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CHAPTERA Brahmin, or Hindu priest, prays at dawnbeside the sacred Ganges River.

Learning AboutHindu Beliefs15.1 Introduction

In Chapter 14, you visited the ruins of Mohenjodaro to learn about theIndus-Sarasvati civilization of ancient India. In this chapter, you will learnabout the origins and beliefs of Hinduism, India's first major religion.

Hinduism has shaped Indian life in countless ways. It has affected howpeople worship, what jobs they do, and even what they eat. It has inspiredgreat art and literature. And it has helped to determine the status of peoplein Indian society.

One of the basic beliefs ofHinduism is dharma. Dharma standsfor law, obligation, and duty. To followone's dharma means to perform one'sduties and so to live as one should.

One of the most famous Hindu sto-ries is the Ramayana. The Ramayanatells about life in ancient India andoffers models in dharma.

The hero of the Ramayana, Rama,lives his whole life by the rules ofdharma. When Rama is a young boy.he is a loyal son. When he grows up,he is a faithful husband and a respon-sible ruler. "Be as Rama," Indianchildren have been taught for morethan 2,000 years.

In this chapter, you will explorethe origins of Hinduism. Then, you'lllearn about dharma and the otherbasic Hindu beliefs: Brahman,multiple gods, karma, andsamsara.

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The sacred Vedas were composedin the ancient language ofSanskrit.

Vedas a collection of Hindusacred writingsSanskrit an ancient languageof IndiaBrahmanism an ancientIndian religion in which theBrahmins (priests and religiousscholars} are the dominantclass

15.2The Origins of HinduismHinduism is a very old religion, so old that it began before

recorded history. No single person founded it. It developed slow-ly, over a long period of time.

Around 1500 B.C.E., invaders called Aryans conquered northernIndia. Some historians creditthe Aryans with bringingHinduism to India. Othersbelieve that traces of Hinduismcan be found in ancient arti-facts left by India's originalsettlers. These artifacts includeitems like those found atMohenjodaro. Pools, hearths,and pictures on stone seals maybe early evidence of practicesthat are features of Hinduism.Such practices include ritualbathing, lighting sacred (holy)fires, and worshiping certaingods. Most likely, Hinduism isa blend of Aryan beliefs andthe beliefs of the people theyconquered.

Early Aryan religion iscalled Vedism, after the Vedas. The Vedas are a large collectionof sacred songs, poems, and teachings composed in Sanskrit.(Veda is Sanskrit for "knowledge.") The Vedas were taught orallyfor hundreds of years before India had a written form of Sanskrit.

Vedic rituals and sacrifices honored a number of gods associatedwith nature. Over time, these rituals became more and more com-plex. A class of priests and religious scholars, called Brahmins,grew increasingly important because only they knew how tointerpret the Vedas and correctly perform the rituals. Brahminsbecame the dominant class in India. Later Vedism is often calledBrahmanism.

Modern-day Hinduism is very complex. Many beliefs, manyforms of worship, and many gods exist side by side. But allHindus share certain beliefs. The Vedas remain sacred lo Hindustoday. Along with later writings, the Vedas lay out the basicbeliefs of Hinduism. As you will see, these beliefs have influ-enced every part of life in India.

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15.3 Hinduism and the Caste SystemHinduism was not just a religion in ancient India. It was a way

of life. It affected how Indians lived, what they believed, andeven the way they organized their society.

Brahmanism taught that a well-organized society was dividedinto social classes. Europeans later called this the caste system.The Vedas describe four main social classes:

• Brahmins (priests and religious scholars)• Kshatriyas (rulers and warriors)• Vaishyas (herders and merchants)• Shudras (servants)According to the Vedas, each class, or varna, had its own

duties. For example, Brahmins had a duty to study and teach theVedas. Warriors had a duty tobecome skilled with weapons.But the caste system meant thatsome people were much morefavored than others. Brahminsheld the top place, whileShudras held the lowest.

Over the centuries a fifthclass developed, called theuntouchables. These were peo-ple whose jobs or ways of lifeinvolved activities that Hindusconsidered lowly or "dirty,"such as handling garbage anddead animals. Untouchablesoften had lo l i ve in the i r ownvillages or neighborhoods.They could not enter manytemples or attend most schools.Other Hindus avoided touchingthem and, in many cases, evenlooking at them.

The caste system affected all aspects of people's lives. Indianswere born into a certain caste, and they could not change it. Inaddition, people could only marry within their own caste.

