Improvement of the Bread Making Quality of Rice Flour

Food Research International 37 (2004) 75–81

www.elsevier.com/locate/foodres

Improvement of the breadmaking quality of rice flourby glucose oxidase

Hardeep Singh Gujral a, Cristina M. Rosell b,*

a Department of Food Science and Technology. Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, 143005, Indiab Food Science Department, Instituto de Agroqu�ıımica y Tecnolog�ııa de Alimentos (IATA-CSIC),

PO Box 73, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain

Received 8 August 2003; accepted 11 August 2003

Abstract

Bread from rice flour is very difficult to bake as it lacks gluten like proteins but modification of the rice flour proteins with

enzymes like glucose oxidase (GO) to improve its breadmaking properties is an interesting option. In this study the effect of GO on

rice flour dough rheology, protein modification and bread quality has been reported. GO modified the rice flour proteins by lowering

the thiol and amino group concentration. Protein modification was also confirmed by the changes observed in the free zone capillary

electrophoregrams of the rice glutelins. The addition of GO promoted an increase in the elastic and viscous modulus. Rice bread

with better specific volume and texture was obtained with GO addition allowing the decrease of the hydroxypropylmethylcellulose

(HPMC) levels in the rice bread recipe.

� 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Rice proteins; Glucose oxidase; Protein crosslinking; FZCE; Dynamic rheology; Bread

1. Introduction

Rice flour has been found to be one of the most

suitable cereal grain flours for preparing foods for celiac

patients. The suitability of rice flour is attributed to its

low levels of prolamins, since the peptides released from

the breakdown of the prolamins act as toxins for indi-

viduals suffering from celiac disease. As a result cereals

containing prolamins (wheat, rye, barley and oats)cannot be consumed and the only preventive measure is

to keep the diet of the celiac patient as gluten free as

possible. Since rice possesses unique nutritional, hypo-

allergenic, colourless and bland taste properties, its use

in baby foods, puddings and especially in development

of foods for gluten intolerant patients has been in-

creasing. However, the use of rice flour in breadmaking

is still limited because rice proteins are unable to retainthe gas produced during the fermentation process.

The storage proteins of wheat are unique because they

are also the functional proteins. The wheat prolamins

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34-96-390-0022; fax: 34-96-363-

6301.

E-mail address: [email protected] (C.M. Rosell).

0963-9969/$ - see front matter � 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2003.08.001

(prolamins 40–50%) are extremely sticky and responsiblefor the viscosity and extensibility in a dough system

whereas the glutelins provide elasticity. The prolamins

and glutelins combine through covalent and non covalent

bonds to form the gluten complex resulting in viscoelastic

dough that has the ability to retain gas and produce a light

baked product (Lindsay & Skerritt, 1999). Rice on the

other hand has very little prolamins (2.5–3.5%), as a result

a viscoelastic dough is not formed when rice flour iskneaded with water. Therefore the gases produced during

proofing and baking cannot be retained and the resulting

product has a low specific volume, which does not re-

semble wheat bread. The incorporation of hydroxypro-

pylmethylcellulose (HPMC) in rice flour has made it

possible to produce bread from rice flour (Gujral,

Guardiola, Carbonell, & Rosell, 2003; Gujral, Haros, &

Rosell, in press; Haque &Morris, 1994; Nishita, Roberts,&Bean, 1976)witha specific volumecomparable to thatof

wheat bread. The HPMC is able to provide the rice flour

dough with the film forming and CO2 entrapping prop-

erties resulting in a product with a high specific volume.

Other hydrocolloids like CMC and xanthan gum

have also been tried (Kang, Choi, & Choi, 1997; Kulp,

mail to: [email protected]

76 H.S. Gujral, C.M. Rosell / Food Research International 37 (2004) 75–81

Hepburn, & Lehmann, 1974), although they were not

able to replace HPMC by providing similar gas retaining

and film forming properties. HPMC has been used at

levels of 3.5–5.3% fb (Gujral et al., 2003; Ylimaki,

Hawrysh, Hardin, & Thomson, 1988) in rice breadformulas; therefore any reduction in its use could sig-

nificantly affect the economics of rice bread production.

