IMPROVED INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICESIMPROVED INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES

Modular InstructionModular Instruction Modules as instructional materials responds well the Modules as instructional materials responds well the

principles of individual differences, allowing each student to principles of individual differences, allowing each student to proceed at his/her own pace.proceed at his/her own pace.

While modules have been widely used as a desirable While modules have been widely used as a desirable pedagogical practice, its actual utilization in classroom pedagogical practice, its actual utilization in classroom instruction leaves much to be desired.instruction leaves much to be desired.

Dr. Torralba as reiterated by Acero, et. al (2000) adopted two Dr. Torralba as reiterated by Acero, et. al (2000) adopted two definitions of modules, the first given by Darrel Murray and the definitions of modules, the first given by Darrel Murray and the second by the workshop on Educational Technology second by the workshop on Educational Technology sponsored by DECS-UNESCO.sponsored by DECS-UNESCO.

First Definition: A module is a self-contained and independent First Definition: A module is a self-contained and independent unit of instruction with a primary focus on a few well-defined unit of instruction with a primary focus on a few well-defined objectives. The substance of a module consists of materials objectives. The substance of a module consists of materials and instructions needed to accomplish these objectives.” and instructions needed to accomplish these objectives.”

Second DefinitionSecond Definition: A module is a set of : A module is a set of learning opportunities systematically organized learning opportunities systematically organized around a well defined topic which contains the around a well defined topic which contains the elements of instruction- specific objectives, elements of instruction- specific objectives, teaching-learning activities, and evaluation using teaching-learning activities, and evaluation using criterion-referenced measure. Good in 1973 criterion-referenced measure. Good in 1973 described it as a teaching process using a set of described it as a teaching process using a set of modules suited to each student who is given a modules suited to each student who is given a chance to advance at his/her own rate, chance to advance at his/her own rate, bypassing unnecessary instruction and bypassing unnecessary instruction and satisfying his/her particular needs and learn in a satisfying his/her particular needs and learn in a considerably shorter time.considerably shorter time.

Components of a ModuleComponents of a Module

1.1. Title.Title. It should be brief, comprehensive and It should be brief, comprehensive and interesting.interesting.

2.2. Target PopulationTarget Population. This specifies the level . This specifies the level and the kind of students to which the module is and the kind of students to which the module is directed.directed.

3.3. Overview:Overview: A bird’s eye view of the topic to be A bird’s eye view of the topic to be covered by the module. This is needed to covered by the module. This is needed to prepare the mental set-up and to motivate the prepare the mental set-up and to motivate the students.students.

4.4. Objectives:Objectives: These would guide the students These would guide the students what exactly are expected of them in going what exactly are expected of them in going through the modules in terms of learning through the modules in terms of learning objectives.objectives.

5. 5. Instructions to the learnersInstructions to the learners. Instructions . Instructions should be worded with clarity, brevity, simplicity should be worded with clarity, brevity, simplicity and specificity to enable the students to carry and specificity to enable the students to carry out the suggested activities, to answer specific out the suggested activities, to answer specific questions, to accomplish sheet assignment, and questions, to accomplish sheet assignment, and other related activities by themselves.other related activities by themselves.

66. Entry behavior and prerequisite skills.. Entry behavior and prerequisite skills. The The entry behavior and prerequisite skills are needed entry behavior and prerequisite skills are needed to make the learners use the module to make the learners use the module successfully. It provides them preliminary successfully. It provides them preliminary assessment whether the module is within their assessment whether the module is within their capabilities or not. If they feel they do not have capabilities or not. If they feel they do not have the prerequisite skills, they may skip the module the prerequisite skills, they may skip the module and instead concentrate on the development of and instead concentrate on the development of such requirements before they try it.such requirements before they try it.

77. Pre-test. Pre-test. The pretest is given to determine how . The pretest is given to determine how much the learners already know about the topic. much the learners already know about the topic. If the results show that they have considerably If the results show that they have considerably mastered it, they may be given the next module.mastered it, they may be given the next module.

