Bantu-speaking neighbours in East Africa,and it is a logical conclusion that their original home was somewhere to thenorth, along the Nile valley. At some fairly recent time - perhaps as late asthe 16th century - their forebears migrated into the Lake Turkana region ofnorthern Kenya. Surviving legends tell how, forced onwards by drought,they then climbed the great Rift Valley escarpment onto the Kenyaplateau, and proceeded to drive out or absorb the previous inhabitants ofthe highlands to the east.

The heart of their newly acquired territory was the high plateau which liesbetween Mounts Kenya and Kilimanjaro, and continues from theresouthwards into modern Tanzania. It was mostly open grassland, and idealfor cattle. Whereas the previous inhabitants, the Sirikwa, had had a mixedpastoral and agricultural economy, the Masai brought with them a greatlyincreased emphasis on cattle-raising, and possibly a better-adapted strainof cattle. They scorned farming, hunting, metal-working - and in fact just

about any way of life except herding and war - and considered themselvessuperior to those peoples who lowered themselves to such activities.(They referred derisively to the Swahilis, who often made their living asporters, as donkeys). Like the Nuer of the Sudan, the Masai had deviseda creation myth according to which God had made all the cattle on earthespecially for them. Over the next couple of centuries, they set about the

ambitious task of repossessing those beasts which had somehow falleninto the hands of other tribes. By the time they came to the notice ofEuropeans in the 1850s, they were the undisputed lords of the East Africanhighlands.

Unlike other great conquering peoples such as the Zulus, however, theMasai were not a united military power. They never acknowledged aparamount chief or king, although their laibons - sort of combined sages

and medicine men - sometimes exercised limited authority over several ofthe dozen or so clans or sub-tribes which made up the Masai nation.(There were also secular chiefs called beijanis, but these seem neverto have been as influential.) At various times different clans managed toachieve a vague predominance over the rest, but never maintained it longenough to establish a dynasty. The most powerful of these groups in theearly 19th century were the Uasinkishu and the Laikipiak, later succeededby the Purko in the north, and the Kisongo in the south. All of themfrequently fought with each other over cattle and grazing grounds, and inthe middle decades of the 19th century the whole Masai communitybecame embroiled in a series of vicious civil wars, which left largestretches of the highlands virtually depopulated. The hitherto mightyLaikipiak were scattered beyond recall in the middle of the 1870s, when acombined Purko and Kisongo army overran their principal warrior villagein a night attack. The allies, it is said, were able to achieve surprise with thehelp of spells cast by the most famous laibon in their history, Mbatiany.

These wars have often been represented as a struggle between the trueMasai and the Masai-speaking but semi-agricultural Kwavi, in whichthe latter, having somehow degenerated from the pastoral ideal, weredefeated and driven to the edges of the plains. This sounds like the sort ofinterpretation which Masai traditionalists themselves would have put on


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events, but it is probably wrong. The losers were not beaten because theywere Kwavi; they became Kwavi - ie. mixed farmers - because they had to,having been defeated in battle and pushed off the best pasture land.Certainly there is little evidence that they looked or fought any differentlyfrom the so-called true Masai. In fact it is probable that the majority oflong-distance Masai campaigns in this period were carried out by thedefeated factions, seeking to recoup their losses at the expense of someoneelse.

By the late 19th century Masailand was about the same size as Germany,and about as popular with its neighbours. Other tribes in the vicinity wereterrorised by an ever-increasing spate of raids in search of cattle, womenand glory. In the north the young Masai warriors, or moran, raided as far

as Mount Elgon, and into the lands of the nomadic Boran and Redillearound Lake Turkana. They also clashed with the Galla in the far north-east of what is now Kenya, and with the Somalis, whom they respected aswarriors as proud as themselves. To the west, only the shores of LakeVictoria blocked their expansion. The tribes living there - such as the Luoand Nandi - fought back hard, having nowhere to run. In the south theyvictimised the Mbe, Nyika, Nyamwezi and Gogo, among many others,and clashed with the formidable Hehe of the Iringa Highlands, who hadadopted Zulu-style tactics from the Ngoni. If any African army was amatch for the Masai it was the Hehe, whose tradition describes a battleagainst the Masai in which everyone on both sides was killed! (Although itshould be remembered that this much-lauded Hehe victory was notreally a fair test. It was fought between a Hehe standing army under a royalprincess on the one hand, and on the other a remnant of one of the Masairefugee groups already defeated in the civil wars - probably ParakuyoKwavi, fleeing from the Kisongo.)