The caste system is just one example of how Hinduism waswoven into the fabric of daily life in India. Let's look now at thefive basic beliefs of Hinduism and how they helped to shapeIndian life and culture.

caste a class, or group, inHindu society

Even today, the highest caste inIndia is the Brahmins. They areidentified by the sacred threadworn over their shoulders.

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Modern Hindus can visit portable,or mobile, shrines set up atconvenient locations.

15.4 Hindu BeliefsAbout Brahman

Brahman is the Hindu namefor a supreme power, or adivine force, that is greaterthan all the other gods. ToHindus, only Brahman existsforever. Everything else in theworld changes, from the pass-ing seasons to living things thateventually die.

Hinduism sees time goingaround in a circle, like a greatwheel. The same events return,just as the sun rises each morn-ing and spring follows winter.Hindus believe Brahman isconstantly creating, destroying,and re-creating the universe.This cycle never ends.

According to Hindu belief,everything in the world is apart of Brahman, including thehuman soul. Hindus call thesoul atman. It is a part ofBrahman, just as a drop ofwater is part of the ocean.Through their own souls, peo-

ple are connected to Brahman. The other gods and goddesses inHinduism also are various forms of Brahman.

To connect with their gods, ancient Hindus began to buildgreat temples in the sixth century C.E. They wrote exact instruc-tions about where and how to bui ld temples. Modern Hindutemples are still built using these ancient directions.

Many Hindu temples are magnificent in size and design. Theirdoors always face east, toward the rising sun. The buildings arecovered with beautiful carvings and sculptures. These works ofart usually show gods and goddesses from popular Hindu stories.Inside, temples usually contain a tower and a small shrine.

Modern Hindus continue to visit temples to express their loveof the gods. Visitors often sit quietly and meditate. At other timesthey give thanks, make requests, and take part in rituals.

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15.5 Hindu Beliefs About Multiple GodsThere are many gods and goddesses in Hindu stories and

worship. Over time, Hindus came to believe that all the gods andgoddesses were different faces of Brahman. Each of them repre-sented a power or quality of Brahman.

Tn ancient times, the most popular and powerful god wasIndra. Indra was the god of thunder. He was fiercely warlike. Heused lightning bolts as weapons. The Vedas describe him as driv-ing a blazing gold chariot across the sky and riding a magnificentwhite elephant.

Today, the most important Hindu gods are Brahma, Vishnu,and Shiva. Each god controls one aspect of the universe. Brahmacreates it, Vishnu preserves it, and Shiva destroys it. The goddessDevi is also important. She embodies the female powers of theuniverse. Hindu gods are often quite fantastic in appearance. Forexample, Vishnu is sometimes pictured as having blue skin andsix arms. The god's "extra" arms are a symbol of strength. Shivahas been pictured as having three eyes. This symbolizes beingable to see events from a distance.

Ancient Hindu stories often described heroic gods battlingevil. One of the most famousstories is the Ramayana. It tellsof Rama's fierce battle withRavana, a demon (evil spirit).The story also presents some ofHinduism's basic beliefs in anentertaining way. Many Hinduchildren have learned abouttheir religion by listening tothe Ramayana.

Stories like the Ramayanahave inspired many Hindu holi-days and festivals. The HinduNew Year is celebrated duringthe Divali festival. Divalimeans "row of lamps." Thelamps are symbols of good(light) winning over evil (dark-ness). They represent Rama'striumph over the evil Ravana,and the beginning of the HinduNew Year.

Hindu families light candles andsparklers to celebrate Divali, thefestival of lights.

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Cows are sacred animals toHindus. They often wander freelyin marketplaces, helping them-selves to food.

15.6 Hindu Beliefs About DharmaDharma is a very important idea in Hinduism. Dharma stands

for law, obligation, and duty. To follow one's dharma means toperform one's duties and so to live as one should.

As you have already read, in the Vedas each social class, orvarna, had its own duties. These duties usually involved a certaintype of work, such as serving as a warrior or herding animals.Each class, then, had its own dharma. In fact, Hindus called theirsystem of social classes varna dharma. This means "the way ofone's kind." Hindus believed that when everyone followed thedharma of their class, society would be in harmony.

Brahmins, for example, were society's priests and religiousscholars. Their duties included performing rituals and teachingthe Vedas. This was quite an accomplishment, since the Vedaswere not written down for over 1,000 years. To recite them orally,the Brahmins had to memorize more than 100,000 verses!

In addition to the dharma of their class, Hindus are expectedto follow a common dharma, or set of values. For example,Hinduism values marriage, sharing food with others, and caringfor one's soul.