88. Pre-test feedback and evaluation. Pre-test feedback and evaluation. A key to . A key to correction must be provided within the module correction must be provided within the module for the students to determine whether their for the students to determine whether their answers to every item in the pre-test is correct. answers to every item in the pre-test is correct. The total number of correct items must be given The total number of correct items must be given an equivalent grade to find out whether the an equivalent grade to find out whether the learners pass or fail the test given. Such learners pass or fail the test given. Such equivalent grade is contained in the pre-test equivalent grade is contained in the pre-test evaluation.evaluation.

11. Post test feedback and evaluation.11. Post test feedback and evaluation. The post The post test feedback serves as the key to correction test feedback serves as the key to correction while the post test evaluation provides the grade while the post test evaluation provides the grade equivalents of the different scores obtained by equivalents of the different scores obtained by the students.the students.

12. 12. Teacher’s manual or guideTeacher’s manual or guide. To assure . To assure effective use of the manual , the teacher needs effective use of the manual , the teacher needs the necessary pointers, helpful alternatives, and the necessary pointers, helpful alternatives, and necessary background to strengthen mastery of necessary background to strengthen mastery of topic. It is necessary that the teacher’s manual topic. It is necessary that the teacher’s manual or guide can clarify things, provide cautions in or guide can clarify things, provide cautions in the use of the manual, call the attention of the the use of the manual, call the attention of the teacher to emphasize salient points, and teacher to emphasize salient points, and suggest enrichment activities in order to suggest enrichment activities in order to maximize students’ learning. maximize students’ learning.

9. 9. Learning Activities.Learning Activities. This is the heart of the This is the heart of the module which specifies the different activities module which specifies the different activities that the students must undertake in order to that the students must undertake in order to achieve the specific learning objectives. Such achieve the specific learning objectives. Such activities include the various lessons, study activities include the various lessons, study sheet assignments, tests, and even suggested sheet assignments, tests, and even suggested projects. projects.

10. Post10. Post testtest. The post test is taken after all the . The post test is taken after all the students have done all the learning activities students have done all the learning activities suggested in the module. This is to find out how suggested in the module. This is to find out how far have they learned from the module. The pre-far have they learned from the module. The pre-test may be given as post test in the absence of test may be given as post test in the absence of other equally well-prepared post test.other equally well-prepared post test.

Discovery ApproachDiscovery Approach

This refers to an inductive method of guiding This refers to an inductive method of guiding students to discuss and organize ideas and students to discuss and organize ideas and processes themselves. It helps them use ideas processes themselves. It helps them use ideas already acquired as a means of discovering already acquired as a means of discovering ideas. ideas.

It is the process by which the students are It is the process by which the students are directed subtly to go through the logical process directed subtly to go through the logical process of observation, comparison, and abstraction, of observation, comparison, and abstraction, generalization, and application. Self-discovery generalization, and application. Self-discovery sets up learning situations whereby the learners sets up learning situations whereby the learners are encouraged to explore a process or discover are encouraged to explore a process or discover rules.rules.

Types of Discovery ApproachTypes of Discovery Approach

1.1. Guided DiscoveryGuided Discovery. The teacher draws . The teacher draws out from his/her students certain bits of out from his/her students certain bits of information through properly organized information through properly organized questions and explanations leading them questions and explanations leading them to the eventual discovery of particular to the eventual discovery of particular concepts or principles.concepts or principles.

2.2. Pure DiscoveryPure Discovery. The students are . The students are expected to arrive at certain concepts and expected to arrive at certain concepts and principles completely by themselves.principles completely by themselves.

Guidelines in the Use of the Discovery Guidelines in the Use of the Discovery ApproachApproach

1.1. There should be a well-planned structured There should be a well-planned structured instructional strategy. The students must instructional strategy. The students must understand the problem very well. Data must understand the problem very well. Data must be arranged systematically.be arranged systematically.

2.2. Teacher must not answer questions, although Teacher must not answer questions, although s/he can give clues and hints.s/he can give clues and hints.

3.3. The teacher must not expect the students to The teacher must not expect the students to find out for themselves all concepts, ideas, and find out for themselves all concepts, ideas, and generalizations of the course.generalizations of the course.

Conceptual ApproachConceptual Approach

The conceptual approach is choosing and The conceptual approach is choosing and defining the content of a certain discipline to be defining the content of a certain discipline to be taught through the use of big or pervasive ideas taught through the use of big or pervasive ideas as against the traditional practice of determining as against the traditional practice of determining content by isolated topics.content by isolated topics.