The semi-Arabised Swahili farmers of the east coast were especiallyroughly handled, because despite their numbers and the guns with whichthey were well supplied, they lacked any sense of unity, and failed toorganise themselves to defend one anothers cattle. The Masai despised

them as cowards, and wandered through their lands in small groups withimpunity; it was said that the sight of one moran could frighten a thousandof the locals. The explorer Joseph Thomson was told that their scoutscould sometimes be encountered strolling about the town of Mombasa inthe middle of the night.

Nevertheless, some other tribes managed to survive on the very fringes ofMasai country. They could achieve this in three ways. One or two of themmade themselves useful by working for the Masai as blacksmiths, like theChaga, or as hunters of wild game and suppliers of buffalo skins forshields, like the Ndorobo. Others, such as the Kikuyu and Kamba,retreated into the inaccessible depths of their mountains and forests,where the terrain was unsuited to Masai tactics. A very few, like the

Nandi, adopted Masai methods, and made themselves so formidable thatit was no longer worth the warriors' while to attack them. A branch of theChaga led by an extraordinary character called Sultan Mandara,although no more than 1000 fighting men strong, survived and prosperedright through to the colonial period in the very shadow of MountKilimanjaro by a combination of diplomacy, fighting skills, deviousnessand sheer nerve.

There was no chivalry in Masai warfare, and for those were not able toescape or hide, the raids could be devastating. Their aftermaths weresometimes witnessed by Europeans, as for example by a CommanderDundas, who described the results in the Scottish Geographical Magazineof March 1893:

On our return through the Mbe country, a most harrowing sight presenteditself: what only a few days before were prosperous villages, standingamid fields of grain, were now smoking ruins; bodies of old men, women,and children, half-burnt, lay in all directions... I was informed that theMasai had unexpectedly arrived one morning at dawn, spearing andburning all before them, and carrying off some 250 women, and largeherds of cattle.


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The Arabs also fell foul of them on many occasions. The moran raided asfar as Bagamoyo, the main Zanzibari settlement on the mainland and thestarting point for many explorers expeditions, and terrorised the Sultansallies in the vicinity. In 1856 a party of 800 Masai actually managed tobreak into the coastal town of Mombasa. The garrison - a mere 25 Araband Baluchi matchlockmen - appear to have got off only one volley beforethey were overwhelmed. John Hanning Speke refers to a two-day battle inthe 1850s between cannon-armed Zanzibaris and 1000 Masai. Onoccasion - as if all this activity was not enough for them - the moran tooktemporary employment in other peoples wars. In 1882, for example, theSwahili warlord Mbarak recruited some Masai and other tribesmen asmercenaries to aid him in his unsuccessful revolt against the Sultan ofZanzibar.

The Mombasa affair took place while Speke was in the area carrying out asurvey of the coast. In general, however, the Masai remained aloof fromthe early European explorers. The first white man to mention them exceptin passing was the missionary Ludwig Krapf, who in 1860 reported that:

They are dreaded as warriors, laying all waste with fire and sword, so thatthe weaker tribes do not venture to resist them.