Protein crosslinking or the formation of covalent

bonds between polypeptide chains is a means of modi-

fying the protein functionality and simultaneously

broadening its applications in different processes

(Gerrard, 2002). A type of covalent crosslink commonly

formed during mixing of wheat flour and water are thedisulfide bonds formed by oxidative coupling of two

cysteine residues (Lindsay et al., 1999). The contribution

of dityrosine crosslinks to the protein network in gluten

has been reported (Tilley, Benjamin, Bagorogoza, Mo-

ses, Prakash, & Kwen, 2001). Chemical oxidants are

frequently added to flour to improve bread-making

performance, although lately their relationship with

cancer disease incidence is decreasing their use. Cur-rently, the enzymes are replacing the chemical oxidants

in numerous food applications.

Glucose oxidase (GO) catalyses the oxidation of

glucose to gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide, which

in wheat flour either, causes the formation of disulphide

bonds between proteins (Haaralsita & Pullinen, 1992) or

the tyrosine crosslinks. The use of GO in combination

with other enzymes and surfactants for the productionof wheat bread has been reported (Haarasilta, Pullinen,

Vaeisaenen, & Tammersalo, 1989; Haarassilta & Vaei-

saenen, 1989; Nakai, Takami, Tanaka, & Takasaki,

1995). Oxidative enzymes like GO, peroxidase and lac-

case are presently being used in breadmaking (Hilhorst,

Dunnewind, Orsel, Stegeman, van Vliet, Gruppen, &

Schols, 1999; Minussi, Pastore, & Duran, 2002; van

Oort, van Straaten, & Laane, 1995; van Oort, 1996).Improvements in the wheat bread loaf volume and

crumb grain has been obtained by adding glucose oxi-

dase (Vemulapalli, Miller, & Hoseney, 1998). Despite

GO modified wheat flour proteins (Aja, Wang, & Rosell,

2003; Rosell, Wang, Aja, Bean, & Lookhart, 2003), the

mechanism by which GO improves bread quality is still

not completely understood. The objectives of the present

investigation were to determine the extent of modifica-tion produced by GO on rice flour proteins. There may

be a possibility of crosslinking the proteins and this

could improve the functionality of rice proteins and in

consequence the volume and crumb texture of bread

made from rice flour.

2. Materials and methods

Commercial rice flour obtained from Huici Leidan

S.A (Navarra, Spain) was used in this study. Rice flour

with 12.8% moisture content, 0.57% ash, and 8.83%

protein content was used. HPMC (Methocel K4M) was

obtained from Dow Chemical Company (Michigan,

USA). Vegetable seed oil, compressed yeast (Lessafre,

Spain), commercial sugar and salt were obtained fromthe local market. The glucose oxidase (10000 BG) was

generously gifted from Novo Nordisk (Madrid, Spain).

All reagents were of analytical grade.

2.1. Quantification of thiol groups

Changes in the thiol (SH) groups were determined as

describe by Prasada Rao, Vatlasa, and Haridas Rao(2002). Tris–glycine (Tris–Gly) buffer was prepared by

dissolving 10.4g Tris, 6.9 g glycine and 1.2g ethylene

diamine tetraacetic (EDTA) in 1.0 litre of water and pH

was adjusted to 8.0. GuHCl/Tris–Gly solution contained

5 M guanidine hydrochloride. Ellman’s reagent con-

tained 4 mg of 5,50 dithiobis-2-nitrobenzoic acid in

1.0 ml Tris–Gly buffer pH 8.0 and was freshly prepared

each day.Rice flour dough (200 mg) in the presence and

absence of GO (control) was suspended in 1.0 ml of

GuHCl/Tris-Gly solution, vortexed for 10 min and

centrifuged at 16,000· g for 5 min. The clear superna-

tant (100 ll) was added to 150 ll of GuHCl/Tris-Gly

solution and 50 ll of Ellman’s reagent and absorbance

read at 412 nm. Results were calculated against cysteine

standard curve. Values obtained were the means of fourreplicates.

