Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
Transcript of Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 1/21
This article was downloaded by: [Usak Universitesi]On: 29 November 2013, At: 00:12Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Anatolia: An International Journal of
Tourism and Hospitality ResearchPublication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rana20
Impulse purchasing in tourism –
learnings from a study in a matured
marketChristian Laesser a & Sara Dolnicar b
a Institute for Systemic Management and Public Governance,
Research Center for Tourism and Transport, University of St.
Gallen , Dufourstrasse 40a, CH-9000 , St. Gallen , Switzerlandb Institute for innovation in Business and Social Research,
University of Wollongong , Northfields Avenue, Wollongong ,
Australia
Published online: 15 May 2012.
To cite this article: Christian Laesser & Sara Dolnicar (2012) Impulse purchasing in tourism –
learnings from a study in a matured market, Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and
Hospitality Research, 23:2, 268-286, DOI: 10.1080/13032917.2012.688409
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2012.688409
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as tothe accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Contentshould not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sourcesof information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever orhowsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arisingout of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 2/21
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 3/21
Impulse purchasing in tourism – learnings from a study in a matured
market
Christian Laessera* and Sara Dolnicarb
a Institute for Systemic Management and Public Governance, Research Center for Tourism and Transport, University of St. Gallen, Dufourstrasse 40a, CH-9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland; b Institute
for innovation in Business and Social Research, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue,Wollongong, Australia
( Received 7 December 2011; final version received 23 April 2012)
Existing literature suggests that information search and planning always precede travel
activity. This contrasts with our understanding of purchasing behaviour in othercontexts where a significant amount of non-planned, impulse purchasing occurs. Wepropose that impulse purchasing also occurs in tourism. Results from an empiricalstudy show that impulse purchasing does occur in tourism and is specifically associatedwith shorter trips, a small number of travel companions, specific travel motivations,and familiarity with the destination.
Keywords: impulse purchase; planned purchase; travel planning tourism services
Introduction
It is widely accepted that the purchasing of core tourism services is associated with
planning (for an extensive discussion of the process view of travel planning and execution,see Correia, 2002; Crompton, 1992; Hsieh & O’Leary, 1993; Um & Crompton, 1990;
Vogt & Fesenmaier, 1998; Woodside & Lysonski, 1989), mainly because travel is
assumed to be a high involvement activity (Kuss & Tomczak, 2007). Many studies thus
aim to understand the relationship between planned and executed behaviour in order to
predict the latter (for an overview, see March & Woodside, 2005; note that Ajzen and
Driver (1992) in originally used leisure activities as the research setting for testing the
theory of planned behaviour).
However, the increased availability of last-minute offers and low-cost airline
connections, as well as increased interest in short trips suggest that in many cases travel
planning is reduced substantially. For example, in 13% of all trips taken by the Swisspopulation the time between making an irreversible travel decision and departure is less
than 7 days (Bieger & Laesser, 2008). Hence, very short-term travel planning or even
impulse-type purchasing behaviour appears to exist also in the tourism context. Yet,
nothing is known about the situations in which such behaviour is most likely to occur.
The aim of the present study is to develop knowledge about impulse purchasing in
tourism. Specifically, we aim to (1) provide a definition of impulse purchasing in tourism,
and (2) empirically determine trip characteristics associated with impulse purchasing
in tourism.
ISSN 1303-2917 print/ISSN 2156-6909 online
q 2012 Institute for Systemic Management And Public Governance at the University of St. Gallen
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2012.688409
http://www.tandfonline.com
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Anatolia – An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research
Vol. 23, No. 2, August 2012, 268–286
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 4/21
Literature review
Marketing, and especially retail research, identifies impulse behaviour as having a
powerful and real influence in the consumer buying behaviour process (Bayley &
Nancarrow, 1998; Hausman, 2000). According to Lee and Kacen (2008; derived from
Kollat & Willett, 1967; and also Prasad, 1975), “impulse buying can be defined as anunplanned purchase that was not anticipated or planned before the shopper entered the
store” (p. 266). Although an extreme form of the normal buying behaviour process, it has
been long recognized and capitalized on by major fast-moving consumer goods companies
(Crawford & Melewar, 2003; Lee & Kacen, 2008; Mogelonsky, 1998). Impulse purchases
can range from small-scale supermarket items such as candy to “big-ticket” items such as
larger home appliances and even automobiles (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Rook & Fisher,
1995; Rook & Gardner, 1993; Weun, Jones, & Beatty, 1998). The key characteristics of
such purchases across those product categories include emotionality, lack of intention, a
low level of reflection, and instantaneousness purchase and consumption planning
horizons (Dowling & Staelin, 1994; Hoch & Loewenstein, 1991; Lee & Kacen, 2008;Rook, 1987; Rook & Fisher, 1995).
Impulse buying behaviour in general
In classical mechanics, an impulse is defined as the integral of a force with respect to an
amount of time. An impulse may also be regarded as the change in momentum of an object
to which a force of some kind is applied. In psychology, an impulse is a wish or urge
(force), particularly a sudden one (time) to act in a certain manner (Hofmann, Strack, &
Deutsch, 2008), that is, for example, to make a purchase. In his 1962 seminal paper, Stern
proposes four potential categories of unplanned purchases, ranging from pure impulse
buying (total lack of preplanning) to planned impulse buying. The latter implies that aconsumer has a product or product category in mind for purchase, but has not decided yet
which brand to buy (cf. Figure 1). Drawing on these concepts, researchers agree (Rook,
1987; Rook & Fisher, 1995) that impulse buying generally occurs when an individual
makes a more or less unintended, unreflective, and immediate purchase. The object of the
purchase can range from a product category to a very specific product within a given
product category.
Lack of intention arises from a sudden urge to buy a specific item, mostly in a shopping
context, when the desire and decision to buy occurs after an external stimulus – for
example, the person sees or is aware of an article (Hoch & Loewenstein, 1991).
Planned buying Impulse buying
Pure impulse buying
-> total lack of planning
Planned impulse buying
-> product or category in mind
-> no decision yet which brand to buy
Figure 1. Conceptualization of impulse purchasing. Source: Own conceptualization adapted fromStern (1962), Rook (1987), Rook and Fisher (1995).
Anatolia – An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 269
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 5/21
Lack of reflexion means that a purchase is made without engaging in a systematic
evaluation. In an extreme case, the only available information, aside from internal
information (such as previous consumption experience), is the external information
available at the time of purchase, for example, product display incentives, or people in the
store (Lee & Kacen, 2008). This differs from a fully planned purchase, with unconstrained planning time, in which all sources of information are available and potentially consulted,
for example, internal and external sources, including media, interpersonal and expert
advice (Dowling & Staelin, 1994). Individuals are thus less likely to consider the
consequences or to think carefully before making the purchase, especially in terms of
income allocation for a specific item (Rook, 1987).
Finally, regarding the immediate character of a purchase, the time interval between
being aware of a purchase object and buying it is minimal in an impulse purchasing
situation (Barratt, 1985; Rook, 1987).
In line with research on impulsiveness in the psychology literature, studies in
marketing observe, similar to Jones, Reynolds, Weun, and Beatty (2003), that “impulse
buying tendency is a consumer personality trait indicating that individuals can be
distinguished from one another based on this trait” (p. 503). Previous research treats the
impulse buying tendency as a generalized trait (that is, trait impulsiveness) as consistent
across product categories (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Rook & Fisher, 1995; Rook & Gardner,
1993; Weun et al., 1998). However, as far back as 1971, Kassarijan noted that an important
task for personality research in consumer behaviour is to determine whether such a trait
can be generalized across product categories, and also whether it should be measured on a
product-specific level. These concerns prompted our investigation of the full extent and
quality of impulse buying behaviour, as well as its potential variety across product
categories (Jones et al., 2003).