Europeans were seldom killed without a very good reason, but the Masainevertheless felt that they were entitled to take anything they wanted fromlesser breeds who dared to approach their territory. Favoured visitors werepestered to distraction by forceful demands for gifts, which often shaded

imperceptibly into barefaced robbery, as well as by relentless intrusions ontheir privacy. If they liked you, they would spit on you: a sign of respectand friendship, according to Harry Johnston, who met them in the 1880s.Unlike most Africans, the moran at least were not in awe of white men.Joseph Thomson, who also travelled through their country in the 1880s,and made strenuous efforts to conciliate them and avoid provokingconflict, likened them to the flies which swarmed around their cattle. Theytook out Thomsons false teeth to examine them, and then pulled his noseto see if that would come off as well. Despite this, Thomson could not helpliking them. In a memorable passage in his Through Masai Land, hedescribes his first meeting with them:

The word was passed round that the Masai had come... Passing throughthe forest, we soon set our eyes upon the dreaded warriors that had been solong the subject of my waking dreams, and I could not but involuntarilyexclaim, What splendid fellows!

But what happened to people they didn't like? Let the German explorerCarl Peters tell it:

...in the year 1887 they cut down, to the last man, an Arab caravannumbering two thousand guns, laid all the corpses in ranks and rows side

by side, and in scorn put each mans gun across his shoulder.

On other occasions they made similar artistic arrangements with peoplessevered heads. It was sometimes their habit to place a slightly more subtleno trespassing sign in the middle of a track (in one case this is describedas a bullet, over which they cross two twigs stripped of foliage, with theexception of a tasselled brush at the top), and then wait in ambush tospear the first person who stepped over it. It is no wonder that as late as1891 Mrs. French-Sheldon, on safari through southern Kenya, describesthe panic which swept through her armed askaris at the sight of a handfulof itinerant pedlars, whom they mistook at a distance for Masai warriors.

Until towards the end of the 19th century, these methods generallysucceeded in keeping outsiders away from Masailand. Take a look at anymap showing the routes taken by explorers and traders in 19th centuryEast Africa, and a strange pattern will soon become apparent. Caravans enroute from the coast to the rich kingdoms north and east of Lake Victoriaseldom took the obvious direct route via the cool and healthy KenyaHighlands, but would make a long detour southwards through the fever-ridden and often waterless bush of what is now central Tanzania, beforestriking north to the southern shore of the lake. On the way they had to dealwith tribes like the Gogo, who had developed the extortion of tolls orhongo to a fine art; the unpredictable Watuta; and the Ha, whosereputation as the Comanches of Africa speaks for itself. Even H. M.Stanley, who was not easily diverted, used the terrifying reputation of theKenya route as an excuse to take his Emin Pasha Relief Expedition via the

Congo. It may be true that certain Arabs who had established periloustrading relations with the Masai spread exaggerated rumours of theirferocity in order to keep the northern route for themselves, but it is alsoclear that their reputation did not need much exaggerating.

As late as 1895, when Kenya was already nominally under British rule, aparty of 1000 Swahili and Kikuyu porters working for the government gotinto a scuffle with Masai warriors in the Kedong Valley, over some girlswho had been abducted by the caravan leader. A cow was shot by accident,and the moran retaliated by massacring the porters. More than half of themwere killed, and an English trader who intervened met with the same fateas soon as his ammunition ran out. (Surprisingly, the colonial authoritiesdid not take the revenge which might have been expected, justlyconsidering that the victims had been asking for trouble.)

It took the amateur German imperialist Carl Peters to make people feel

sorry for the Masai. This unpleasant young man was almost single-handedly responsible for the German theft of Tanganyika from the Sultanof Zanzibar, and took the refusal of any Africans to kowtow to Europeansas a personal affront. He sems to have thought that Thomsons peacefulapproach was the cause of the Masais arrogance. Instead of presents, hetook with him on his 1889 expedition a force of heavily-armed Somali


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soldiers. He went out of his way to be even more overbearing and arroganttowards the Masai than they were to him. He insulted and threatened them,refused them gifts, and finally started shooting stray bulls, which weresupposedly threatening his camp. To the Masai, their cattle were not justthe only form of wealth, but almost sacred, and seldom slaughtered exceptfor ceremonial feasts. Inevitably, the warriors attacked him.