2.2. Quantification of amino groups

Changes in free amino groups were determined by

spectrophotometric assay using the o-phthaldiadehyde

(OPA) method reported by Nielsen, Petersen, and

Dambmann (2001). OPA (40 mg) previously dissolvedin 1.0 ml of ethanol. Di-Na-tetraborate decahydrate

(1.905 g, TB) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (50 mg, SDS)

were dissolved in 40 ml of distilled water. For the OPA

reagent preparation the two solutions were mixed to-

gether and volume made up to 50 ml with distilled wa-

ter. This OPA reagent was stored in a dark bottle at 4 �C.One part of 2-mercapto-ethanol (ME) (5%) was mixed

with 21.27 parts of the OPA reagent just before thequantification. All reagents were AR grade and were

purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (USA).

Rice flour dough, obtained by mixing 100 mg rice

flour with 90 ll of distilled water, was suspended in 1.0

ml KCl solution (0.1 M and pH 1.0), vortexed (10 min)

and centrifuged at 16,000· g for 5 min. Then 50 ll ofthe clear supernatant were added to 250 ll of OPA

reagent containing ME and the absorbance read at 340nm in a microplate reader. The results were calculated

against a serine standard curve. When GO effect was

studied the enzyme (0.01, 0.02 and 0.03%, flour basis)

Table 1

Consistency of rice flour treated with different concentration of GO in

the absence and presence of HPMC

HPMC

(% fb)aGO concentration

(% fb)aFarinograph consistency

(BU)b

0 0 70

0.01 80

0.02 80

0.03 95

2 0 220

0.01 160

0.02 155

0.03 150

4 0 330

a fb: flour basis.b BU: Brabender units.

H.S. Gujral, C.M. Rosell / Food Research International 37 (2004) 75–81 77

was added to the rice flour. Four replicates were made

for each determination.

2.3. Free zone capillary electrophoresis analysis of rice

glutelins

Glutelins were extracted from control and treated

(0.01, 0.02 and 0.03% GO, flour basis) rice flour dough

(200 mg). The albumins, globulins and prolamins were

removed as reported earlier (Bean, Bietz, & Lookhart,

1998; Rosell et al., 2003). The precipitate was extracted

for 30 min with 600 ll of dithiothreitol (DTT) propanol

solution (65 mMDTT in 50%, v/v, 1-propanol) and thencentrifuged at 16,000· g for 5 min. The supernatant

containing the glutelins were analysed by free zone

capillary electrophoresis (FZCE) in a Beckham MDQ

instrument (Beckham, Fullerton, CA). Uncoated fused

silica capillaries (Composite Metal Services Ltd.,

Worcester, UK) of 50 lm i.d.·27 cm (20 cm LD) were

used for all separations. FZCE conditions were 50 mM

iminodiacetic acid (IDA) containing 26 mM laurylsulfobetaine (SB 3–12), 20% (v/v) acetonitrile and 0.05%

(w/v) hydroxypropylmethylcellulose at 45 �C and 30 kV,

the optimum separation conditions described by Bean

and Lookhart (2000).

