Implications of Household (Domestic) Use of Hard

water on Molepolole

Residents

Author: Koketso Kanekane | SOC 442 Data Analysis and Report Writing [Lecturer: Dr Gabriel Faimau]

University of Botswana, Department of Sociology BAH 220 | May 9, 2016

Acknowledgements

The survey acknowledges all the participants of the survey, Molepolole residents for their

assistance and hospitality. This study also benefited from the comments of the course

lecturer Dr Gabriel Faimau from the Department of Sociology and from the Sociology

441 colleagues during two focus group discussions, it also benefited from internet

sources.

The study was self-sponsored by Principal Investigator, Koketso Kanekane and

facilitated by the Department of Sociology (Dr. Gabriel Faimau).

Thank You.

PAGE 1

ContentsIntroductory, Background to the study.............................................................3

Statement of the Problem............................................................................5Significance of the study.............................................................................7

Research Aim/ Objectives and questions.........................................................8The aim/Objectives....................................................................................8Research questions....................................................................................8

Methodology.............................................................................................9Findings, analysis and discussion.................................................................12Conclusion and Recommendations..............................................................22References...........................................................................................23

Consent Form.............................................................................................................27

.............................................................................................................28Questionnaire.............................................................................................................29

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AbstractWater is a necessity of life and to an extent a human right. Safe water contributes of

effective and healthy life for all. This study brings to light and describes the implications

of the use of hard water by Molepolole residents on household basis. The results will be

used to advocate for a need of a water treatment plant in the village. The study discovered

and documented data on the little given attention effects of the household day to day use

of hard water, a questionnaire and desktop research were used to collect data about

residents awareness on the difference of the water used in Molepolole to that used

elsewhere, their satisfaction toward it, their use for the water, effects of the water on their

health and on household appliances and about the action they undertook against the

water. The study shows that Molepolole residents are aware of the difference in the water

used in their locality to that used in other localities. They are not satisfied with the quality

of the water used in their locality, especially with the water taste than they are with water

color, despite their dissatisfaction with the water quality, the residents still use the hard

water in their locality which affects children under the age of 12 and also causes clogging

of household appliances through its lime scale build up. The study also shows that the

residents determined they are to get safe water even if it means enduring costs to deal

with the hard water they use and its effects. Following an in depth multi-dimensional

analysis of research results, some there is a need for a water treatment plant in

Molepolole which will ensure safe soft water for the residents to use, ultimately

improving the resident’s socio-economic life.

Keywords: Hard water, Household, Effects, Use

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Introductory, Background to the studyIn a world that faces increasing challenges of water scarcity1, the optimum use of all

available resources becomes critical and with the increasing competition for fresh water;

many communities in water scarce countries use underground water which is at times

hard and saline for household needs and irrigation. (Molden, 2007) contends that use of

saline and sodic drainage water and hard underground water varies greatly among

countries. In small rural communities, water is often scarce or contaminated2. (UNICEF

and World Health Organization, 2012) argues that while coverage of improved water

supply sources is 90 percent (%) or more in Latin America, the Caribbean, Northern

Africa and large parts of Asia, it is only 61% in sub-Saharan Africa. According to

(Plessis & Rowntree, 2003), Botswana suffers from a lack of surface water and therefore

development relies heavily on underground water. Underground water resources can be

found almost everywhere in the region and is the main source for most of Botswana’s

towns and smaller settlements and are essential to many individuals, companies and

communities to supply water for drinking, agriculture and industry. (Botswana Water

Statistics , 2009) contends that underground water is the main source of portable water

supply in Botswana. Much of the Country, about 66 % depends entirely on underground

water.

At the current rates of abstraction, the lifetime of surface and underground resources is

limited to decades. Major issues are the rate of underground replenishment relative to the

rate of extraction, and its quality. The Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP)3 report had

warned of a deterioration in the quality of groundwater as a result of over-exploitation. It

said “There is every possibility that the reported fall in the quality of water at

Plachimada4 could have occurred because of extraction by Coca cola Company in the

area” in (Krishnakumar, 2003). Underground water recharge is very limited, thus making

1 The population is growing rapidly, putting more pressure on our water supply sources (demand is increasing); and some: believe that fresh water will be a critical limiting resource for many regions in the near future, (Botswana Water Statistics , 2009) argues that water resources problem is seen as a potential limit to development and a stress on population and economic growth. Africa’s water resources are threatened by the increasing population trends which result in increase in water demand by various users.2 More at http://www.lenntech.com/small-community-water-supplies.htm Accessed 8 April 2016 3 A group of well-known environmentalists4 Plachimada is a little hamlet in Palakkad District, Southern India.

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the resource finite and non-renewable. The State Groundwater Department in 2003, had

reported a depletion in the level and a deterioration in the quality of groundwater in some

of the open wells at Plachimada, asserts (Krishnakumar, 2003). Accordingly, Botswana’s

access to drinking water had at 2001 reached 99.5% for urban areas and 83.5 for rural

areas (Central Statistics Office, 2009) as quoted by (Botswana Water Sector Policy Brief,

2012, p. 2). Most rural areas in Botswana are supplied with borehole water while nearly

all the urban centers are supplied with surface water. Of all the major villages in

Botswana, Molepolole5 has the highest consumption with over 9,000m3/day6. Molepolole

village is supplied with water by six boreholes near Malwelwe village and Botlhapatlou

Wellfield according to (Moeng, 2013), this supply serves as a short term intervention

expected to exponentially alleviate the water shortage in the village. With the ever

growing demand for water by growing populations worldwide, it makes sense to try to

find more uses for the abundant underground hard water and saline water supplies that

exist, mainly in the oceans. (Water Research Foundation, 2014) In addition to making

sure the water at customers' taps is safe to drink, water providers must also meet

customer expectations for the water's aesthetic characteristics—its taste, odor, and

appearance. Although most contaminants that cause aesthetic problems in drinking water

are not considered a threat to human health, unpleasant tastes and odors are the most

common cause of customer complaints, and they often play a role when customers

choose alternative supplies such as bottled water.