However, Peters repeating rifles came as a shock to them, and in severalhard-fought battles they were repulsed with heavy losses. Peters thenburned their villages and stole thousands of their treasured cattle. TheMasai had learned a hard lesson, and never again tried conclusions with awell-equipped white expedition. (This was by no means the worst CarlPeters could do, however. He fancied himself as a philosopher, and atChristmas dinner 1889, still in the heart of Masai country, he took theopportunity of delivering a short address to Herr von Tiedemann on ArthurSchopenhauers negativity of the perception of pleasure. This much funwas obviously too much for von Tiedemann, who shortly afterwards camedown with dysentery. Peters later went on to add to his list of friends bymachine-gunning the Gogo when they came to demand tribute.)

When the British took over Kenya in the 1890s, they employed Masai asauxiliaries in their campaigns against the neighbouring Kikuyu. The

moran continued to raid into German-occupied Tanganyika, and had a lastfling as late as the First World War, when their British and German masterswere otherwise occupied, and they swept down to the shores of LakeVictoria to replenish their cattle herds at someone elses expense. (In factcattle-raiding still goes on today, if more discreetly.) But white settlers hadalready begun to move into the Kenya Highlands before 1900, and soonafter the turn of the century the laibon Lenana - Mbatianys successor - hadreached an agreement with the British, by which the Masai evacuatedmuch of their traditional territory, but were allowed to keep a part of it as atribal reserve. Inevitably a lot of this remaining land was soon stolen fromthem, but the people survived, and continued to lead their traditional wayof life as far as they were permitted. They are still there today - a little lesswarlike perhaps, but as independently-minded as ever.

Masai WarfareThe most distinctive feature of Masai military organisation was the age-setsystem, which in its essentials they shared with many other East Africancattle-herding peoples. This was - and remains - a very complicatedbusiness, but the gist of it is as follows. At some time in their late teens, theyouths were formally initiated en masse as moran, or warriors. Theceremonies were held only at intervals of about seven years, so that a

whole age group would go through the process together, and subsequentlylive and fight together. For the next 15 years they would form part of themilitary caste of the tribe, first as junior warriors and then graduating toseniors, as a new generation of juniors came forward. Each age-set had aspecific name, generally meaning something along the lines of Thosewho cannot be defeated; and the Masai customarily dated events in thepast according to which age-sets had constituted the moran at the time.Eventually another ceremony marked the transition of the senior age-setto the status of elders.

The junior warriors at least were not allowed to marry, and had to liveexclusively on beef, blood and milk, as vegetables were believed to makethem soft. They slept in their own separate villages or manyattas, whichwere enlivened by visits from the young girls, or even (under cover ofdarkness) married women. The moran were not needed as an agriculturallabour force - cattle-raising being fairly undemanding in terms of actualwork - and so they spent their time protecting the herds, hunting lions andleopards, raiding and fighting neighbouring tribes, or, if all else failed,fighting among themselves. They developed their fighting skills byhunting wild animals - starting with giraffes, which although hard to killwere not particularly dangerous, before graduating to the most prestigiousprey of all - lions. Lion hunting with spears and swords was extremely

dangerous, and warriors were often badly injured by their quarry; the bestway to gain kudos was by grasping the tail of the beast while it was stillalive. There is a recorded case of two men, armed only with their shortswords, who fought for an hour with a lion which was attacking theirlivestock. All three - men and lion - died.

From the point of view of the rest of Masai society, this system ofinstitutionalised hooliganism had several advantages: it directed theenergies of the young men away from making trouble at home, and itprovided the community with what was in effect a standing army, ready totake the field at a moments notice. (The older men also appreciated itbecause, as the youngsters could not marry, the elders got first pick of theyoung women.) The problem with the system, of course, was that you hada lot of warriors with time on their hands, living away from the moderatinginfluence of their parents, armed to the teeth, and able to gain status amongtheir peers only by fighting and cattle-rustling. It is no wonder that the

tribe as a whole gained such an unsavoury reputation.