2.4. Determination of rice dough rheology

Dynamic rheological measurements were performedon a controlled stress rheometer (Rheostress 1, Thermo

Haake, Germany). The rice dough was prepared by

mixing rice flour (50 g) along with the enzyme (when

added) and 45 ml water in the farinograph (Brabender,

Germany). The mixing was carried out for 15 min after

addition of water. The rice dough was placed between

parallel plates (60 mm diameter) and the gap was ad-

justed to 1 mm. Vaseline oil was used to coat the outeredges to prevent drying of sample. The dough was al-

lowed to rest for 5 min so that residual stresses could

relax. A frequency sweep from 0.01 to 10 Hz was per-

formed at a constant stress of 2 Pa at 30 �C (Gujral et al.,

2003). Preliminary trials indicated that the stress in this

range was not injurious to the dough structure. The

dough structure was evaluated by comparing log log

plots of G0 and G00 with frequency.

2.5. Breadmaking and bread characteristics

Rice flour (500 g), HPMC (2%, flour basis, when

added), sugar (7.5%, flour basis), salt (2%, flour basis),

yeast (3%, flour basis) and 450 ml water were blended in

the bowl of the Hobart mixer (N50, Hobart, Canada).

Oil (6%, flour basis) was then added and mixed with allthe ingredients. GO when added was incorporated at

levels of 0.01, 0.02 and 0.03% (flour weight basis) to the

flour before the mixing. A portion of dough (100 g) was

placed in the 50 g bowl of the farinograph (Brabender,

Germany) to determine dough consistency. Then,

dough pieces of 100 g were put in well-greased pans

(measuring 70 · 40 mm), proofed for 60 min at 30 �Cand 80% RH and then baked at 175 �C for 40 min.Bread was removed from the pans and cooled at room

temperature.

Bread quality evaluation was carried out by deter-

mining weight, volume (rapeseed displacement), specific

volume and crumb hardness. Crumb hardness was

measured in a Texture Analyzer TA-XT2i (Stable Micro

Systems, Surrey, UK) after 24 h of baking. A bread slice

of 20 mm thickness was compressed to 50% of itsoriginal height at a crosshead speed of 1 mm/s with a

cylindrical stainless steel probe having a diameter of

25 mm. The peak force of compression was reported

as hardness.

2.6. Statistical analysis

Multiple sample comparison was statistically analy-sed with the Statgraphics Plus 5.0. Fishers least signifi-

cant differences (LSD) test was used to describe means

at the 5% significance level.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Rice dough consistency and dynamic rheology

Rice dough consistency was determined in the pres-

ence and absence of HPMC and adding different levels

of glucose oxidase, in order to assess the extent to

which the protein crosslinks could replace the use of the

hydrocolloid. In Table 1 it can be observed that the

dough consistency decreased with lowering HPMC

concentration. The HPMC has the ability to bind largequantities of water and thus increase the resistance

during mixing. Reduction in HPMC levels resulted in a


dough, which offered less resistance to mixing and thus

lower consistency.

The addition of GO in absence of HPMC produced a

progressive increase in dough consistency with the en-

zyme concentration. However, in the presence of 2% ofHPMC the dough consistency decreased with increasing

level of GO. The drop in dough consistency was most

significant when 0.01% of GO was incorporated along

with 2% HPMC. GO up to a certain level increases the

viscosity of water soluble fraction extracted from wheat

dough but further addition of GO caused a significant

drop in relative viscosity (Vemulapalli & Hoseney,

1998). Painter and Neukom (1968) reported that excessof oxidant results in either no gel formation or a gel that

forms and quickly dissolves. Excessive H2O2 generated

by GO may have decreased the viscosity of the water

soluble fraction. The mechanism by which this occurs is

not clearly understood. In the absence of HPMC the

increasing levels of GO brought about a slight increase

in the dough consistency. HPMC might be part of the

water soluble fraction being affected in some way bythe GO. The H2O2 generated by GO in the presence of

the native peroxidase in the rice flour (Navasero, Baun,

& Juliano, 1975) may have been responsible for the in-

crease in the viscosity.