Statement of the ProblemHuman health depends on the quality of our immediate surroundings, in which water

services and management play a significant role. Water essentiality ranges from its

importance in the cultivation of plants and food production to providing the necessary

environment for metabolism activities and regulating body temperature; preserving the

ideal temperature (36.5-37°C). (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme,

2015) argues that providing safe water services and managing water resources wisely

5 The most populous village in Botswana according to the 2011 Population and Housing Census with an estimated population of over 63,000.6 See Figure 2: Water demand and losses in major villages according to Central Statistics Office,2009 from (Botswana Water Sector Policy Brief, 2012)

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improves health and opens opportunities for education and capacity building for all.

Recently, with regards to Millennium Development Goals; particularly Goal number

seven (7)7, it has been reported that progress is better regarding the availability of

improved drinking water sources “Over 2 billion people gained access to improved 8water

sources from 1990 to 2010 (UNICEF and World Health Organization, 2012, p. 4)”.

United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said at the (UNICEF Joint press release,

2012) “Today we recognize a great achievement for the people of the world. This is one

of the first MDG targets to be met. The successful efforts to provide greater access to

drinking water are a testament to all who see the MDGs not as a dream, but as a vital tool

for improving the lives of millions of the poorest people.” While this tremendous

achievement should be applauded, a great deal of work still remains9; Molepolole

residents are unable or cannot afford safe drinking water. Most water used is hard water

from boreholes; according to (Aqualogic (Pty) Ltd , 2012), there are no surface water

resources in the area and underground water is the only source supplying Molepolole,

Thamaga, Thebephatshwa, BDF camp and neighboring localities.

Underground water is often times perceived safe, free from the very minute organisms

which cause diseases and fresh for use and well protected by layers of soil and sediments,

which would ultimately through the natural process of sedimentation treat the water. In

agreement with this, (Howard, et al., 2004, p. 3) argues that “aquifers are well protected

by layers of soil and sediment, which effectively filter rainwater as it percolates though

them, thus removing particles, pathogenic microorganisms and many chemical

constituents. Therefore it is generally assumed to be a relatively safe drinking-water

source.” However, it is not always the case that the water is safe; underground water

sources can also become contaminated with bacteria, viruses, parasites, and chemicals

that can lead to sickness and disease10. “Unfortunately it becomes chemically

contaminated by pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers which have been a boom to the

world farmers, but a bomb to the earth’s water (Ukpong & Okon, 2013, p. 78)”.

7 Ensure environmental sustainability8 drinking water sources, such as piped supplies and protected wells9 The proportion of the global population still using unimproved sources estimated at only 11 per cent see Figure 1 (UNICEF and World Health Organization, 2012). 10 see http://www.cdc.gov/features/undergroundawareness/ Accessed November 14, 2015

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Some of the production boreholes as reported by (Aqualogic (Pty) Ltd , 2012) have been

experiencing operational and construction problems such as decline in yield, silting and

bacterial infestation which may consequently contaminate the water. The contaminants

may cause the water to appear cloudy or colored, or to taste or smell bad. This may cause

a great number of people to stop using water from their public water system even though

the water is perceived safe to drink11. Such water is risky to human health; if the

contaminants present in the water are at levels above standards set by Botswana Bureau

of Standards (BOBS), it causes unpleasant tastes and odors, water-related illnesses such

as diarrhea and ultimately deaths, health and other costs that can claim much of the

household income when customers choose alternative supplies of water. It must be

noticed that acceptable contaminant levels vary widely among individuals, “for example,

high sodium, which may be harmless for many people, but can be dangerous for elderly,

hypertensive persons, pregnant women, and people having difficulty in excreting sodium

(Botswana Water Statistics , 2009, p. 7)”. In cases of contaminated water, water providers

must meet customer expectations for the water's aesthetic characteristics of its taste, odor,

and appearance in addition to making sure the water at customers' taps is safe to drink

asserts (Water Research Foundation, 2014) but customer complaints are still rampant.

The intension of the study was to bring to surface the implications of the day to day use

of hard water by households in Molepolole, and use the results to voice for the need of a

water treatment plant in the village.

Significance of the studyReliable, safe drinking water is essential not only to lower the incidence of many diseases

but also increase the capacities to combat other diseases, keep healthy and productive.

(United Nations Development Programme, 2006) argues that water pervades all aspects

of human development. When people are denied access to clean water at home or when

they lack access to water as a productive resource their choices and freedoms are

11 (Aqualogic (Pty) Ltd , 2012); Water quality assessment in the study area [most of the eastern half of the Kweneng District] previously performed by BRGM (DGS, 1991) led to the conclusions that:• The underground water in all the boreholes in the study area is of potable quality. No noticeable changes of quality had been measured in the previous years.• The TDS concentrations fall within the desirable Botswana guidelines, with a median of 470mg/l.• Except calcium, which exceeds the desirable guidelines, all the parameters are within the acceptable limits of World Health Organization (WHO).

