Implementation of an Off-season Training

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IMPLEMENTATION OF AN OFF-SEASON TRAINING

PROGRAMME TO ENHANCE THROWING PERFORMANCE INHIGH SCHOOL ATHLETES

ByDAUW BRIEDENHANN

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

MAGISTER TECHNOLOGIAE: SPORT AND EXERCISETECHNOLOGY

In the

Department Of Sport Sciences

FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES

TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Supervisor: Prof J.F. Cilliers

May 2004


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ABSTRACTImplementation of an off-season training programme to enhance throwingperformance in high school athletes.D. BRIEDENHANN

The challenge created by the school environment is to develop a training program for

athletes with continuous progression and that will achieve better performance (Conroy

(Feb 1999: 52-54).

The athletes were randomly picked to participate in the study, and a group of +/-30

athletes were selected who had at least 1 year of technique training and who was

16years or older. Both boys and girls were eligible to participate in the study.The study will also monitored a control group who had not participated in the sport

specific training program that is suggested.

The test protocol consists of full body flexibility testing, isokinetic strength testing

consisting of shoulder flexion/extension, shoulder internal/external rotation, elbow

flexion/extension, and knee flexion/extension, functional strength, explosive strength,

muscular endurance, posture analysis, and athletic type lifts.

The importance of this research study lies therein that the implementation of basic

periodization concepts will assist schools, coaches and athletes to overcome problems

such as over training, overuse injuries, limited performance capabilities and

ineffective maintenance of sport specific seasonal programmes.

The results indicate that when making use of specific exercises such as strength

training, functional strength training, and athletic type lifts, such as discussed in this

study, the athlete will achieve optimal performance when this training is implemented

as part of off season training.


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This study is dedicated to my Dad and MomFor their love and support.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to:

My study leader, Prof J.F. Cilliers, for his positive attitude and guidance. Tshwane University of Technology, for financial assistance. Menlopark High School, for athletes and facilities. The exercise models, Jean and Cara. All involved in assisting to finshing this final product.


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INDEXPAGE

CHAPTER 1

1. THE PROBLEM1

1.1 Introduction1

1.2 Study Purpose1

1.3 Problem statement2

1.4 Hypothesis2

CHAPTER 2

2. LITERATURE STUDY

3

2.1 The Basis For Designing a Scientifically Based Training Program3

2.2 Principles and concepts of strength training5

2.3 The physiological laws of training6

2.3.1 Law of overload 6

2.3.2 Law of Specificity 10

2.3.3 Law of Reversibility 13

2.4 The Psychological Principles Of Training16

2.5 The Pedagogical Principles Of Training17

2.6 Trends in Training Theory17

2.7 FORCE AS MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTIC 21


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3 PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS OF POWER PRODUCTION23