Though widely admired by friend and foe alike for their courage and style,the moran were not really the sort of people you would want to invite to aparty. They took themselves rather seriously, and did not indulge in musicand dancing except as part of solemn rituals or as exercise for war. They


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Pygmy Chief. Painting by Kevin Dallimore

decorate these is documented, but the tall busby-likelion's mane headgear often seen in modern photos wasand remains basically ceremonial, and does not seem tohave been worn in battle.

Leg ornaments, and a short cape which was sometimesworn around the shoulders, were made from the skins ofblack and white colobus monkeys. Metal wire was usedfor bracelets and earrings; as children the Masai had theirear lobes pierced and stretched with enormous ivory

plugs, so that they hung down almost as far as theshoulders. In battle, the warriors wore metal bellsstrapped around the thighs. Imported cloth, decoratedwith stripes, checks or other patterns in red and white, wassometimes used for cloaks, which were known asnebaras or naiberes. Richard Burton describes theMasai trading for cloth with the Gogo, who had probablyacquired it from the Arabs.

Several European explorers left eloquent descriptions ofthe overall appearance of these extraordinary warriors.This is Joseph Thomsons:

Let us pause and in imagination watch some enthusiasticyoung ditto (an unmarried girl) buckling on the armour ofher knight. First there is tied round his neck, whence it

falls in flowing lengths, the naibere, a piece of cotton, sixfeet long, two feet broad, and a longitudinal stripe ofcoloured cloth sewed down the middle of it. Over hisshoulders is placed a huge cape of kites feathers - aregular heap of them. The kid-skin garment which hangsat his shoulder is now folded up, and tied tightly round hiswaist like a belt, so as to leave his arms free. His hair istied into two pigtails, one before and one behind. On hishead is placed a remarkable object formed of ostrichfeathers stuck in a band of leather, the whole forming anelliptically-shaped head-gear. This is placed diagonallyin a line beginning under the lower lip and running infront of the ear to the crown. His legs are ornamented withflowing hair of the colobus, resembling wings. His bodilyornament is finished off by the customary plastering ofoil. His sime or sword is now attached - it does not hang -

to his right side; and through the belt is pushed the skull-smasher or knobkerry, which may be thrown at anapproaching enemy, or may give the quietus to a disabledone. His huge shield in his left hand and his great spear inhis right complete his extraordinary equipment. For therest you must imagine an Apollo-like form and the face ofa fiend, and you have before you the beau-ideal of a Masaiwarrior. He takes enormous pride in his weapons, andwould part with everything he has rather than his spear.He glories in his scars, as the true laurel and decorativemarks of one who delights in battles.

It is unlikely that the entire panoply described here wouldhave been worn by every warrior, and individualsobviously indulged in all sorts of variations on the basictheme. With their body paint, beads and feathers theymust have looked as diverse and colourful as PlainsIndians. Ludwig von Hohnel, writing of Count Telekistravels, regarded the appearance of the moran as anessential part of their psychological warfare:

There is really more pretension and impudence behindthe self-consciousness of the moran than real courage,and they owe much of the dread in which they are held totheir effective get-up. The short mantle of brown hairedkidskin, which he generally wears fastened on the rightshoulder, is twisted into a girdle and transferred to hiswaist. He leaves some of the gala ornaments at home,substituting for them an iron bell worn above the knee.His head and shoulders and also his spear are profuselysmeared with red grease, which makes him look as if hewere dripping with blood... Thus adorned he dashes onwith diabolical cries, his shield in his left hand and in theright his uplifted spear. Such an apparition strikes terrorinto the hearts of the natives, and at its approach they fleewithout coming to blows at all.

Mrs. French-Sheldon echoes von Hohnels openingcomment in even more forthright terms:

With all their ferocity there is, as I have said, a great dealof sham and bluster about the Masai.