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constrained by ill health, poverty and vulnerability. Water gives life to everything,

including human development and human freedom. As the UN Secretary General has put

it (United Nations Development Programme, 2006, p. 4), “Access to safe water is a

fundamental human need and, therefore, a basic human right” and the idea of water as a

human right reflects the underlying concerns of high levels of avoidable child death or

poverty. It is with the concern of this study to illuminate and describe the implications of

the use of hard water on household basis and advocate for a need of a water treatment

plant in the village from the results of the study; given the available resources12 to

accommodate such developments. Using the theory of reasoned action, (Raditloaneng,

2012) argues that the capacity to act rationally by those with power to provide public

goods and services is under siege if reason cannot prevail in ensuring continued access to

safe drinking water in Molepolole, one of the biggest villages with a high population.

Research Aim/ Objectives and questionsThe aim/Objectives

To find out the awareness of any difference in the water used in the locality from the water use elsewhere

To identify the different uses of water in Molepolole and awareness of the consequences of the use of the water

To examine the implications (effects) of the use of such water on the household

To find out the measures put in place to mitigate the implications and evaluations of measures in monetary terms

To evaluate the household cover cost of all actions put in place against hard water effects

Research questions What is the state of awareness of the difference in the water used in

Molepolole to that used elsewhere What are the uses that water is put to in Molepolole What is state of awareness about the safety or consequences of the use of

the water What are the effects of the use of such water on the households

12 According to (Frankson , 2014), Government has availed a budget of P470 million for drought mitigation projects, including the upgrading and refurbishment of boreholes and the expansion of treatment plant capacity said the President of the Republic of Botswana Lt. General Seretse Khama Ian Khama at 2015 State of the Nation Address.

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What measures have been put in place to mitigate the implications

MethodologyResearch Approach: The approach to the study is Quantitative approach “based on some

intervention or treatment, with a clear outcome variables in mind (Punch, 2006)”; it aims

at examining the implications of the home use of hard water on Molepolole residents.

Generalizations will be made from the sample meanings and presented in statistical form.

Research Design: This study is a solution-driven research; applied research13 and follows

a descriptive research design. Descriptive research in such a manner that it will be used to

obtain information concerning the use hard water and to describe the implications of such

water on Molepolole residents with respect to household use of such water. The study is a

survey; in accordance with (Trochim, 2006), survey research is one of the most important

areas of measurement in applied social research. Survey research offers consistency and

in obedience with (Blackstone, 2015) recognizes that survey research is a reliable method

of inquiry; this is because surveys are standardized in that the same questions, phrased in

exactly the same way, are posed to participants.

Methods of data collection: From survey research’s characteristic of encompassing any

measurement procedures that involve asking questions of respondents; the study

employed questionnaires and desktop research to collect data. The questionnaire

distributed was close ended and self-administer, with a few open ended questions14.

Closed ended questionnaire limited the respondents to stated alternatives whereas open

ended questionnaire allowed the respondent to express their views and ideas to capture all

data, in harmony with this, (Neuman W. L., 2014, p. 204) “yet something important

could be lost when an individual’ beliefs and feelings are forced into fixed-answer

categories”. Survey interviews were conducted concerning those who were illiterate. In

survey interviews, the questionnaires were rigidly structured, the questions were all be

13 Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. Applied research is used to find solutions to everyday problems http://psychology.about.com/od/aindex/g/appres.htm Accessed November15, 2015 14 To accommodate various questions requiring various responses because some questions are practical and others are not.

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asked in the same order, the same way, and only the pre-defined answer choices were

given15.

Data was also collected from existing statistics, what (Neuman W. L., 2014) referred to

as secondary survey data and argued that “in it you reanalyse previously collected survey

or similar data that another researcher has gathered” page 273. Secondary data was

relatively cheap and saved time, permitted comparisons across different groups for

analysis and importantly allowed asking about issues not addressed by original

researchers and to answer new questions which were missed during the survey.

Sampling and sample size: The sampling model employed was Cluster sampling and

Molepolole with an estimated population of over 63,000; a geographically large area with

a dispersed population, it would have been expensive to survey the entire locality, so a

single ward within the village as a cluster was surveyed. A single ward16 ‘Kgotla’of Goo-

Ratshosa17 was used as a cluster and households were selected from the cluster to

represent the entire population. The sample was 37 households from Goo-Ratshosa which

all stood an equal chance to be chosen. The survey was carried out during the day from

08:00am to 16:00pm; this was the convenient time for the researcher and since most

people in rural or urbanized rural areas are not active workers, this was a perfect to find

people in the homes.

Data Analysis Techniques: In analyzing the responses of the participants, the following

steps of data validation, response partitioning, coding, standard analysis, ordinal and

nominal data were employed. These steps for analysis allowed for precise handling of the

data ultimately accurate interpretation of the results. Data Validation ensured that the

questionnaires were completed eventually presenting consistency of the data; questions

that were not answered by most respondents were not be included in the data18. Response

Partitioning as in sub-grouping of same responses made data analysis faster and easier.

15 In peace with what Ashley Crossman, Sociology Expert asserted in http://sociology.about.com/od/Research-Methods/a/Interviews.htmAccessed November 15, 2015 16 The ward is a small-scale representation of the total population; ideally heterogeneous consisting of the elderly, middle-aged, youth and the children.17 Goo-Ratshosa is the populous and famous ward in Molepolole and the center of the village18 However, in the case of incomplete questionnaires, the actual number of respondents that were able to answer a particular question will be counted; will be the same for the rest of the questions https://explorable.com/handling-survey-dataAccessed November 16, 2015

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Data was coded when designing the questionnaire “Precoding defined as to place the

code categories (1 for male, 2 for female) on the questionnaire (Neuman W. L., 2014, p.

282)” and before electronic filing with the help of a codebook; in this way, it allowed

statistical packages “analysis” to be used to handle and analyze the data accurately.