More recent research reveals that different factors influence impulsive buyingbehaviour, ranging from simple socio-demographics (such as age and gender) to more
complex constructs (such as trait impulsiveness described above, for example, Jones et al.,
2003; Rook & Fisher, 1995; Weun et al., 1998), as well as the presence of others (Luo,
2005), the consumer’s mood (e.g. Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Rook & Gardner, 1993),
evaluation of the appropriateness of engaging in impulse buying (e.g. Rook & Fisher,
1995), individual and environmental situation (Peck & Childers, 2006), self-identity (e.g.
Dittmar, Beattie, & Friese, 1996; Lee & Kacen, 1999), and cultural orientation (Kacen &
Lee, 2002; Lee & Kacen, 1999).
Most studies focus on retailing, partially because of the prevalence of impulse buying
in today’s retail marketplace (Jones et al., 2003), which can make up more than one-thirdof department store purchases (Bellenger, Robertson, & Hirschman, 1978). However,
because impulse purchases can also occur with big-ticket items (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998;
Rook & Fisher, 1995; Rook & Gardner, 1993; Weun et al., 1998), the transferability of
the concept of impulse purchases to other product categories, including travel, remains
untested. The likelihood of someone buying a car or a larger home appliance after only
minimal evaluation is rather slim. Hence, the degree of how immediate a purchase needs
to be to qualify as an impulse purchase probably varies according to the size of the ticket.
Therefore, we hypothesize that the duration of the process associated with the purchase
(and sometimes consumption), including the planning horizon for its evaluation, varies
accordingly. The degree of this time compression can be posited along a continuum,
ranging from extensively planned to impulse buying, where the planning is associated
at minimum with a product category and, in certain cases, even with a brand (Cobb &
Hoyer, 1986).
270 C. Laesser and S. Dolnicar
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 6/21
Conceptualizing impulse purchasing in tourism
Travel-related decisions are considered to be contingent and coherent portfolio decisions,
incorporating a multiplicity of partial decisions. They include travel dates and duration of
travel, choice of members of the travel party, a budget for expenditure (absolute, and in
terms of income allocation), a core leisure pursuit, including travel motivation, choice of destination, transport and route to the destination, and choice/category of accommodation
(Becken & Gnoth, 2004; Hyde & Laesser, 2009; Laesser, 2003; Tay, McCarthy, &
Fletcher, 1996). Consequently, there is not one, sole decision related to a given trip, but
rather a multiplicity of decisions about each single component of the portfolio – which is
why the concept of impulse purchase (and thus time related to that type of buying) should
be adapted accordingly.
As discussed in the previous section, an impulse consists of two elements: (1) a wish or
urge to act in a certain manner, and (2) a time-related issue meaning that this urge is
sudden, indicating a very short time frame between attention (becoming aware of
something) and action (its purchase).As derived from motivation theories, the source of the impulse is either endogenously
activated (“push”, from within the person) or exogenously activated (“pull”, from outside
the person – for example, via a purchase incentive) (Bieger & Laesser, 2002b; Cha,
McCleary, & Uysal, 1995; Gitelson & Kerstetter, 1990; Yuan & McDonald, 1990). We
thus propose, in line with Curtin (1982) and Wood (2005), to extend impulse purchasing to
discretionary spending – regardless of where the impulse or need to purchase comes from.
Curtin and Wood base their rationales on Katona’s argument, in which the Second World
War economy provided the Western world with “substantial increase in the average
family’s income together with a great change in the distribution of income . . . Millions of
consumers have latitude in deciding whether to spend or to save, on what to spend and how
to save” (1975, pp. 19–20). Katona’s concept of consumer discretion includes consumercontrol and consumer allocation of time and income – that is, serious control of when,
where, and how much to spend. According to Katona, discretionary spending goes beyond
compelled purchases, or those that are strictly necessary. He refers mainly to the purchase
of consumer items, but also includes purchases of travel and items “often connected with
recreation and luxury” (1975, p. 29), as well as with emotions and less rationality (Bayley
& Nancarrow, 1998; Hausman, 2000).
Because travel is a portfolio-based decision, the time component of impulse purchases
in travel also needs to be analysed in detail. Travel decisions contain at least three
components relating to time:
. the time allocation decision in terms of when and how much time to be absent from
home (i.e. the trip duration);
. the portfolio decision regarding what to consume during a trip (trip structure; see
Bieger & Laesser, 2004; Hyde & Laesser, 2009); and
. the decision regarding when to commit to a service once selected.
Associated with the above components are three core time frames, which can be variably
compressed:
. decision–booking time frame, describing the time between the first decision of at
least one or more portfolio elements of a trip;
. booking–departure time frame, describing the time between the first legally binding
action (booking) towards a trip and the departure; and
. departure–return time frame, describing the duration of a trip.
Anatolia – An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 271
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 7/21
We define impulse purchases in tourism as planned impulse purchasing (this
acknowledges that impulse buyers in tourism at least consider taking a vacation before
booking), with a maximum of one week between the decision to take a trip and the
departure. In so doing we align our proposed definition with Stern (1962), Rook (1987),
and Rook and Fisher (1995), who assume that a consumer who engages in an impulsepurchase has a product or product category in mind for immediate purchase but has not
decided yet which brand to buy.
Development of research hypotheses relating to the nature of impulse purchasing in
tourism
Duration of trip and travel composition
From the structural theory of a trip (Hyde & Laesser, 2009; Tay et al., 1996), we can
deduct that an association exists between the duration of a trip and its planning horizon,
basically due to the different lengths of trips associated with different types of trips. Forexample, touring holidays (self-drive) are more complex to organize and normally last
longer than “stay-put” holidays at a beach. Thrane (2012) also stresses that “the longer the
planning or booking time, the longer the trips tend to be”. Thus, we propose the first of a
number of hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: The longer the departure– return time frame (trip duration), the longer the
travel planning time frame.
Eymann and Ronning (1997) and Walsh, John, McKean, and Hof (1992) propose that
family size plays an important role in recreational decisions: the number of members of a
household also influences various aspects of vacation decisions (Hsieh, O’Leary, Morrison,
& Chang, 1993; Sheldon & Mak, 1987). In addition, different individual time allocations
must coincide when more than one person takes a trip. Hence, we propose the following:
Hypothesis 2: The higher the number of participating household members, the longer
the travel planning time frame for a trip.
Income and travel expenditure
In a study by Abratt and Goodey (1990), the authors suggest that higher income is one of
several factors that can account for a higher level of impulse purchasing. Mogelonsky
(1994) goes further to suggest that impulse buying is reserved for consumers who canafford it. We expect consumers with higher incomes to have fewer constraints on acting on
their opportunities; they could have a more “open” buying list, which allows them to
pursue sudden and unexpected purchasing ideas with less difficulty paying for them. Thus,
they may be able to buy on impulse more frequently than can others. For people with lower
incomes, short-term buying decisions may be more likely to be interrupted by the so-called
“income block”, which may lead to lower buying frequency and expenditures
(Mogelonsky, 1994). Because income is often related to education as well as professional
position (Becker & Tomes, 1986; Waelde, 2000), these characteristics might equally
influence the share of impulse buying.