The rest of her description, dating from 1891, differs insome details from the others, but gives another vividimpression of the appearance of a Masai army - aspectacle which within a few more years would have

vanished forever:

...I was afforded the extraordinary opportunity ofseeing over one thousand Masai armed and ready toenter battle, having as an objective point Arusha-jue inthe German territory which they had but recently beenforced to evacuate by the Germans. The sight wascertainly a magnificent spectacle, equipped, armed, andadorned with their picturesque paraphernalia, facesdaubed with paint, splendid masks made of masses ofostrich and vulture feathers, plumed at the top with finesweeping feathers, lions manes, and white bits ofColobus monkey hair; huge vulture feather ruffs abouttheir necks, and even encircling their faces, andenormous feather panniers around their thighs; here andthere a warrior with an entire Colobus monkey-skin, slit

in the centre, through which he had thrust his head, andthe tail and long hair blowing straight out in the wind;from his shoulders wildly floated in the breezes anebara made of stripes or figured red and white cottoncloth, and a long hyena tail decorated with a lions mane,and Colobus monkey tails swinging from his shouldersas an emblem of war, - forsooth the African shoulderchip! About the warriors waists was strapped goatshides, into which they thrust their knives; below theirknees, and over long oval iron bells a strip of Colobusmonkey-skin, with the long white hair standing straightout like a pennant, and similar adornments on theirankles; and the leaders wore strapped across theirshoulders a leather quiver, containing a supply of ostrichfeathers to refurbish their masks.

Sword belts and similar equipment could be decoratedwith elaborate beadwork, although old-fashioned beltsmade of ribbed leather, with just a scattering of whitebeads, were still more common than the multi-coloured,lavishly adorned varieties often seen today. In contrast tothe profusion of colours in use nowadays, in the 19thcentury beads were generally red, blue, white or black.There are the usual complicated rules about thepreferences of different clans, and the precise sequencesof colours and patterns which distinguish the Masai fromtheir neighbours. Only the Masai themselves can everremember these, so I dont think that there is much pointin wargamers worrying about them.

Elders might be present at a defensive battle, rather thanon a raid, but only in relatively small numbers. Theywould probably not wear the moran regalia, but contentthemselves with just a toga or cloak, as they still do indaily life. Elders often shaved their heads, althoughunlike the moran, they were now entitled to wear theirhair however they liked. Pieces of patterned clothresembling nebaras are sometimes shown in 20thcentury photographs being used as flags, but it is notcertain whether these had any military significance inearlier times. Mrs. French-Sheldon refers to a Masaitruce-flag, but the usual sign of peace or truce was abunch of grass held above the head.

TacticsThe advent of muzzle-loading guns, which

revolutionised warfare in most of Africa, made noappreciable impact on the Masai, who must often havecome into possession of muskets after defeating theArabs or Swahilis, but never bothered to learn how to usethem. Carl Peters describes the tactics which theyemployed to deal with firearms:


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The Massai (sic) knows how to protect himself from the first shot bythrowing himself on the ground, or sheltering himself behind a tree; andlong before the muzzle-loader has been made ready for a seconddischarge, he has come bounding up, to finish the matter with a thrust ofhis lance.

Not surprisingly, as same author remarks: Generally, in fact, the (Arab)caravans fire their guns once, and then immediately take to flight,whereupon they are regularly massacred to the last man by the swift-footed Massais.

For fighting in the open against opponents armed in traditional fashion, thefavoured formation was known as the eagles wing. This consisted of a

central wedge formed by the bravest warriors, supported by flank guardson each side and a rearguard. The function of the wedge was simply tobreak through the enemy frontally, with the rearguard forming a rallyingpoint in case of a repulse. To judge from Masai accounts, such reverseswere rarely experienced in battles against other tribes, but despite all theirboasting the moran were not reckless fanatics, and a rapid retreat if thecircumstances required was a recognised option. They did not drinkalcohol, but they did have a sort of soup made from bark and herbs whichmight be drunk before a hunt or battle, and which is variously said to havean effect similar to amphetamines or marijuana! The young warriorsmanyattas were deliberately left unfortified in order to encouragevigilance, but ordinary kraals or engangs were well protected with thornhedges, within which the cattle were kept at night.