Open-ended questions were more difficult to code for the computer; human expertise

came in play and several experts were asked to code the responses in order to minimize

bias. Standard Data Analysis included computing for the proportion of variables and

standard errors. Analyzed data were Ordinal and Nominal Data; data in the form of

numbers which was easily handled and analyzed using statistical equations. Data was

organized and presented in charts and tables and eventually used to answer research

questions with the help of existing data in publication on the internet and help of theories

to analyze and give the results meaning19.

Limitations of the study: The survey was inflexible with regards to that the researcher

could only ask fixed number of questions of topic, stuck with a single primary instrument

for collecting data (the questionnaire), more limiting the close ended questionnaire.

Validity was a problem with the questionnaire, as the questions were standardized; made

it difficult to ask anything other than very general questions that a broad range of people

could understand. Secondary data as a form of data collection was limiting, and as noted

by (Neuman W. L., 2014), a problem in finding the appropriate units of analysis,

problems of validity which occurs when theoretical definition does not match the existing

one and problems in reliability were encountered, because of the changes in the methods

of data collection and definitions over time20. Another observed limitation of the study in

Molepolole was that during the survey during the day, most people found in homes were

the elders who are illiterate. Questionnaires which were supposed to be self-administered

had to be read out to them and answered on their behalf which was time consuming.

19 “The facts cannot speak for themselves. A researcher must return to their theory (i.e., concepts, relationships among concepts, assumptions, theoretical definition) and give the results meaning (Neuman W. L., 2014, p. 307)”20See (Neuman W. L., 2014, pp. 274-278)“existing data are inappropriate for the research question, lack of sufficient understanding of the substantive topic; because the data is easily accessible anyone who knows little about a topic could make erroneous assumptions or false interpretations about results from it and missing data that could have been lost or never collected.”

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Findings, analysis and discussionWater in Molepolole different from that in other localities

The study shows that 81.1% of the respondents are aware of the difference in the water

used in Molepolole from that used elsewhere whereas 19% are not aware of any

difference. This finding is in contradiction with the (Abrahams, 2011) survey report

where 389 persons from all over France were asked distinguish between bottled water

and tap water21, the report in The Guardian Newspaper asserts that “most consumers

cannot distinguish between bottled water and tap water when the latter is chlorine-free,

with only 36% of the subjects being able to distinguish between tap water and bottled

water”. The study also tells us that from the 76.6% of those aware of the difference feel

that the water is worse than the water used before and 16.7% feel it is much worse and

only 6.7% feel it is about the same. This supports the awareness of the residents of

difference in the water used in Molepolole. In agreement, (Sarkozi, 2014) “We used to

take water from a well before. The water tastes so much better now. You just can’t

compare it” remarks of a villager in Kore, Burkina Faso after the refurbishment of a

water well. This shows that people can differentiate water, from good to bad and

otherwise.

Table 1: Residents satisfaction with the quality of the water used on household basis

Satisfaction with water quality

Quality % Satisfied % Not Satisfied Total

Water Taste 29 8 37

78.4% 21.6% 100%

Water Color 8 29 37

21.6% 78.4% 100%

Total 37 37 100%

Conditional distribution illustrated by (Table 1) for the residents satisfied with water

color quality is 78.4% whilst 21.6% are not satisfied with the water color and 21.6% are

21 The tap water was from various regions of France, supplied by Lyonnaise des Eaux" and The bottled waters were "chosen among the French bottled water available"

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satisfied with the water taste and 78% are not satisfied with the water taste22. The study

used taste and odor to measure quality because as by (Bart, 2006), the perception of odor

or taste is a key factor for product quality and usually derives from a combination of

chemical components. Similarly, (Lou, Lee, & Han, 2007) demonstrated that 54% of

respondents did not drink tap water in their daily lives in Taiwan in the first survey or

round, compared to 67% of respondents in the second. In both surveys, the main reason

that respondents did not drink tap water was “the water sources are inappropriate” (45.2%

and 41.8% in the first and second rounds, respectively), and the second main reason was

“Unpleasant mouth feel” (32.2% and 38.2% in the first and second round, respectively),

and only less than 20% of respondents did not drink tap water because of health concerns.

These above two findings go beyond what (Mackey, et al., 2004) found in France, the

results of the survey showed that three-quarters of the population was satisfied with their

water quality and the majority was satisfied with their local water utility service. The

survey showed that 72% claimed to be satisfied with their drinking water quality, only

52% drank it at all and only 21% of the sampled population consumed tap water

regularly.

The survey shows that 72.9% of the respondents are satisfied with water for household

use and 27% are not satisfied; with 60% not satisfied and 40% not at all satisfied. In

respect to quality of water for household use; In Kentucky, (Kentucky Cooperative

Extension Service, 2001) maintains that hard water interferes with almost every cleaning

task from laundering and dishwashing to bathing and personal grooming. Clothes

laundered in hard water may look dingy, feel harsh and scratchy. Dishes and glasses

washed in hard water may become spotted as they dry. Hard water may cause a film on

glass shower doors, shower walls, and bathtubs. Hair washed in hard water may feel

sticky and look dull and hard water also affects the performance of household appliances.

(Mackey, et al., 2004) contends that the degree of satisfaction depended on the use made

of the water. In fact, drinking water quality was characterized with the lowest average

22 (Abrahams, 2011) maintains that the researchers identified what they call the “three main tastes of water” that can be found if one swigs a great variety of bottled and tap waters. These are “the bitterness of poor mineralized water, the neutral taste (associated with coolness) of water with medium mineralization and the saltiness and astringency of highly mineralized water.”