From these ideas, we form the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 3: The higher the household income, the shorter the travel planning time
frame.
272 C. Laesser and S. Dolnicar
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 8/21
Hypothesis 4: The higher the type of terminal education, the shorter the travel planning
time frame.
Hypothesis 5: The higher the type of professional position, the shorter the travel
planning time frame.
As is found for travel, several studies demonstrate that overall travel expenditure per tripas well as daily travel expenditure is significantly associated with the duration of a trip
(Cannon & Ford, 2002; Fredmann, 2008). There is a logarithmic association between
overall travel expenditure and duration of trip, and an exponential association between
yearly expenditure and duration of trip (Beritelli, Bieger, & Laesser, 2006; Laesser &
Crouch, 2006). However, the literature gives no indication of how travel expenditures are
associated with travel planning, necessitating a deductive approach to this topic.
Hausman (2000) suggests that impulse-type buying is a hedonic need predominantly
motivated by achievement of higher-order motives, which, in turn, leads to different types
of impulse buying behaviour, including non-economic and immediate reasons, such
as fun, fantasy, and social or emotional gratification. Extending the original impulsepurchase concept, the transactional dimension of an impulse purchase should be
considered, as well as the post-acquisition in-use/functional and (often experiential)
dimension. This suggestion is also offered by Bayley and Nancarrow (1998), who provide
evidence for the fact that the post-acquisition and in-use/functional dimensions of any
purchase deflate the “dark side” of potential impulse buying behaviour at the time of
acquisition. Dittmar et al. (1996) report that in developed countries purchase and
consumption of products are increasingly associated with expressing a sense of self-
identity. Shopping and travelling (as surrogates for the purchase of services) have become
major lifestyle activities, which might explain the increase in non-planned or very quickly
planned purchases.
Drawing on Hausman’s (2000) notions, we might conclude that short time frames
regarding travel planning might be associated with higher travel expenditures and higher
shares of income allocation for a given trip – either overall or per diem. Hence, we propose:
Hypothesis 6: The shorter the travel planning time frames, the higher the overall and per
diem travel expenditure.
Hypothesis 7: The shorter the travel planning time frames, the higher the overall and per
diem income allocation for a given trip.
Core leisure pursuit
Consensus exists among scholars that travel motivation is an excellent differentiator and
segmentation criterion in travel behaviour (Bieger & Laesser, 2002b; Cha et al., 1995;
Dolnicar, 2004; Dolnicar & Leisch, 2003; Gitelson & Kerstetter, 1990; Yuan &
McDonald, 1990). From the literature we also know that short-term purchase planning is
associated more with emotion than rationality (Bayley & Nancarrow, 1998; Hausman,
2000). On the basis of that, we propose:
Hypothesis 8: Travel motivations differ in dependence of the length of the travel
planning time frame.
Information sourcing
“Travel business is an information business” (Schertler, 1994, p. 23). Travel products are
mostly intangible personal service products, involving personal interactions between
Anatolia – An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 273
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 9/21
customers and service providers (Lovelock & Wright, 1999; Normann, 1996; Teare, 1992;
Zeithaml, Parasuraman, & Berry, 1990). They are delivered away from home, often in
unknown places, inducing functional, financial, physical, psychological, and social risks
(Dolnicar, 2005, 2007; Lovelock & Wright, 1999; Teare, 1992). In addition, the
consumption and production of tourism products always coincide, creating high personalinvolvement (the uno actu principle; see Bieger, 2006). According to the economics of
information, these characteristics often lead to high personal investments of time, effort,
and financial resources for customer decision-making (Lamberton, 1998; Wohler, 1997;
Schertler, 1994). Traditional perspectives of information search focus on functional needs,
defined as motivated efforts directed at or contributing to a purpose (Vogt & Fesenmaier,
1998). According to this approach, the search for information enables tourists to reduce the
level of uncertainty and enhance the quality of a trip (Fodness & Murray, 1997; Schertler,
1994; Schiffmann, 1972; Teare, 1992). From this, we might conclude that travel most of
the time includes planning and information processing, mostly related to purchase
situations (Assael, 1984).
However, contrasting to this approach is the inclusion of experience in the purchase
deliberation process. Experience, which can be considered as the accumulation and
habitual buyer behaviour, ultimately allows for well-informed purchase behaviour without
time-consuming deliberation (Katona, 1975). Consequently, tourists visiting a place they
are familiar with are unlikely to engage in a great deal of deliberation, instead relying on
their accumulated knowledge (Fodness & Murray, 1999). Therefore, no source of
information, except perhaps the one triggering a purchase, would be important with longer
planning periods (Dowling & Staelin, 1994; Lee & Kacen, 2008).
Thus, we propose:
Hypothesis 9: The shorter the travel planning time frame, the less important are sources
of information for travel planning.
Because internal information, based on previous trips, is another potential source of
information, especially when it comes to quick decisions (Lehto, Kim, & Morrison, 2006),
we also propose the following:
Hypothesis 10: The higher the number of previous trips to a destination, the shorter the
travel planning time frame.
Choice of transportation to and accommodation at the destinationAirlines, hotel chains, and single hotels have become successful price discriminators
(Hunkel, 2001; Jaggi, 2000). Aimed at maximizing their yield per customer transaction
(short term) and customer relation (long term), they set prices according to demand and
willingness to pay (Belobaba & Botimer, 1999; Desiraju & Shugan, 1999). As intended by
the suppliers, customers react to the incentives from this pricing scheme by behaving as
opportunistically as possible, especially when it comes to leisure travel, which can be
planned (Bruhn & Meffert, 2003; Kimes, 1989). Hence, we would expect a certain effect
on the consumer’s behaviour: that they would follow price-driven planning horizons
(Fassler, 2006). From this, we offer the following:
Hypothesis 11: Means of transportation that require advance booking are associated with
longer travel planning time frames compared with means of
transportation that do not need a booking.
274 C. Laesser and S. Dolnicar
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 10/21
Hypothesis 12: Means of accommodation that require advance booking are associated
with longer travel planning time frames compared with means of
accommodation that do not need a booking.
AgeTo complement previous hypotheses regarding the socio-demographic factors in travel
planning, we finalize this section with an age-related hypothesis. The literature suggests
that younger people have more impulsivity compared with older people (e.g. Rawlings,
Boldero, & Wiseman, 1995). Regarding buying behaviour, it is expected that younger
consumers are more likely to experience an urge to buy things spontaneously when exposed
to the relevant objects and to act on the urge, whereas older consumers may demonstrate
better ability to control their buying. Therefore, we present the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 13: The travel planning time frames of young people are shorter than those of
older people.
Methodology
The study was conducted in Switzerland, which represents a prototypical mature travel
market. Swiss travel shoppers are experienced as well as sophisticated (Hopkins, Rodi, &
Vincent, 2002), and their domestic buying environments are highly evolved. For example,
in Switzerland, the net travel propensity is well above 80% (see Bieger & Laesser, 2008).
The share of frequent tourists from this country (68%) is well above the accepted threshold
for a mature market (50%; see also Bieger & Laesser, 2008). Consequently, as in most
mature markets, product utilities are typically driven by price and quality issues as well
as brands. Growth in such markets is only small (D’Souza & Rao, 1995; Ehrenberg,
Barnard, & Scriven, 1997; and regarding Switzerland, Bieger & Laesser, 2008).Our study is based on the analysis of parts of Travel Market Switzerland 2007 , a survey
conducted with the Swiss resident population in 2007. Data collection took place via self-
administrated and structured written diary-like interviews with a representative sample of
households and all their members, surveying all their private trips during 2007 (for the
specifics of the survey, see www.alexandria.unisg.ch/Publikationen/46512).