At their peak the Masai may have numbered as many as 50000 warriorsaltogether, but individual armies rarely exceeded 1000 men. A

complicated system of command was not required in battle, as the range oftactical options was fairly limited. Such a system would in any case haveconflicted with the anarchic tendencies of the moran. Some laibons actedas charismatic war leaders; the most famous of these was Mbatiany, who inthe early 1870s put together a large coalition of clans against the Laikipiak.At least for small raiding parties, however, the moran elected their owncommanders. In addition, the age-set system provided a rough ready-made hierarchy, and elders noted for their wisdom and experience weresometimes obeyed if the warriors felt like it. Each manyatta also had agroup of embikas, or picked warriors, who acted as a sort of militarypolice. The long, twisted horns of the kudu antelope are still used asmusical instruments in ceremonies, and may once have had a commandfunction. Drums were not used by the Masai. Various traditional war-criesand chants were known, and Carl Peters describes the hyena-like battle-howl of the warriors.

Peters pays reluctant tribute to the way in which the Masai adaptedthemselves to facing the rapid fire of his breechloaders, advancingcautiously and in extended order from one patch of cover to another.Among the Masai themselves, the northern clans had a reputation forcharging rashly, throwing their weapons instead of keeping them to thrustwith, and simply trusting that their first rush would break the enemy. If it

did not, they would raise a cry of Save the warriors by their feet! and runaway. The southerners, on the other hand, were said to be inclined to err onthe side of caution. It is often said by 19th century writers that spears werenever thrown, and certainly the old-fashioned type would be too heavyand unbalanced to be an effective missile, but the Masai do throw spearsnowadays. Clubs and even swords, however, were sometimes hurled atthe enemy in battle.

The return to Masailand of a victorious army was not always the end of thebloodshed. The anarchy of the moran ethos was not restricted to thebattlefield, and the accepted way of achieving a division of the capturedcattle or other spoils was simply to fight over them. Thomson describesthe sequel to one raid:

The raid was, of course, successful, and our savage friends returned ingreat glee. On reaching their homes, however, matters had to be squaredup, and the spoil divided. So many head of the captured cattle were setapart as the portion of the lybon Mbaratien, who had directed them sowell, and whose medicines had been so potent. Then followed asanguinary scene over the apportionment of the remainder. There was noattempt at a fair division. The braver men and bullies of the party,consulting only their own desires, took possession of such cattle aspleased them, and dared the rest to come and seize them. The understoodrule was that if any warrior could hold his own in single combat against allcomers for three days, the cattle were his. And thus began the real fightingof the expedition, revealing sickening sights of savage ferocity. Therewere more warriors killed over the division of the spoil than in the originalcapturing of it. To kill a man in this manner was considered all fair andabove board. Blood feuds were unknown, a man not being considered

worth avenging who could not hold his own life safe. If, however, a manwas murdered treacherously, the criminal had to pay forty-nine bullocks.

So there should be plenty of scenarios available for wargaming the Masai,ranging from skirmishes over cattle to full-scale battles against Europeanexpeditions, Arabs, or any one of countless other African tribes.

Further ReadingMrs. M. French-Sheldon, Sultan To Sultan. London, 1892.H. H. Johnston, The Kilima-Njaro Expedition. London, 1886.C. Peters, New Light On Dark Africa. London, 1889.J. Thomson, Through Masai Land. London, 1885.Numerous modern works, notably:T. Saitoti and C. Beckwith, Maasai. New York, 1980. A coffee tablebook, full of good modern photographs and drawings, with a sympathetic

text by an educated Masai.T. Spear and R. Waller (eds.), Being Maasai. James Currey Ltd., 1993.There is a good section on the Masai and their fellow East Africanpastoralists, including some nice colour pictures of shield patterns, in:C. Spring, African Arms And Armour. British Museum Press, 1993.

In Darkest Africa (9) ~ A Masai Army

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