PAGE 13

satisfaction and organoleptic23 quality or criteria are commonly cited as the reason for

concern and dissatisfaction.

Household day-to-day use of the water in Molepolole

drinking cooking bathing brush teeth washing flush watering0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

30

37 36 3537

22

13

7

0 1 20

15

24

household day-to-day use of the water

Use Do not Use

Figure 1: illustrates the household day-to-day use of the water

Figure 1 shows that from the sampled 37 households, (100%) 37 households use the

water to cook and wash clothes, (2.7%) 1 household do not use the water for bathing and

(5.4%) 2 do not use the water for brushing their teeth, (81.1%) 30 household drink the

water, (59.4%) 22 households use the water to flush the toilet and (35.1%) 13 households

water their plants with the water. In the United States of America, for comparison, (Water

Research Foundation, 2016) in illustrating the water indoor per capita from the REU2016

shows that toilet flushing was the largest indoor use of water per person on average (14.2

gpcd, 24%) followed by showers (11.1 gpcd, 19%), kitchen and bathroom faucets (11.1

gpcd, 19%), clothes washers (9.6 gpcd, 16%), leaks ( 7.9 gpcd, 14%), 23 Organoleptic is defined by (Bart, 2006) as “capable of being perceived by one or more sense organs”, where the common senses are touch, hearing, smell, taste and sight.

PAGE 14

other/miscellaneous (2.5 gpcd, 4%), bathtub (1.5, gpcd, 3%) and dishwashers (0.7, gpcd,

1%).

The implications (effects) of the use of hard water in households

The survey shows that about 62.1% of the respondents are aware of the consequences and

their safety from the use of hard water and 37.8% are not aware of the consequences.

With regards to problems from the use of the water, it tells us that problems from the use

of the water were observed by 51.3% of the respondents whereas 48.6% did not observe

any.

Effects on Human Health

Diarrhoea61%

Stomach Ache13%

Vomitting9%

Skin Related13%

Unspecified4%

Illness Cases from the Use of the Water

DiarrhoeaStomach AcheYellow TeethVomittingSkin RelatedUnspecified

Figure 2: Human health related cases from the use of the waterFigure 2 above demonstrates that diarrhea is the most common case with 14 cases,

followed by stomach ache and skin related with 3 cases each and vomiting with 2 cases.

Diarrhea is defined by Jay W.Marks, MD as an increase in the frequency of bowel

movements, an increase in the looseness of stool or both24. Diarrhea is the opposite of

constipation, which is medically defined as fewer than three stools per week and severe

constipation as less than one stool per week25. Diarrhea cases are good for digestive

health as it cleans the human intestines, (Sengupta, 2013) argues that hard water has been

considered as a boon by many renowned scientists as it has some fantastic health benefits 24 See more about diarrhea at http://www.medicinenet.com/diarrhea/article.htm Accessed 7 April 2016 25 More at http://www.medicinenet.com/constipation/article.htmAccessed7April2016

PAGE 15

that seem to encourage longer life expectancy and improved health. Magnesium salt

represents with a laxative effect which provides a rapid evacuation of intestine.

The diseases from the cases are prevalent among children below the age 12 with 82.3%

and 17.6% among adults aged 23-28. In peace with this, (World Health Organisation,

2013) asserts that diarrheal disease is the second leading cause of death in children under

five years old, and is responsible for killing around 760 000 children every year. Diarrhea

can last several days, and can leave the body without the water and salts that are

necessary for survival26. In agreement, about 88% of diarrhea-associated deaths are

attributable to unsafe water, inadequate sanitation, and insufficient hygiene. Rotavirus is

the leading cause of acute diarrhea and causes about 40% of hospitalizations for diarrhea

in children under 527. (Sarkozi, 2014) asserts that in Burkina Faso thousands of children

under 5 die from preventable causes such as diarrhea, a leading killer of children in this

West African nation. “My children have been getting sick too often with diarrhea,

stomach ache. Especially this little one,” nudging at 2 year old Barage in her arms says a

woman in Kore in an interview with (Sarkozi, 2014).

Of the respondents who had health problems with the water, 57.1% have addressed their

illness and diagnosed by medical workers and 42.8% have not addressed their ill healths

on the basis that it is nothing serious and using personally known remedies. Ronny

Priefer28, in (Gault , 2015) says that hard water and health is a murky area of study.

“There is plenty of conflicting evidence in literature,” he says. “Some scientists say there

are health benefits; others say hard water harms health, and then there’s a group that

claims no effect.” From the finding of the 42.8% of the respondents who did not seek

medical attention, it supports the notion that hard water is not a health hazard.

Effects on household items

Of the working appliances in the households, 60 % of the respondents observed

dysfunctions in the appliances and 40% did not observe any dysfunction. According to

26 Most people who die from diarrhea actually die from severe dehydration and fluid loss.27See more at http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/pdf/global/programs/globaldiarrhea508c.pdfAccessed7April2016 28 PhD, professor of medicinal chemistry at Western New England University in Springfield, MA

PAGE 16

(Heidekamp & Lemley , 2005), hard water contributes to inefficient and costly operation

of water using appliances. Heated hard water forms a scale of calcium and magnesium

minerals that can contribute to the inefficient operation or failure of water-using

appliances. Pipes can become clogged with scale that reduces water flow and ultimately

requires pipe replacement. The survey shows in figure 4 below that 54% of the item

dysfunctions were clogged kettles, the most damaged item followed by 24.3% of blocked

showerheads and sinks, and 13.5% clogged irons and 2.7% each for clogged geyser, toilet

and refrigerator filters. This results show that hard water affects hot water appliances than

appliances that use room temperature water. (Copper Industries, 2016) argues the effect

that lime scale has on a small kettle is intensified on larger appliances such as washing

machines and dishwashers. The lime scale buildup can make them less energy efficient

and lead to appliances breaking down more frequently. When it builds up in pipes, it

reduces pipe diameter which means that pumps have to work just a little bit harder,

increasing energy use and shortening component life. Lime scale build up in a hot water

cylinder occurs on the heat exchanger, its deposits act as insulation, reducing the

efficiency of heat transfer surfaces; meaning the boiler has to fire more often to maintain

water temperature which can dramatically increase fuel bills.