The emphasis is not the content per se,but The emphasis is not the content per se,but in the big ideas that pervade the subject. It is in the big ideas that pervade the subject. It is using the content as a means of leading the using the content as a means of leading the students to discover the laws and principles or students to discover the laws and principles or generalization that govern a particular subject or generalization that govern a particular subject or discipline (Soriano, as reiterated by Acero, et.al).discipline (Soriano, as reiterated by Acero, et.al).

The conceptual approach, like discovery, The conceptual approach, like discovery, stresses cognitive learning: the learning of stresses cognitive learning: the learning of content or the acquisition of knowledge. content or the acquisition of knowledge. However, the conceptual approach requires the However, the conceptual approach requires the categorization of content from simple to complex categorization of content from simple to complex level while discovery is generally concerned with level while discovery is generally concerned with the conscious effort of the learners to find out the conscious effort of the learners to find out mere relationships between two given variables. mere relationships between two given variables.

The conceptual approach involves more The conceptual approach involves more data collection usually through research while data collection usually through research while the discovery approach actively involves the discovery approach actively involves students to undertake experimental and students to undertake experimental and investigative work.investigative work.

Conceptual SchemeConceptual Scheme

PrinciplePrinciple

GeneralizationGeneralization

ConceptConcept

FactFact

Hierarchy of CognitionHierarchy of Cognition

Process Approach Process Approach

In the process approach, the students In the process approach, the students are actively engaged in the activities so are actively engaged in the activities so the competencies needed in the subject the competencies needed in the subject could eventually be acquired by them. For could eventually be acquired by them. For instance, if they are to learn cooking, they instance, if they are to learn cooking, they should actually cook rather that devote a should actually cook rather that devote a great deal of their time on the theoretical great deal of their time on the theoretical aspects of the cooking.aspects of the cooking.

Three major points to consider in the process Three major points to consider in the process approachapproach::

1.1. A corresponding de-emphasis on the subject A corresponding de-emphasis on the subject content. The concern is how to learn and not content. The concern is how to learn and not what to learn.what to learn.

2.2. What is taught to the students must be What is taught to the students must be functional and not theoretical. ( If you learn functional and not theoretical. ( If you learn math, do what mathematicians do, if you learn math, do what mathematicians do, if you learn science, do what scientists do, and if you learn science, do what scientists do, and if you learn music, do what musicians do.)music, do what musicians do.)

3.3. It must consider human intellectual It must consider human intellectual development.development.

Inquiry ApproachInquiry Approach It is the search for truth, information or It is the search for truth, information or

knowledge. It pertains to research and knowledge. It pertains to research and investigation and to seeking for information by investigation and to seeking for information by asking questions (Kilkman, 1970).asking questions (Kilkman, 1970).

It is also the search for the solution to a It is also the search for the solution to a problem through an exploration and evaluation problem through an exploration and evaluation of alternatives (Suchman, 1964).of alternatives (Suchman, 1964).

The inquiry approach can either be inductive The inquiry approach can either be inductive or deductive. Deductive, if the teacher in the or deductive. Deductive, if the teacher in the beginning provides the students with beginning provides the students with background information which will serve as the background information which will serve as the subject of the inquiry. It can be done soon aftersubject of the inquiry. It can be done soon after

the students have learned through discovery. the students have learned through discovery. The generalization formed by the students are The generalization formed by the students are subjected to a closer scrutiny during the inquiry subjected to a closer scrutiny during the inquiry session to lead the students toward in depth session to lead the students toward in depth understanding of the generalization.understanding of the generalization.

It becomes inductive when through a set of It becomes inductive when through a set of questions presented, the students are able to questions presented, the students are able to come up with certain ideas of their own which come up with certain ideas of their own which are open for further investigation. are open for further investigation.

Other Teaching MethodologiesOther Teaching Methodologies

A.A. Whole Group Instruction is the most traditional Whole Group Instruction is the most traditional form of classroom organization (Ornstein, form of classroom organization (Ornstein, 1982). 1982).