Another basic value is nonviolence. Hindus believe that all lifeis connected, so part of dharma involves avoiding doing harm toeither people or animals. This reverence for life came to be sym-bolized by the cow. Perhaps this was because cows were especi-ally important in Indian life. Cows gave people milk and butter.They were used for transportation. After they died, their skinscould be turned into clothing. Because cows were viewed assacred, Hindus were taught not to harm them. They were not tokill a cow even to feed people who were starving.

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15.7 Hindu Beliefs About KarmaThe idea of dharma expresses much of what Hindus believe

about the right way to live. Another idea, karma, explains whyliving well is important.

In Hindu belief, the law of karma governs what happens topeople's souls after death. From ancient times, Hindus believedthat souls had many lives. When a person died, his or her soulwas reborn in a new body. But what type of body would thereborn soul get? The answer depended on the soul's karma.

Karma was made up of all the good and evil that a person haddone in past lives. If people lived well, they might be born intoa higher class in their next life. If they lived badly, they couldexpect to be reborn into a lower class. They might even be rebornas animals.

For Hindus, the law ofkarma meant that the universewas just, or fair. Souls wererewarded or punished for thegood and evil they had done.Karma also explained why peo-ple had a certain status in soci-ety. Recall that in the caste sys-tem, people could not escapethe social class of their birth.According to karma, this wasfair, because people's socialclass reflected what they haddone in their past lives.

Over the centuries, manyHindu teachers critici/ed thecaste system. They taughtthat all people, including theuntouchables, should be treatedequally. In the 20th century, theIndian leader Mahatma Gandhicalled the untouchables "chil-dren of God." Today, Indianlaw protects the rights of allpeople, and the caste system ismuch less strict. But the ideasof karma and rebirth remain acentral part of Hinduism.

This Hindu man sitsor meditation.

in prayer,

Learning About Hindu Beliefs 149

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Hindus from all over the worldtravel to the Ganges River to bathein its waters.

reincarnation the beliefthat a person's soul is reborninto a new body after deathpilgrimage a journey to aholy place

15.8 Hindu Beliefs About SamsaraAs you have learned, Hindus believe in a continuous cycle of

birth, death, and rebirth. They call this cycle samsara. As longas people are part of samsara, they will know pain and death,Samsara ends when the soul escapes from the cycle of rebirthand is united with Brahman, the supreme force in the universe.

It takes many lifetimes before a person can be released fromsamsara. People escape the cycle of rebirth, or reincarnation,by following the basic beliefs of Hinduism. They balance theirkarma with good actions. They follow their dharma by behavingcorrectly and performing their social duties. They worshipBrahman, including the gods that represent different aspectsof Brahman, faithfully. They also strive for direct, personalconnections with Brahman.

The Indians of ancient times connected with Brahman bygoing on holy journeys called pilgrimages. People would travelto sacred places like the Ganges and Sarasvati Rivers. Such pil-grims believed that the difficulty of the journey would cleansethem of their sins.

Faithful Hindus still make pilgrimages today. Pilgrims travelfor days over difficult land, including mountains. They often liefacedown in worship at each holy site and temple they encounter.The Ganges River is still one of the most holy places in India.Like the ancient Indians, modern Hindus bathe in its waters as anact of devotion and purification.

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Hindu monks, known as sannyasins, devote their entire livesto unit ing with Brahman. There have been sannyasins sinceancient times. They use a number of techniques to focus onBrahman. They meditate, perform breathing exercises, reciteprayers, and sing sacred songs. They also practice the ancientart of yoga. Yoga is a type of meditation. It combines specialbody positions with deep, slow breathing.

15.9 Chapter SummaryIn this chapter you learned about Hinduism, India's first

major religion. You studied the five basic beliefs of Hinduism.They are belief in Brahman, multiple gods, dharma, karma, andsamsara. As you have learned, these beliefs helped to shapeancient Indian society. They inspired Indian art, stories, andtemple architecture. They were reflected in the caste systemand in the treatment of people and animals.

Hinduism is an important link between ancient and modernIndia. Hindu beliefs continue to affect daily life in India.Hindus still worship in temples, make pilgrimages, and cele-brate religious festivals. They practice meditation and otherways of connecting with Brahman. In addition, reverence forlife and nonviolence remain important ideals in India. Manymodern Hindus avoid eating meat because they believe in notdoing harm to animals.

India's second great religion, Buddhism, grew out ofHinduism. You will learn about Buddhism in the next chapter.

A member of the Brahmincaste reads aloud from thesacred Vedas.