This finding agree with (Browett, Pearce, & Willis, 2012) study, which found out that

taps were the most frequently replaced item in all communities in the Central Desert

Region of Australia, with the highest frequency of replacement occurring in Areyonga

(LSI=1.34; high hard water) at an average of three taps (2.97/house/year) being replaced

in each house every year. Shower roses had a comparatively high frequency of

replacement in Yuendumu (LSI=0.72; medium hard water) and Areyonga (LSI=1.34;

high hard water) at 0.56/house/year and 0.66/house/year, respectively. Hot water systems

were replaced most frequently in Areyona and Kintore at an annual rate of 0.47 and 0.34

per house, respectively. Yuendumu, Atitjere, Santa Teresa, and Finke had similar rates of

replacement ranging between 0.03 and 0.06/house/year.

PAGE 17

Kettle; 20; 54%

Iron; 5; 14%

Geyser; 1; 3%

Toilet pipes; 1;

3%

Refridgerator filters; 1; 3%Shower-

heads and Sinks; 9;

24%

Clogged household appliances as a result of the use of hard water Kettle

Iron

Geyser

Toilet pipes

Refridgerator filters

Showerheads and Sinks

Figure 3:illustrates clogged household appliances as a result of the use of the water

Of the damaged household appliances, 63.6% of them were repaired; 64.2% bearing the

costs of P50-100 whilst with 36.3% nothing was done; 75% of the not repaired

appliances were discarded. (Copper Industries, 2016) that argues that Lime scale build up

in pipes, boilers and appliances can prevent them from operating efficiently, which can

lead to higher energy bills and increased repairs. (Tihansky, 1974) report which

distinguished average vs modern urban residential costs of using the same quality water

in the United States of America; for these resident groups, the difference in per capita

damages for the extreme water quality case damages were $17.22 and $28.97

respectively.

Mitigation measures and their monetary evaluations

The shows that 36.8% of the respondents who observed problems from the use of the

water had resorted to buying bottled retail water, this is in accordance with (Lewis, 2015)

who states that even though tap water is considered safe for drinking29, people will

sometimes choose bottled water for its taste, extra purification and availability. Goes on 29 (Lewis, 2015) asserts that tap water contains more fluoride than bottled water does, fluoride is added by municipalities to improve people’s bone and teeth health.

PAGE 18

to argue that the taste of tap water can be affected by the required decontamination

processes, as the chemicals commonly used, like chlorine and chloramine which can

leave an aftertaste. In some cases, the pipes in a house can also leave an aftertaste.

Households spend an average cost of P196.25 a month on bottled water. Parallel to this,

(Boesler, 2013) maintains that consumers in the United States of America spend an

average cost of $1.22 per gallon, spending 300 times the cost of tap water to drink bottled

water30. Retail or bottled water are closely monitored to follow the standards set by

Botswana Bureau of Standards (BOBS)31 and to ensure public safety and health.

In peace with this, (Suffet, Mallevialle, & Kawczynski, 1995) argues that the

consumption of bottled water has grown almost exponentially in the past ten years,

fueled, in part, by growing consumer dissatisfaction with water quality. (Hu, Morton, &

Mahle, 2011) reported that in the United States of America, over 13% of all respondents

reported that they used bottled water as the primary source for drinking water, while

45.4% of all respondents said they often used bottled water for drinking. The mean for

surface water quality perception was 1.99 (fair), and the mean for ground water quality

perception was 2.22 (slightly above fair), a little higher than that of surface water. About

fifteen percent respondents said they felt their home drinking water was not safe to drink.

This percentage corresponded well to the percentage of respondents that used bottled

water as their primary drinking source. While negative media attention often creates the

perception that the public is very skeptical about their drinking water safety, historical

data suggests that the leading cause of consumer dissatisfaction with tap water quality

involves perception of chlorinous taste and odor32. (Gorelick, et al., 2011) maintains that

disparities in bottled water use are driven largely by differences in beliefs and perceptions

about water. Studies in the United States have identified health risks and taste to be the 30 Bottled water: $346 per year, Tap water: 48 cents see more at more at http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/news/2011/07/bottled-water-346-per-year-tap-water-48-cents-any-questions/index.htm Accessed 1 April 2016 31 The following are the BOBS compulsory standards for water but that are not prescribed under SIIR, BOS 32 : 2000 - Water Quality for Drinking water Specification, BOS 143:20011 - Bottled water other than natural water Specification, BOS 262:2011- Bottled natural water Specification: visit http://www.bobstandards.bw/Pages/ServiceNonPrescribedStandards.aspx?mnusub=52&pid=50&services=bob&sp=46 Accessed 1 April 2016 for more32 According to (Puget, Beno, Chabanet, Guichard, & Danguin, 2010) tap water consumers showed a higher liking score for chlorinated solutions and were found to be more inclined to accept these solutions as drinking water.