The dynamic rheological studies of the rice flour

dough showed that the elastic modulus (G0) was higherthan the viscous modulus (G00), which suggests a solid

elastic like behavior of the rice flour dough. Both moduliwere frequency dependent and augmented with in-

creasing frequency and that effect being more pro-

nounced at higher frequencies. Both the viscous and

elastic moduli increased with increasing levels of GO

indicating that more force was needed to deform doughs

containing glucose oxidase (Fig. 1). The changes in the

dough rheology may be attributed to the ability of hy-

drogen peroxide to bring about the gelation of watersoluble pentosans in the rice flour as has been suggested

in wheat flour dough (Crowe & Rasper, 1988; Hoseney

& Faubion, 1981). An increase in the elastic and viscous

moduli of wheat flour dough was observed with the

Fig. 1. Effect of GO on the elastic and viscous modulus of rice flour

dough. Numbers are referred to the enzyme concentration used in the

treatment (%, w/w, flour basis).

addition of glucose oxidase (Dunnewind, van Vliet, &

Orsel, 2002; Vemulapalli et al., 1998). Appreciable

amounts of pentosans are present in milled rice flour

(Mod, Conkerton, Ory, & Normand, 1978; Shibuya &

Iwasaki, 1978). Gel formation limits water mobility andgives drier dough and changes dough rheology.

3.2. Protein modification of rice flour with glucose oxidase

The free zone capillary electrophoresis (FZCE) of the

rice flour proteins also revealed that the rice proteins

were being modified. Glutelins are the predominant

proteins in rice and the electrophoregrams (Fig. 2) re-vealed that the height and area under the peaks de-

creased with increasing GO concentration, indicating

that the interactions among the proteins might result in

higher polymers with reduced solubility, in consequence

the amount of glutelins extracted would decrease as was

confirmed by the FZCE electophoregrams. Rosell et al.

(2003) reported the modification of wheat storage pro-

teins (glutelins and prolamins) with GO. The levels ofprolamins in rice are too low and therefore the electro-

phoregrams obtained were not good enough to be

studied. The rice glutelins appear to be a good substrate

for the glucose oxidase.

In order to confirm the interaction between groups

due to the glucose oxidase activity, the free amino and

thiol groups were measured (Fig. 3). The thiol group

concentration showed a decrease with increasing levelof addition of GO to the rice flour dough. The thiol

group concentration decreased by almost 41.3% when

GO was added at 0.01% level. Addition at higher levels

of 0.02 and 0.03% further lowered the thiol group

concentration however the decrease was not significant.

The thiol content of the SDS soluble protein fraction

was reported to decrease by the addition of GO to wheat

flour dough (Vemulapalli et al., 1998). They reported

Fig. 2. Effect of different concentrations of glucose oxidase on the

FZCE of rice glutelins. Numbers are referred to the enzyme concen-

tration used in the treatment (%, w/w, flour basis). Separations were in

an uncoated capillary 50 lm · 27 cm long (20 cm LD) at 45 �C and

30kV. Samples were pressure injected at 1.5 psi for 4 s.

Fig. 3. Changes in free amino (d) and thiol (n) groups of rice proteins

treated with different GO concentrations. Error bars indicate the

standard deviation of four replicates.

ig. 4. Effect of glucose oxidase on the specific volume of rice bread

ade with two different levels of HPMC. Error bars indicate the

tandard deviation of four replicates.


that the thiol content of the water soluble fraction ex-

tracted from the wheat flour decreased gradually butsignificantly with increasing levels of GO. This enzyme

causes the oxidation of the free sulfhydryl units from

gluten protein giving disulfide linkages, in consequence

stronger dough is obtained with greater resistance to

mechanical shock, better oven spring and larger loaf

volume. H2O2 produced by GO is involved in the ox-

idation of the SH groups with the SH content showing

a decrease in the presence of the enzyme (Vemulapalliet al., 1998). Pentosans are able to absorb high

amounts of water through interchain associations in-

volving oxidative coupling and chain entanglements.