Survey participants could either complete a self-administrated and structured paper-
and-pencil questionnaire or complete an identical questionnaire online. It was entirely up
to them to decide which means of completion they chose.
The questionnaire included a range of questions (available from the technical report
online). The key measurements for this study are questions about people’s travelmotivations and information search. Regarding travel motivation, items included were
taken from Bieger and Laesser (2002a), Gursoy and Gavcar (2003), Gustafson (2002),
Hirtenlehner, Morth, and Steckenbauer (2002), Jang and Cai (2002), Kiefl (1997),
Kim and Jogaratnam (2002), Kim and Lee (2000), Shoemaker (2000), Sirakaya, Uysal,
and Yoshioka (2003), and Wickens (2002). Regarding information sources, the items were
taken from Bieger and Laesser (2004), Fodness and Murray (1999), Lehto et al. (2006),
Luo, Feng, and Cai (2004), Tideswell and Faulkner (1999), and Pearce and Schott (2005).
A full list of measurements can be found at Bieger and Laesser (2008), to download at
http://www.alexandria.unisg.ch/publications/46512.
Data collection and sampling were administrated by IHA-GfK Switzerland (a leading
market research institute) on behalf of the Institute for Public Services and Tourism (which
provided the survey instrument, methods, and financial sources). For the whole of 2007,
participants completed one questionnaire for each private trip with one or more overnight
Anatolia – An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 275
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 11/21
stays. Repetitive trips (for example, to second homes) were not to be recorded because
they are considered part of test persons’ usual environments. To secure the constant inflow
of responses during the entire duration of the survey, the participants were contacted four
times during the survey period (which lasted all 2007), reminding them to turn in their
completed questionnaires or indicate that they had not travelled within a given quarter.The overall sample recruited for this study consisted of 2712 households. The sample
was recruited in two ways:
. 1187 households were recruited by phone. The contacts were (within quotas of
region, size of household, and type of household) randomly drawn from the national
database “CH-plus Consumer” by AZjDirect AG. This database is representative of
98% of all households in Switzerland.
. 1525 households were recruited from an online panel of 45,000 active members,
representative of the Swiss resident population. Seventy per cent of this panel was
originally recruited via CATI; the other 30% through personal contacts (for
example, from face-to-face interviews), Internet providers, communities, and other.Self-selection and registration through banner ads or similar was explicitly not
possible.
Overall, 1898 households (70% of the overall sample drawn) participated across all four
quarters in the study year (either by completing questionnaires or by indicating that they
had not travelled), and could thus be included in the final sample. The non-weighted sample
thus consisted of 1898 households, including 4387 persons (that is, 2.3 persons per
household, where the mean size of a Swiss household is 2.2), of which a large proportion
undertook an overall 10,903 trips (trip cases). The database is representative of 90% of
Swiss, and approximately 50% of foreign (assimilated) citizens in the German- and French-
speaking areas of Switzerland (the Swiss population in Switzerland is 6 million, while theoverall foreign population in Switzerland is 1.5 million), that is, 6125 million people.
From the information gathered, we derived an understanding of when at least one
element of the travel-related portfolio decision was definitely made, when the first
bookings were made for the trip, and when the test persons departed for the trip.
The latter constitutes a newly created variable, “planning behaviour”, with the
following delimitations and codes: (1) “a decision–booking AND booking–departure
time frame of less than one week” (test group), (0) “all other planning time frames”
(control group). A preliminary descriptive analysis of this variable revealed that 13.5% of
the cases (that is, trips) belonged to Group 1, and 86.5% to Group 0, which means that
13.5% of all trips taken by the Swiss population had a travel planning time frame of lessthan one week.
Analysis
For the analysis, we applied a binary logistic regression of variables denominating our
hypotheses into two groups of planning behaviour: (code: 1) “a decision–booking AND
booking– departure time frame of less than one week” (test group) compared with (code: 0)
“all other travel planning horizons” (control group). The reason for conducting a binary
regression as opposed to an OLS model is constituted in the desire to analyse/compare two
segments (test and control groups) rather than predicting behavioural differences due to
incremental changes in the decision–departure time frame.
The variables (listed according to the order of the hypotheses) regressed against the
above-planning variable included (parentheses indicate scale: duration of trip (metric),
276 C. Laesser and S. Dolnicar
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 12/21
number of participating members from the household, household income (metric) and trip
expenditure per person (overall; per day; absolute and related to income; metric), 25 types
of travel motivations (on a five-point importance scale), 28 types of information sources
(on a five-point importance scale), number of previous trips to destination (metric;
representing a key internal source of information), means of transportation (out of 10categories), age groups (out of nine categories), terminal education (out of 10 categories),
professional position (out of 15 categories).
Because of the exploratory character of our study, and with the aim of finding a
minimal model to explain short-term planning in tourism, we chose a backward stepwise
procedure. This analysis begins with a full or saturated model, and variables are eliminated
from the model in an iterative process. The fit of the model is tested after the elimination
of each variable to ensure that the model still fits the data adequately. When no more
variables can be eliminated from the model, the analysis is complete. Hence, this
procedure allowed us to maximize the number of explanatory variables. Because of the
distribution of the cases, and in order to facilitate the interpretation of the results, we set
the classification cut-off at 0.135. (We reiterate here that the previous descriptive analysis
showed that 13.5% of all trips taken by the Swiss population have travel planning time
frames of less than one week.) To test if our data adequately fitted the model, we
performed the Hosmer and Lemeshow test, which is considered more robust than the
traditional Chi-square test, particularly if continuous covariates are in the model, as are
found in our study (see Menard, 1995).
Propositions were tested based on the resulting model coefficients. If rejected, 1000
cases we randomly selected and performed Chi-square tests on item levels across the
groups of planning behaviour to assess whether potential differences were significant or
merely due to chance variations.
Results
The data fitted the model at an acceptable level, with an R 2 of 0.473 and a Hosmer–
Lemeshow test statistic of 0.36. From the latter we can conclude that we failed to reject the null
hypothesis, according to which there is no difference between observed and model-predicted
values. This implies that the model’s estimates fitted the data at an acceptable level (well-
fitting models show non-significance on the H-L goodness-of-fit test, indicating model
prediction is not significantly different from observed values). The classification table further
revealed that 80% of all cases were correctly classified; regarding group membership (code:
1), short-term planning, 74% of all cases were correctly classified.A large number of model predictors were revealed as significantly different from zero.
For an overview, see Table 1, where (for readability reasons) only significant coefficients
are presented. However, none of the socio-demographic predictors (age, gender, terminal
education, professional position) produced significant coefficients, as were a large
majority of transportation means as well as accommodation.
Regarding our hypothesis, we can draw the following conclusions:
We discuss the results hereafter in more detail, following the original structure of the
hypotheses.
Duration of trip and travel composition
As proposed, both duration of trip and travel composition are significantly associated with
planning behaviour. Doubling of either the duration or the number of travel companions
Anatolia – An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 277
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 13/21
Table 1. Results of the regression analysis.