PAGE 19

most frequently cited factors, study in Salt Lake City, Utah, found that of 3 choices of

reasons for choosing bottled water, health concerns about tap water and taste were the

most commonly cited, In contrast, studies in England, Quebec, Canada, and

Portugal found that taste was the most important consideration in choosing bottled water

than health concerns.

The study shows that 26.3% of the respondents opted to buy water from private boreholes

bearing an average cost of P112.00 a month. Water from private boreholes is no

guarantee is safe and reliable, (Ukpong & Okon, 2013) t-test revealed that there was a

difference between the quality of the public and private borehole water supply

sources in the Uruan area, private borehole water supply in the area was not properly

treated for human consumption and other domestic purposes and not meeting the

approved drinking water standard33. The survey found out that 47.3% ask for water from

neighboring villages bearing an average cost of P233.33 a month. Equally, (Bachman,

2012) states that overall 70 % of respondents in Ohio, United States of America said it

was important that water remain local, while one-quarter said that they’d rather buy water

from elsewhere if it were less expensive. Connie Crockett (Bachman, 2012) said that the

local water’s hardness is a “perennial drawback” that costs homeowners a lot of money,

while Springfield’s water, one of the alternatives being considered for the Village to

purchase in bulk, tastes great and may cost less. According to (Mitter & Rowbotham,

1994) In Baldana, a dried up village in India, villagers go to neighbouring village 8

kilometer away to ask for water.

The survey reveals that 15.7% of the respondents boil water before using, 57.8% did

nothing and 10.5% fetch rainwater. Not taking action response of 57.8% shows the

helplessness of the residents and continuous use of the water despite their dissatisfaction,

this can be a trait of convenience of public water and cost of buying water. This qualifies

with the United States Environmental Protection Agency, (Talatala, 2008, p. 3) who

maintains that “while many people choose to drink bottled water, tap water is still

consumed at approximately 236,000 liters per day in the United States. (Ferrier, 2006),

factors that influence whether tap water is consumed as drinking water include 33 Ecoli ranged from 1x10^0 to 4x10^0 cfu/100ml

PAGE 20

convenience, health and cost”. During the national survey in France, (Mackey, et al.,

2004) indicated that consumer perception of undesirable tastes and odors did not

necessarily result in dissatisfaction or distrust with tap water quality.

Pricey action against hard water

Figure 4: illustrates the average cover cost of the action taken (medical attention, repairs and mitigation measures) for hard water effects

Figure 4 shows that mitigation measures are costly with an average cost of BWP 180.53 a

month compared to an average cost of BWP 100.00 and BWP24.00 for repairs and

medics a month. Those who ask for water from neighboring villages bear higher costs

with an average cost of BWP 233.33 a month because water is bulky, and expensive to

transport relative to its value per unit of weight34; followed by buying bottled retail water

with BWP196.25 and buying private borehole water with an average BWP 112.00 a

month.

34 (Hodges, Hansen , & McLeod, 2014) argues that variable cost for transportation of water also depends upon distance conveyed, fuel costs for the tugboat, and the volume of the water.

PAGE 21

Water from Neighboring VillagesPrivate Borehole water

Bottled retail water

0 50 100 150 200 25024 100

180.53233.33

112196.25

Average Cover Cost on Action taken for the water Effects

Mitigation measures Repairs Medicinal

Price in (bwp) pula

Mea

sure

take

n

Conclusion and RecommendationsThe study shows that Molepolole residents can tell and are aware of the difference in the

water used in their locality to that used in other localities. As illustrated in Table 1, the

respondents are not satisfied with the quality of the water used in their locality, especially

with the water taste than they are with water color. Despite their dissatisfaction with the

water quality, people in Molepolole still use the hard water in their locality. Children

under the age of 12 are vulnerable than adults to illnesses like diarrhea, diarrhea

illustrated in Figure 2 as the common disease in Molepolole caused by hard water usage

especially consumption. Hard water also causes clogging of kettles, showerheads and

sinks and irons as demonstrated in Figure 3, this is because of the water’s lime scale

buildup in the appliances. The rationality35 of Molepolole residents is illustrated by

Figure 4, which shows how determined they are to get safe water, enduring costs to deal

with the hard water they use and its effects.

Based on the results of the study there is a need for a water treatment plant in Molepolole

which will ensure safe soft water for the residents to use, ultimately improving their

socio-economic life. In agreement, (Sarkozi, 2014) maintains that access to clean water is

crucial in preventing diarrhea and in the fight against poverty and disease.

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PAGE 22

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Appendix

Consent FormImplications of the Household (Domestic) Use of Hard Water on Molepolole

Residents

PAGE 26

Dumelang, my name is____________________________________. I am working on my

final project focusing on hard water usage and its implications on Molepolole residents

under the Department of Sociology, University of Botswana. Throughout this study, I

wish to find out more on how the water you use affects you on the household’s day to day

activities and use the results to voice or the need of water treatment plant in Molepolole.

The findings from this study will not be published but will most importantly serve as part

of my assessment and examination for a course tilted SOC 442 Data Analysis and Report

writing.

I am here to collect information related to this project. The information that you will

share will be kept confidential and will be used only for the purpose of the course. Your

answers may be used in the presentations but rest assured you will not be identified,

whether by name or anyhow.

Anonymity is guaranteed even though you will ask for the household members names but

if you are not comfortable with providing your names or of any other person it is still

fine. Your participation in the study is voluntary, if you choose to be part of the survey;

you can withdraw anytime you feel you do not want to continue and you may not or

refuse to answer questions you are not comfortable with. I, however hope you will

participate in the study since your input will assist in determining the effects of use of

hard water by households in Molepolole. The survey will take about 10 minutes.