The decrease in SH groups could also be attributed to

its reaction with the activated double bond of the fe-

rulic acid and thus resulting in a linkage between ara-

binoxylans and adjacent protein molecules (Hoseney &

Faubion, 1981). Proteins also participate in the gelationsince the gel formation contains about 25% protein

(Neukom & Markwalder, 1978).

The amino group concentration showed a progressive

decrease by the addition of GO (Fig. 3). The reduction

might be attributed to the formation of tyrosine cross

links due to the increased proximity of the amino acids

as a result of the disulfide links promoted by the GO. A

13.2% decrease in the amino group concentration wasbrought about by the addition of GO at 0.01% level

whereas the incorporation of higher enzyme levels fur-

ther lowered the amino group concentration though not

significantly.

3.3. Bread quality

Acceptable bread can be obtained from rice flour byincorporating HPMC at levels of 4% (Gujral et al.,

2003; Gujral et al., in press). The HPMC can effectively

retain the CO2 produced during the fermentation and is

able to provide the structure so as to result in a light

baked product. In the presence of 4% HPMC it was

possible to obtain bread loaves with 2.5 cm3/g specific

volume. Lowering the HPMC levels in the rice bread

recipe lead to deterioration of the rice bread specific

volume, the decrease being 26.0 and 41.6% whenHPMC was lowered from 4 to 2 and 0% respectively

(Fig. 4). The addition of GO improved the specific

volume of the bread, obtaining increasing specific vol-

ume by raising the enzyme concentration. However the

specific volume reached at the highest enzyme concen-

tration tested was around 2.0 cm3/g, which is lower that

the one obtained with 4% of HPMC. In the presence of

2% HPMC and 0.01% GO the bread specific volumewas higher than that of bread made with only 4%

HPMC. At higher levels of addition (0.02 and 0.03%)

the GO lead to a non significant increase in the bread

specific volume. The decrease in specific volume at 2%

HPMC and increasing GO concentration correlated

with the decrease in farinograph dough consistency.

The rheological and protein modification produced in

the rice flour dough by the addition of GO lead to animprovement in the bread specific volume. It has been

reported that the addition of GO to wheat flour re-

sulted in higher volume and improved crumb grain

characteristics (Vemulapalli et al., 1998). The protein

crosslinks promoted by GO, evident from the changes

in the thiol and amino group concentration and chan-

ged rice glutelin electrophoregrams, increase elastic and

viscous modulus of the dough and likely constitute anartificial network of proteins similar to the gluten

formed by wheat proteins.

Regarding rice bread crumb in the absence of HPMC,

the firmness was lowered with increase in the GO con-

centration (Fig. 5). This correlated with the increase in

specific volume obtained in the presence of increasing

GO concentrations. However, a further improvement in

the crumb firmness was obtained when 0.01% GO was

F

m

s

Fig. 5. Bread crumb hardness of rice bread added with different con-

centrations of glucose oxidase and two levels of HPMC. Error bars

indicate the standard deviation of four replicates.


incorporated to the bread containing 2% HPMC, the

crumb firmness lead to a 60.4% decrease, indicating that

the improvement in the specific volume lowered the

crumb firmness. The addition of higher amounts of GO

yielded softer crumbs.

It can be concluded that glucose oxidase an oxidizingenzyme can be incorporated into the rice bread formula

to improve bread quality. The GO brings about the

crosslinking of rice protein, and in consequence, modi-

fication of the elastic and viscous behavior of the rice

dough. In the presence of GO the levels of HPMC re-

quired to produce acceptable rice bread can be lowered,

economizing the process.

Acknowledgements

This work was financially supported by Comisi�oonInterministerial de Ciencia y Tecnolog�ııa Project

(MCYT, AGL2002-04093-C03-02) and Consejo Supe-

rior de Investigaciones Cient�ııficas (CSIC), Spain. H.S.

Gujral would also like to thank Ministerio de Edu-caci�oon, Cultura y Deporte (Spain) for his grant.

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