B SE Wald Df Sig. Exp( B)Change
in odds (%)
Duration of trip 2
0.093 0.008 129.495 1 0.000 0.911 2
8.9Number of members fromhousehold
20.180 0.085 4.488 1 0 .034 0.835 216.5
Income and consumptionHousehold income 0.000 0.000 11.385 1 0.001 1.000 0.0Total travel expenditure per person 20.001 0.000 28.350 1 0.000 0.999 20.1Total travel expenditure per personper day
0.001 0.001 4.830 1 0.028 1.001 0.1
Total travel expenditure per personper day in relation to householdincome
219.537 8 .069 5.862 1 0.015 0.000 2100.0
Importance of travel motivations
Diversion; see and experiencesomething new 0.126 0.046 7.377 1 0.007 1.134 13.4
Liberation from obligations(and relations)
0.134 0.045 8.764 1 0.003 1.143 14.3
Termination/conclusion of phasein one’s life
20.186 0.063 8.650 1 0 .003 0.830 217.0
Rest and relaxation 0.149 0.050 9.002 1 0.003 1.161 16.1Ability to make spontaneousdecisions
0.104 0.045 5.274 1 0.022 1.110 11.0
Enjoy nightlife 20.352 0.062 32.178 1 0.000 0.703 229.7Make contact with new people 20.224 0.056 16.026 1 0.000 0.799 220.1Prestigious character of trip 0.126 0.060 4.442 1 0.035 1.134 13.4Challenge and stimulate oneself 20.179 0.057 9.786 1 0 .002 0.836 216.4
Sports (active) 0.195 0.046 17.991 1 0.000 1.216 21.6Search for self-esteem 0.241 0.056 18.717 1 0.000 1.272 27.2Experience of adventure and evenrisk
0.128 0.052 5.958 1 0.015 1.136 13.6
Time for the family 20.174 0.044 16.054 1 0.000 0.840 216.0Time for oneself 20.141 0.044 10.478 1 0.001 0.868 213.2
Importance of sources of informationBrochures of destination(communal level)
20.125 0.063 3.906 1 0 .048 0.883 211.7
Accommodation guide of chain 0.177 0.088 4.104 1 0.043 1.194 19.4Advice from travel agency/railservice
0.228 0.057 15.973 1 0.000 1.257 25.7
URL from a hotel chain 2
0.140 0.067 4.375 1 0 .036 0.869 2
13.1URL from an airline 20.248 0.092 7.350 1 0 .007 0.780 222.0URL from a tour operator or travelagency
0.277 0.103 7.232 1 0.007 1.319 31.9
Travel guides/books/travelmagazines
0.292 0.054 29.534 1 0.000 1.339 33.9
Fairs and exhibitions 0.166 0.076 4.807 1 0.028 1.181 18.1Advice from friends and relatives 20.150 0.036 17.024 1 0.000 0.860 214.0Number of previous trips todestination
0.019 0.003 48.079 1 0.000 1.019 1.9
Means of transportation(reference ¼ car) 43.512 10 0.000
Train 2
0.329 0.141 5.455 1 0 .020 0.719 2
28.1Scheduled flight 20.900 0.361 6.207 1 0 .013 0.407 259.3Motorbike (or similar) 1.791 0.662 7.320 1 0.007 5.996 499.6
278 C. Laesser and S. Dolnicar
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 14/21
extends the travel planning time frame ceteris paribus by 9% and 17% respectively. This
effect is quite modest when compared to others within the model, but nevertheless
important from an information economics perspective. In larger groups of tourists, a larger
amount of information must be processed, which, in turn, takes more time. This
information processing includes the registration and handling of different needs, as well as
dealing with perceived risks associated with a travel decision.
Income and travel expenditure
The level of income does not have any measurable effect on the travel planning
horizon. The same result is seen for travel expenses. The one exception is that
each doubling the income share allocated per travel day is also associated with a
doubling of the travel planning horizon. This result conflicts with previous research: it
Table 1 – continued
B SE Wald Df Sig. Exp( B)Change
in odds (%)
Bicycle (or similar) 1.528 0.555 7.576 1 0.006 4.611 361.1 Means of accommodation(reference ¼ not determined
54.241 17 0.000
Holiday home of friends andrelatives
1.230 0.594 4.285 1 0.038 3.420 242.1
Camping (tent, trailer, motor home,caravan)
21.828 0.855 4.573 1 0 .032 0.161 283.9
Constant 21.193 0.725 2.706 1 0 .010 0.303 269.68
Note: Positive signs denote a converse relationship with a short-term travel planning time frame (and vice versa).
Hypothesis 1. The longer the departure–return timeframe (trip duration), the longer the travel planningtime frame.
Supported.
Hypothesis 2. The higher the number of participatinghousehold members, the longer the travel planningtime frame for a trip.
Supported.
Hypothesis 3. The higher the household income, theshorter the travel planning time frame.
Not supported.
There is no measurable effect of income on theplanning time frame.
Hypothesis 4. The higher the type of terminaleducation, the shorter the travel planning time frame.
Not supported.
No type of terminal education tested in the modelpredicts the extent of the planning time frame. Thenon-significance of the additional Chi-square testsupports this hypothesis result.
Hypothesis 5. The higher the type of professionalposition, the shorter the travel planning time frame.
Not supported.
No type of professional position tested in the modelpredicts the extent of the planning time frame. Thenon-significance of the additional Chi-square testsupports this hypothesis result.
Hypothesis 6 . The shorter the travel planning time
frames, the higher the overall and per diem travelexpenditure.
Not supported with respect to overall travel
expenditure: the longer the planning timeframe, the smaller the overall travelexpenditure.
Anatolia – An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 279
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 15/21
signifies prudent economic behaviour, where spending higher shares of income is
associated with commensurate longer planning time frames. This result is associated
with the cultural peculiarities of the sample: the Swiss population in general is con-sidered quite conservative when it comes to spending, which, in turn, produces high
saving rates.
Core leisure pursuit
Of the 25 types of motivations tested, several are associated with short travel planning time
frames. These are (in decreasing order of coefficient): search for self-esteem, sports
(active), rest and relaxation, liberation from obligations (and relations), experience of
adventure and even risk , diversion/see and experience something new, prestigious
character of trip, and ability to make spontaneous decisions. In contrast, the following
motivations signify longer planning horizons (in ascending order of coefficient): enjoy
nightlife, make contact with new people, termination/conclusion of phase in one’s life,
challenge and stimulate oneself , time for the family, time for oneself .
Hypothesis (continued).
Supported regarding yearly travel expenditure: botheffects are only minimal.
Hypothesis 7 . The shorter the travel planning time
frames, the higher the overall and per diem incomeallocation for a given trip.
Not supported; actually the shorter the travel
planning time frame the smaller the yearlyincome allocation for a given trip.
Hypothesis 8. Travel motivations differ in depen-dence of the length of the travel planning time frame.
Supported.
Results discussed below. Hypothesis 9. The shorter the travel planning timeframe, the less important are sources of informationfor travel planning.
Not supported.
Some information sources become important withshort-term travel planning time frames. Detailsdiscussed below.
Hypothesis 10. The higher the number of previoustrips to a destination, the shorter the travel planningtime frame.
Supported.
Hypothesis 11. Means of transportation that requireadvance booking are associated with longer travelplanning time frames compared with means of transportation that do not need a booking.
Partially supported (for scheduled flights andtrains).
Hypothesis 12. Means of accommodation thatrequire advance booking are associated with longertravel planning time frames compared with means of accommodation that do not need a booking.
Not supported.
Also, the results do not reveal a clear pattern.However, and as the cross-tab and Chi-square testsreveal, hotels tend to generate long-term planning
time frames; whereas second homes and staying withfriends and relatives tend to be associated to short-term planning.
Hypothesis 13. The travel planning time frames of young people are shorter than those of older people.