Researcher Contact Details; Koketso Kanekane,

Cell Number: 71806382

Email : kanekanekoketso@gmail.com

Do you have any questions to ask me about the survey at this time?

If you agree to participate on the study;

Please Tick In the

PAGE 27

Box

1. I confirm that I have been informed and understand the purpose of the above study and was given the opportunity to ask questions.

2. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time, without prejudice

3. I agree to take part in the above study.

4. I agree to the methods that will be used to collect (questionnaire and interviews)

5. I give permission for my words to be used in a report but that my name will not be mentioned in publications

Name of Participant Signature Date

Name of Researcher Signature Date

Time started: ______________________ Time finished:______________________

Questionnaire

House number: ______________________

House Hold members:

PAGE 28

Member1 Member2 Member3 Member4 Member5Name:

Gender: Male=1,Female=2AgeHealth condition

(For Health condition, answer by: 1=Pregnant, 2=Chronic illness, 0=Fit)

How long is it since you came to stay here, in this village or urban location? [Years]__________

1= less than a year 2= 1-2 years 3= 2-5 years 4= 5-10 years 5= more than 10 years

Tick to answer the following:1. Are you aware of any difference in the quality of the water used in your locality

from the water used elsewhere? Yes_____ No_____2. Based on your awareness, is it better, the same, or worse than before?

Much Better____ Better ___ About the same___ Worse____ Much Worse____

3. Are you satisfied with the quality of water you use on household basis? With regards to:

Water colour Yes_____ No_____ Taste Yes_____ No_____4. Are you satisfied with the quality of water you use on household basis? Yes___

No___5. If yes, how satisfied were you with the quality of the water?

Somewhat Satisfied ____ Satisfied ____ Very Satisfied ____ Delighted ____

6. If no, how dissatisfied were you with the quality of the water? Somewhat Satisfied ____ Not Satisfied ____ Not at all Satisfied ____ Displeased ____

7. What do you on day to day basis use the water for in the house?I. Indicate each use of the water or activity by the mark of [X]

Drinking Cooking Bathing Brushing teeth Washing Flushing the toilet Watering

PAGE 29

8. Are you aware of consequences/ about the safety of the use of the water? Yes___ No___

9. Any problems observed from the use of the water? Yes____ No____ If yes,

i. Any observed signs of infections from the use of the water? Yes____ No____

ii. What was the illness or problem? (more than one answer possible)_______________

1=Diarrhoea 2= Stomach Ache

3= Yellow teeth

4=Vomiting 5=Skin related

6=Unspecified

10. Others, (specify) ______________________________________________________

iii. Who has been mostly affected_______________________________________ (Use house hold member code, e.g.; member 5)

11. Have you addressed the above identified problems arising from the use of the water? Yes____ No____

12. If yes, to who diagnosed the illness? _________________________

1= Medical worker

2=Traditional healer

3= Self 4= Other HH member

5= Non-HH member

6= Other (Specify)

13. If no, what action did you take to find relief for your illness? ______________________

1= Did nothing, not serious

2= Did nothing, no money

3= Used medicine had in stock

4= Personally known remedies

5= Others (Specify)

14. How much in total did you spend in the past 4 weeks for all illnesses, including for medicine, tests, consultation, & in-patient fees? __________________________

1= P10-20 2= P20-50 3= P50-80 4= P80-100 5= more than P100Other (Specify) ___________________________________________________________

15. Has anyone had to stop their normal activities because of this (these) illness? Yes___ No___

A. If Yes, for how many days_______________

1= a day 2= a day-two days

3= two-three days

4=three-four days

5= four days-five days

6=more than a week

PAGE 30

16. Has anyone else in the household had to stop their normal activities to care for anyone? Yes___ No___

B. If Yes, for how many days___________________

1= a day 2= a day-two days

3= two-three days

4=three-four days

5= four days-five days

6=more than a week

17. Household items that the use water in the houseI. Indicate by the mark of [X] the working items available in the house that

use the water

Mark [X]Item Electric

KettleElectric Iron

Geyser Dishwasher Washing machine

Toilet Showerheads and sinks

Fridge

18. Any observed dysfunction to house hold items from the water use? Yes___No___ II. If Yes, indicate by the mark of [X] the form of dysfunction to the items

Mark [X]Damage Clogged

(Broken) kettle

Clogged (Broken) iron

Blocked (Clogged) Geyser

Blocked dishwasher

Blocked washing machine

Blocked toilet pipes

Blocked refrigerator filters

Blocked showerheads and sinks

19. Have you repaired any of the damaged household items? Yes____ No_____III. If yes, how much in total (estimated value) have you spent for household

item repairs? _______

1= 50-100 2= 100-150 3= 150-200 4= 20-250 5= 250-300 Other (Specify)IV. If no, what action did you take in relation to the damaged household

items? _____

1=did nothing 2=did nothing, no money 3=threw it away Other (Specify)

20. What measures have you put in place in the house to mitigate the problem? Indicate by the mark [X] the measure you undertook (more than one answer possible)____________

1=Buy bottled retail water

2=Buy water

3=Ask for water from neighbouring villages

4=Boil before using

5=Report to water

6=Did nothing

PAGE 31

from private boreholes

authorities

Other (Specify) ____________________________________________________________

21. If you answered 1, how much in total did you spend on buying retail water on an average month? (estimated value) ___________________

22. If you answered 2, how much in total did you spend on buying borehole water on an average month? (estimated value)____________________

23. If you answered 3, how much in total did you spend to travel to a neighboring village for water on an average month? (estimate value)_____________________

Thank You, Have a Good Day.

PAGE 32