Behavior ModelingBehavior Modeling – Acting out a – Acting out a particular behavior the right way.particular behavior the right way.

Case StudyCase Study – A problematic situation – A problematic situation written or described in narrative form ranging written or described in narrative form ranging from a paragraph to several paragraphs.from a paragraph to several paragraphs.

Cross-Impact AnalysisCross-Impact Analysis - With the occurrence - With the occurrence of one or more separate situations, the learners of one or more separate situations, the learners estimate possible linkages or casual relationship estimate possible linkages or casual relationship between or among these events and come up between or among these events and come up with action plan to deal with likely events.with action plan to deal with likely events.

Delphi ProcedureDelphi Procedure - A method for obtaining the - A method for obtaining the consensus of opinion of a group of experts consensus of opinion of a group of experts through questionnaires with controlled opinion through questionnaires with controlled opinion feedback.feedback.

DemonstrationDemonstration - Showing the learner how to - Showing the learner how to perform a task/activity or how to operate perform a task/activity or how to operate equipment. equipment.

Devil’s AdvocateDevil’s Advocate – A method of dealing – A method of dealing with a complex problem or conflicting with a complex problem or conflicting situation in the context of opposition. situation in the context of opposition. Conflicting views may stem from different Conflicting views may stem from different goals, perspectives, and role requirement. goals, perspectives, and role requirement. The “devil” serves as a critic-attacking idea The “devil” serves as a critic-attacking idea presented and defended by learners.presented and defended by learners.

ExercisesExercises - Drill, board work, writing - Drill, board work, writing exercises that require learners’ application exercises that require learners’ application of the acquired knowledge and skills.of the acquired knowledge and skills.

Micro simulationsMicro simulations – Short informal practice – Short informal practice sessions whereby learners perform a new sessions whereby learners perform a new task/activity under artificial conditions to help task/activity under artificial conditions to help them develop a matrix of solutions and effects to them develop a matrix of solutions and effects to help the learners generate new ideas to deal help the learners generate new ideas to deal with future problems before they occur.with future problems before they occur.

Role PlayRole Play – A dramatic enactment between two or – A dramatic enactment between two or more people intended to represent a situation.more people intended to represent a situation.

Scenario AnalysisScenario Analysis - Building hypothetical - Building hypothetical sequence of events; answers the questions, “If sequence of events; answers the questions, “If then, etc.” to determine the future effects pf a then, etc.” to determine the future effects pf a problem, issue, or trend.problem, issue, or trend.

Simulations and GamesSimulations and Games – A lengthy role play – A lengthy role play involving several participants intended to involving several participants intended to represent a work, a problem situation, or a real represent a work, a problem situation, or a real life situation. life situation.

Team World-Webbing/Mind mappingTeam World-Webbing/Mind mapping – Students – Students write simultaneously on a paper drawing to write simultaneously on a paper drawing to bridge the main concepts with their components, bridge the main concepts with their components, supporting elements in order to show multiple supporting elements in order to show multiple relations among ideas, or to differentiate relations among ideas, or to differentiate concepts presented. concepts presented.

Think-Pair-Share Think-Pair-Share - Each student finds a pair to - Each student finds a pair to work on the topic provided by the teacher. They work on the topic provided by the teacher. They generate a concept, a conclusion through generate a concept, a conclusion through inductive-deductive reasoning, and an inductive-deductive reasoning, and an application of the concept developed. In the application of the concept developed. In the end, the pair shares their thoughts with the end, the pair shares their thoughts with the entire class. entire class.

Trips Trips – Visits to museums, historical spots, – Visits to museums, historical spots, congress,etc.congress,etc.

B. B. Small-Group InstructionSmall-Group Instruction – Small groups – Small groups provide an opportunity for students to become provide an opportunity for students to become more actively engaged in learning and for more actively engaged in learning and for teachers to monitor students’ progress better. teachers to monitor students’ progress better. Between 5 to 8 students ensure successful Between 5 to 8 students ensure successful small-group activity.small-group activity.

Ability GroupingAbility Grouping – Grouping learners according – Grouping learners according to their ability and mental preparedness reduce to their ability and mental preparedness reduce the problems of heterogeneity in the classroom.the problems of heterogeneity in the classroom.