Not supported.
There was no measurable effect of age on theplanning time frame. The non-significance of theadditional Chi-square test supports this result.
280 C. Laesser and S. Dolnicar
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 16/21
In line with previous results relating to the size of the travel party, travel motives
linking a tourist to other people are less relevant to impulse travel. Conversely, we might
propose that motivations either associated with short-term/intensive experiences in
general, or representing a need that can be met with highly industrialized products (for
example, rest and relaxation) should lead to short-term decision-making.
Information sourcing
Of the 28 sources of information tested, several are associated with short travel planning
time frames: travel guides/books/magazines, URL from a tour operator or travel agency,
advice from travel agency/rail service, accommodation guide of chain, and fairs and
exhibitions. In addition, a high number of previous trips to a destination also signify a short
travel planning time frame. The following sources of information are associated with
longer planning horizons (in ascending order of coefficient): URL from an airline, advice
from friends and relatives, URL from a hotel chain, and printed brochures of the
destination (communal level).The composition of the above information sources somewhat mirror the short-term
booking behaviour of commercially organized travel and the information need related to
it. A person’s own travel experience may substitute commercial support, explaining why
this internal source is also associated to short travel planning time frames. In contrast, a
person’s own information sourcing (and possibly booking activities) requires more
planning time, explaining why the use of URLs and more static sources of information
(such as friends and relatives) as well as printed brochures can be associated with a more
extensive travel planning time frame. In addition, printed and more generic and static
information can serve as a kind of database, on which to base specific travel needs and
subsequent travel decisions (and similarities exist with the concept of the latent comparedto the activated decision set).
From the above discussion, we can conclude that even very short-term travelling
is associated with a minimum of planning and information sourcing. It has to be
concluded, therefore, that pure impulse purchasing as defined by Stern (1962) does not
occur in tourism because the case of total lack of preplanning of any kind is extremely rare.
Choice of transportation to and accommodation at the destination
As proposed in our hypotheses, the use of means of transport that require bookings is
associated with extended travel planning time frames. This does not only include flights
and trains for international traffic, but also motor homes (see “types of accommodation”).In contrast, means of transportation that do not require reservations, and that normally
would be used in favourable climatic/weather conditions (such as motorbikes and
bicycles), are associated with short travel planning time frames. Interestingly, the latter
two means of transport have the highest model coefficients, which also indicate the
potential overriding effect of weather on travel decisions.
The choice of means of accommodation does not contribute to the explanation of
travel planning time frames.
Age
Results reported in previous studies are not confirmed. This is probably because of the
trade-off between available time and income, which is more crucial for the product
category “travel” than for other product categories.
Anatolia – An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 281
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 17/21
Conclusion and implications
The key question of this study was how impulse purchasing in tourism can be defined, it at
all it exists.
We define impulse purchase in tourism as planned impulse purchasing with a
maximum of one week between the decision (on at least one core travel portfolio element)to take a trip and the departure. Analysis of a data-set representative of the Swiss
population indicates that, in a mature travel market, impulse-type purchasing in tourism
appears to exist, with approximately 14% of trips complying with the above definition.
Such impulse purchases can be characterized as follows: they are typically short trips
to familiar destinations, which are the likely reason that only commercial or internal
sources of information are of importance (and this aligns with the literature). In terms of
the core leisure pursuit, impulse purchases in tourism are associated with rather
individualistic travel motivations. However, contrary to impulse purchasing in retail,
impulse purchasing in tourism does not necessarily lead to non-economic behaviour:
travel expenses (in absolute terms as well as in terms of how much income is allocated fora trip) tend to be quite prudent, and only increase when the planning horizon is expanded
too. Furthermore, and also contrary to our understanding of impulse purchasing in the
retail context, it is not the young, very well educated people in top positions who can
“afford” to engage in impulse purchasing. Rather, it is a person’s degree of freedom to
make autonomous time decisions in the first place, which, in turn, is influenced by the
quantity (time) of compulsory interaction (either professionally or privately) associated
with impulse purchasing in tourism. The need for coordinating time allocation between
members of social groups thus seems to be one of the key factors determining the degree of
impulsiveness of a travel decision. This can also be proposed from the fact that with an
increasing number of participating travel companions, the travel planning time frame alsoincreases. Therefore, future research could focus on the external environment/setting of
travel planning and the social context in which travel decisions are made.
The present study has some major implications for the tourism industry. The character
of some of the impulse trips offers several business opportunities for the travel industry.
These mainly comprise short trips to unfamiliar destinations, which require an effective
and efficient sourcing of information, and often a commercial type of travel planning and
production. However, one has to be aware of the expense prudence of such tourists,
because they are unlikely to be big spenders, although they might be in the position to
“splash out” (considering their age and professional position). Consequently, the travel
industry should provide travel offers that give tourists a short-term first glimpse of either a
destination, a travel type, a set of activities, or combinations hereof. Travel providers
could put up such offers as a series of different weekend promotions for more or less
independent people (such as singles). Thus, they could attract interest in the first place and
meet the increased demand of fragmented holiday bits and pieces.
Three obvious directions for extending this work emerge: (1) extending the scope of
decision-making towards not only looking at pre-departure decisions, but also at decisions
made during the trip; (2) extending the scope of the factors potentially influencing the time
frame of any decision-making before departure or during the trip (including gender effects,
impact of independent singles, and shopping related travel motives); and (3) testing for the
sensitivity of our arbitrary threshold (one week) to test potential impulse behaviour versus
non-impulse behaviour.The study has several limitations. For survey technical reasons, persons in collective
households were not registered. Small children and persons older than 80 were
282 C. Laesser and S. Dolnicar
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 18/21
under-represented. Most foreign citizens in the survey came from countries neighbouring
Switzerland. In addition, trips with a regular and homogeneous repetition rate (for
example, to their own holiday homes) were under-represented. However, because of the
large sample used in this study, those limitations are not serious.
References
Abratt, R., & Goodey, S.D. (1990). Unplanned buying and in-store stimuli in supermarkets. Managerial and Decision Economics, 11(2), 111–121.
Ajzen, I., & Driver, B. (1992). Application of the theory of planned behavior to leisure choice. Journal of Leisure Research, 24(3), 207– 224.
Assael, H. (1984). Consumer behavior and marketing action. Boston, MA: Kent.Barratt, E.S. (1985). Impulsiveness subtraits: Arousal and information processing. In
J.T. Spence & C. Izard (Eds.), Motivation, emotion, and personality (pp. 137– 146).North Holland: Elsevier.
Bayley, G., & Nancarrow, C. (1998). Impulse purchasing: a qualitative exploration of the
Phenomenon. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, Vol. 1(2), 99–114.Beatty, S.E., & Ferrell, M.E. (1998). Impulse buying: Modelling its precursors. Journal of Retailing,
74(2), 169–191.Becker, G., & Tomes, N. (1986). Human capital and the rise and fall of families. Journal of Labor
Economics, 4(1), 1 –39.Becken, S., & Gnoth, J. (2004). Tourist consumption systems among overseas visitors: reporting
on American, German, and Australian visitors to New Zealand, Tourism Management , 25(3),375–385.
Bellenger, D.N., Robertson, D.H., & Hirschman, E.C. (1978). Impulse buying varies by product. Journal of Advertising Research, 18(1), 15–18.
Belobaba, P., & Botimer, P. (1999). Airline pricing and fare product differentiation: A newtheoretical framework. Journal of the Operational Research Society, 59(10), 1085–1097.
Beritelli, P., Bieger, Th., & Laesser, Ch. (2006). Travel expense estimation by hedonic regression –The case of Switzerland. Proceedings of the ANZMAC Australian New Zealand Marketing Academy Conference, December 4–6, Brisbane (Australia).
Bieger, Th. (2006). Tourismuslehre – ein Grundriss (2nd ed.). Bern/Stuttgart/Wien: Haupt UTB.Bieger, Th., & Laesser, Ch. (2002a). Travel segmentation by motivation – The case of Switzerland.
Journal of Travel Research, 41(1), 68–76.Bieger, Th., & Laesser, Ch. (2002b). Reisemarkt Schweiz 2001. St. Gallen: IDT.Bieger, Th., & Laesser, Ch. (2004). Information sources for travel decisions: Toward a source
process model. Journal of Travel Research, 42(4), 357– 371.Bieger, Th., & Laesser, Ch. (2008). Travel market Switzerland 2007: Basic report and database
specification. St. Gallen: IDT, Retrieved from http://www.alexandria.unisg.ch/Publikationen/ 46512/L-en.
Bruhn, M., & Meffert, H. (2003). Dienstleistungsmarketing: Grundlagen – Konzepte – Methoden
(2nd ed.). Wiesbaden: Gabler.Cannon, T., & Ford, J. (2002). Relationship of demographic and trip characteristics to visitor
spending: An analysis of sports travel visitors across time. Tourism Economics, 8(3), 263– 271.Cha, S., McCleary, K.W., & Uysal, M. (1995). Travel motivations of Japanese overseas travelers: A
factor-cluster segmentation approach. Journal of Travel Research, 33(1), 33–39.Cobb, C.J., & Hoyer, W.D. (1986). Planned versus impulse purchase behavior. Journal of Retailing,
62(4), 384–409.Correia, A. (2002). How do tourists choose? Tourism, 50(1), 21–29.Crawford, G., & Melewar, T.C. (2003). The importance of impulse purchasing behavior in the
international airport environment. Journal of Consumer Behavior , 3(1), 85–98.Crompton, J. (1992). Structure of vacation destination choice sets. Annals of Tourism Research,
19(2), 420–434.
Curtin, R.T. (1982). Indicators of consumer behaviour: The University of Michigan surveys of consumers. Public Opinion Quarterly, 46 (3), 340–352.
D’Souza, G., & Rao, R.C. (1995). Can repeating an advertisement more frequently than thecompetition affect brand preference in a mature market? Journal of Marketing, 59(1), 32–42.
Anatolia – An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 283
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 19/21
Desiraju, R., & Shugan, S. (1999). Strategic service planning and yield management. Journal of
Marketing, 63(1), 44–56.Dittmar, H., Beattie, J., & Friese, S. (1996). Objects, decision considerations and self-image in men’s
and women’s impulse purchases. International Journal of Psychonomics, 93(1– 3), 187– 206.Dolnicar, S. (2004). Beyond “commonsense segmentation” – A systematics of segmentation
approaches in tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 42(3), 244–250.Dolnicar, S. (2005). Understanding barriers to leisure travel – Using tourist fears as a marketing
basis. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 11(3), 197–208.Dolnicar, S. (2007). Crises that scare tourists – Investigating tourists’ travel-related concerns. In B.
Prideaux, E. Laws, & K. Chon (Eds.), Managing tourism crises (pp. 89–109). London: CABI.Dolnicar, S., & Leisch, F. (2003). Winter tourist segments in Austria – Identifying stable vacation
styles for target marketing action. Journal of Travel Research, 41(3), 281–292.Dowling, G.R., & Staelin, R. (1994). A model of perceived risk and intended risk-handling activity.
Journal of Consumer Research, 21(2), 119–134.Eymann, A., & Ronning, G. (1997). Microeconometric models of tourists’ destination choice.
Regional Science and Urban Economics, 27 (4), 735– 761.Ehrenberg, A., Barnard, S.C., & Scriven, J.A. (1997). Justifying our advertising budgets. Marketing
and Research Today, 25(1), 38–44.Fassler, D. (2006). Competitive pricing – Where low cost carrier meets network airline (Thesis,University of St. Gallen).
Fodness, D., & Murray, B. (1997). Tourist information search. Annals of Tourism Research, 24(3),503–523.
Fodness, D., & Murray, B. (1999). A model of tourist information search. Journal of Travel
Research, 37 (3), 220–230.Fredmann, P. (2008). Determinants of visitor expenditures in mountain tourism. Tourism
Economics, 14(2), 297–311.Gitelson, R.J., & Kerstetter, D.L. (1990). The relationship between socio-demographic variables,
benefit sought and subsequent vacation behavior: A case study. Journal of Travel Research,28(2), 24–29.
Gursoy, D., & Gavcar, E. (2003). International leisure tourists’ involvement profile. Annals of
Tourism Research, 30(4), 906–926.Gustafson, P. (2002). Tourism and seasonal retirement migration. Annals of Tourism Research,
29(4), 899–918.Hausman, A. (2000). A multi-method investigation of consumer motivations in impulse buying
behavior. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 17 (5), 403–419.Hirtenlehner, H., Morth, I., & Steckenbauer, G.Ch. (2002). Reisemotivmessung. Uberlegungen zu
und Erfahrungen mit der Operationalisierung von Urlaubsmotiven. Tourismus Journal, 6 (1),92–104.
Hoch, S.J., & Loewenstein, G.F. (1991). Time-inconsistent preferences and consumer self-control. Journal of Consumer Research, 17 (4), 492–507.
Hofmann, W., Strack, F., & Deutsch, R. (2008). Free to buy? Explaining self-control and impulse inconsumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 18(1), 22–26.
Hopkins, L., Rodi, N., & Vincent, A. (2002). European consumers as travel retail customers.Proceedings of the TFWA World Exhibition Conference, October 21.
Hsieh, S., & O’Leary, J.T.O. (1993). Communication channels to segment pleasure travellers. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 2(2/3), 57–75.
Hsieh, S., O’Leary, J.T.O., Morrison, A.M., Chang, P., & -H, S. (1993). Modelling the travel modechoice of Australian outbound travellers. Journal of Tourism Studies, 4(1), 51–61.
Hunkel, M. (2001). Segmentorientierte Preisdifferenzierung fu r Verkehrsdienstleistungen. Ansa tze
fu r ein optimales Fencing. Wiesbaden: Gabler.Hyde, K., & Laesser, Ch. (2009). A structural theory of the vacation. Tourism Management , 30(2),
240–248.Jang, S., & Cai, L.A. (2002). Travel motivations and destination choice: A study of British outbound
market. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 13(3), 111– 133.
Jones, M.A., Reynolds, K.E., Weun, S., & Beatty, S.E. (2003). The product-specific nature of impulse buying tendency. Journal of Business Research, 56 (5), 501–511.Jaggi, F. (2000). Gestaltungsempfehlung fu r Hub-and Spoke-Netzwerke im Europa ischen
Luftverkehr – Ein ressourcenbasierter Ansatz (Dissertation no. 2413, University of St. Gallen).
284 C. Laesser and S. Dolnicar
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 20/21
Kacen, J.J., & Lee, J.A. (2002). The influence of culture on consumer impulsive buying behavior.
Journal of Consumer Psychology, 12(2), 163– 176.
Katona, G. (1975). Psychological economics. New York: Elsevier.
Kiefl, W. (1997). Wo du nicht bist, dort ist das Gluck: Uberlegungen zur Vielschichtigkeit
touristischer Motive. Tourismus Journal, 1(2), 207–224.
Kim, K.-Y., & Jogaratnam, G. (2002). Travel motivations: A comparative study of Asianinternational and domestic American college students. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing,
13(4), 61–82.
Kim, Ch., & Lee, S. (2000). Understanding the cultural differences in tourist motivation between
Anglo-American and Japanese tourists. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 9(1/2),
153–170.
Kimes, S. (1989). The basics of yield management. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration
Quarterly, 30(3), 14–20.
Kollat, D.T., & Willett, R.P. (1967). Customer impulse purchasing behavior. Journal of Marketing
Research, 4(1), 21–31.
Kuss, A., & Tomczak, T. (2007). Ka uferverhalten – Eine marketingorientierte Einfu hrung (4th ed.).
Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius.
Laesser, Ch. (2003). Die Ausgaben fur Reisen – das Fallbeispiel Schweiz – Eine Analyse auf Basisdes hedonischen Ansatzes. Tourismus Journal, 7 (3), 307–328.
Laesser, Ch., & Crouch, G.I. (2006). Segmenting markets by travel expenditure patterns: The case of
international visitors to Australia. Journal of Travel Research, 44(4), 397–406.
Lamberton, D.M. (1998). Information economics research: Points of departure. Information
Economics and Policy, 10(3), 325–330.
Lee, J.A., & Kacen, J.J. (1999). The relationship between independent and interdependent self-
concepts and reasons for purchase. Journal of Euromarketing, 8(1/2), 83–99.
Lee, J.A., & Kacen, J.J. (2008). Cultural influences on consumer satisfaction with impulse and
planned purchase decisions. Journal of Business Research, 61(3), 265–272.
Lehto, X.Y., Kim, D.-Y.A., & Morrison, M. (2006). The effect of prior destination experience on
online information search behavior. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 6 (2), 160–178.
Lovelock, Ch.H., & Wright, C. (1999). Principles of service marketing and management .
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Luo, X. (2005). How does shopping with others influence impulse purchasing? Journal of Consumer
Psychology, 15(4), 88–94.
Luo, M., Feng, R., & Cai, L.A. (2004). Information search behavior and tourist characteristics:
The internet vis-a-vis other information sources. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 17 (2),
15–25.
March, R., & Woodside, A. (2005). Testing theory of planned versus realized tourism behavior.
Annals of Tourism Research, 32(4), 905– 924.
Menard, S. (1995). Applied logistic regression analysis (Quantitative Applications in the Social
Sciences, No. 106). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mogelonsky, M. (1994). Poor and unschooled, but a smart shopper. Journal of American
Demographics, 16 (7), 14–15.
Mogelonsky, M. (1998). Keep candy in the aisles. American Demographics, 20(1), p. 32.
Normann, R. (1996). Service management: Strategy and leadership in service business (2nd ed.).
New York: Wiley.
Pearce, D.G., & Schott, Ch. (2005). Tourism distribution channels: The visitors’ perspective.
Journal of Travel Research, 44(1), 50–63.
Peck, J., Childers, T.L., & If, I. (2006). touch it I have to have it: Individual and environmental
influences on impulse purchasing. Journal of Business Research, 59(6), 765–769.
Prasad, V.K. (1975). Unplanned buying in two retail settings. Journal of Retailing, 5(1), 3 –12.
Rawlings, D., Boldero, J., & Wiseman, F. (1995). The interaction of age with impulsiveness and
venturesomeness in the prediction of adolescent sexual behaviour. Personality and Individual
Differences, 19(1), 117–120.Rook, D.W. (1987). The buying impulse. Journal of Consumer Research, 14(2), 189–199.
Rook, D.W., & Fisher, R.J. (1995). Normative influences on impulsive buying behavior. Journal of
Consumer Research, 22(2), 305–313.
Anatolia – An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 285
y
7/18/2019 Impulse purchasing in tourism.pdf
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/impulse-purchasing-in-tourismpdf 21/21
Rook, D.W., & Gardner, M.P. (1993). In the mood: Impulse buyings’ affective antecedents. In A.-C.Janeen & W.B. Russell (Eds.), Research in consumer behavior , (Vol. 6 ), (pp. 1–28). Greenwich,CT: JAI Press.
Schertler, W. (1994). Tourismus als Informationgescha ft: Strategische Bedeutung neuer Information – und Kommunikationstechnologien im Tourismus. Frankfurt: Ueberreuter Verlag.
Schiffmann, L.G. (1972). Perceived risk in new product trial by elderly consumers. Journal of Marketing Research, 9(1), 106–108.
Sheldon, P.J., & Mak, J. (1987). The demand for package tours: A mode choice model. Journal of Travel Research, 25(3), 13–17.
Shoemaker, S. (2000). Segmenting the mature market: 10 years later. Journal of Travel Research,39(1), 11–26.
Sirakaya, E., Uysal, M., & Yoshioka, C.F. (2003). Segmenting the Japanese tour market to Turkey. Journal of Travel Research, 41(3), 293–304.
Stern, H., (1962). The significance of impulse buying today. The Journal of Marketing, 26 (2), 59– 62.Tay, R., McCarthy, P.S., & Fletcher, J.J. (1996). A portfolio choice model of the demand for
recreational trips. Transportation Research Part B: Methodological, 30(5), 325–337.Teare, R. (1992). An exploration of the consumer decision process for hospitality services. In R.
Teare, L. Moutinho, & N. Morgan (Eds.), Managing and marketing services in the 1990s(pp. 233–248). London: Cassell Educational.
Thrane, C. (2012). Analyzing tourists’ length of stay at destinations with survival models:A constructive critique based on a case study. Tourism Management , 33(1), 126–132.
Tideswell, C., & Faulkner, B. (1999). Multi destination travel patterns of international visitors toQueensland. Journal of Travel Research, 37 (4), 364–374.
Um, S., & Crompton, J.L. (1990). Attitude determinants in tourism destination choice. Annals of Tourism Research, 17 (3), 432–448.
Vogt, Ch.A., & Fesenmaier, D.R. (1998). Expanding the functional information search model. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(3), 551– 578.
Waelde, K. (2000). Egalitarian and elitist education systems as the basis for international differencesin wage inequality. European Journal of Political Economy, 16 (4), 445–468.
Walsh, R., John, G., McKean, J.R., & Hof, J.G. (1992). Effect of price on forecasts of participation in
fish and wildlife recreation: An aggregate demand model. Journal of Leisure Research, 24(2),140–156.
Weun, S., Jones, M.A., & Beatty, S.E. (1998). The development and validation of the impulse buyingtendency scale. Psychological Reports, 82(12), 1123–1133.
Wickens, E. (2002). The sacred and the profane: A tourist typology. Annals of Tourism Research,29(3), 834–851.
Wohler, K. (1992). Marktorientiertes tourismusmanagement . Berlin: Springer.Wood, M. (2005). Discretionary unplanned buying in consumer society. Journal of Consumer
Behavior , 4, 268–281.Woodside, A.G., & Lysonski, S. (1989). A general model of traveler destination choice. Journal of
Travel Research, 27 (2), 8 –14.Yuan, S., & McDonald, C. (1990). Motivational determinants of international pleasure time. Journal
of Travel Research, 28(2), 7 –13.Zeithaml, V.A., Parasuraman, A., & Berry, L.L. (1990). Delivering quality service. New York:
Free Press.
286 C. Laesser and S. Dolnicar
y