3.1 Principles of power production

24

3.1.1 Resistance training 25

3.1.2 Plyometrics 26

3.1.3 Sprint training28

3.1.4 Sport specific training 30

3.2 Physiology of power training32

3.2.1 Motor unit recruitment and rate coding 33

3.2.2 Hypertrophy factors 36

3.2.3 The muscular system 36

3.2.4 The nervous system 37

3.2.5 The neuromuscular connection 38

3.2.6 The cardiovascular system 38

4. EXPLOSIVE EXERCISES38

4.1 Athletic type strength training = Transfer of training41

4.2 Base strength training exercises41

4.3 Dynamic strength / speed power exercises42

4.4 Specific speed / quickness exercises43

CHAPTER 3

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3. METHODOLOGY

45

3.1 Selection of subjects45

3.2 Anatomical principles that needs to be considered 46

3.3 The mechanical principles involved in throwing47

3.4 The test protocol49

3.4.1 Flexibility Testing 49

3.4.1.1 Lower back & Hamstring 49

3.4.1.2 Shoulder internal & external rotation 50

3.4.1.3 Shoulder abduction & adduction 50

3.4.1.4 Elbow flexion & extension 51

3.4.1.5 Hip flexion & extension 51

3.4.2 Strength Testing 52

3.4.2.1 Knee extension & flexion 53

3.4.2.2 Shoulder internal & external rotation 53

3.4.2.3 Elbow flexion & extension 54

3.4.3 Testing Functional Strength 54

3.4.3.1 Lower back 55

3.4.3.2 Pulley flexion 55

3.4.4 Testing Explosive Strength 55

3.4.4.1 Medicine ball putt 55

3.4.4.2 Medicine ball seated backward throw56

3.4.4.3 Medicine ball overhead throw 56

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3.4.5 Testing muscular endurance 56

3.4.5.1 Sit ups 57

3.4.5.2 Push ups 57

3.4.5.3 Pull ups 58

3.4.6 Testing Posture 58

3.4.7 Testing Athletic Type Lifts 58

3.4.7.1 Push press 59

3.5 THE BLUEPRINT TRAINING DESIGN59

3.5.1 Neural control60

3.5.2 Central nervous system 60

3.5.3 Peripheral nervous system 61

3.5.3.1 Sensory division 61

3.5.3.2 Motor division61

3.5.3.2(1) Somatic nervous system61

3.5.3.2(2) Autonomic nervous system61

3.5.3.2(2)(i) Sympathetic 62

3.5.3.2(2)(ii) Parasympathetic 62

3.6 Primary muscle groups used 62

3.7 Range and duration of movement64

3.8 Strength speed requirements65

3.9 Metabolic considerations65

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3.10 THE TRAINING PROGRAM 67

3.11 RESISTANCE TRAINING AND CHILDREN 70

3.12 EFFECTIVENESS OF THE PROGRAM 72

CHAPTER 4

4. RESULTS

73

4.1 Cybex strength testing73

4.2 Flexibility testing75

4.3 Functional strength testing77

4.4 Explosive strength testing78

4.5 Muscular endurance testing79

4.6 Posture testing79

4.7 Athletic type lifts testing80

4.8 Antropometric measurements testing80

CHAPTER 5

5. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

83

5.1 The effect of the training program on strength measurements83

5.2 The effect of the training program on functional strength87

5.3 The effect of the training program on athletic type lifts

88

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5.4 The effect of the training program on antropometric measurements89

5.5 The effect of the training program on flexibility measurements89

5.6 The effect of the training program on explosive strength90

5.7 The effect of the training program on muscular endurance91

5.8 The effect of the training program on posture measurements91

CHAPTER 6

6. SUMMARY

93

6.1 Flexibility93

6.2 Strength93

6.3 Functional strength94

6.4 Explosive strength94

6.5 Muscular endurance94

6.6 Posture95

6.7 Athletic type lifts95

6.8 Antropometric measurements95

6.9 Recommendations 95

6.10 Conclusion 96

BIBLIOGRAPHY97

VI


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ANNEXURE A Visual presentation of training 101

ANNEXURE B Test protocol116

ANNEXURE C Letter to parents 118

ANNEXURE D Consent form120

ANNEXURE E Posture analysis 122

LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE

Figure 2.1 Auxiliary science 3

Figure 2.2 Blueprint of Strength Training Management4

Figure 2.3 Training effect (Overcompensation curve)8

Figure 2.4 Effective & Ineffective Training effect 8

Figure 2.5 Overloading Microcycle (Super compensation) 9

Figure 2.6 Interdependence of biomotor abilities12

Figure 2.7 Dominant biomotor abilities12

Figure 2.8 Progressive overload 14

Figure 2.9 Progressive overload over microcycles 14

Figure 2.10 The athlete ecosystem 18

Figure 2.11 Energy drain18

Figure 2.12 Training structure for athletes 19

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Figure 2.13 Details of a future training theory20

Figure 2.14 Force velocity curve 23

Figure 2.15 Athletic type strength training 41

LIST OF TABLESPAGE

Table 2.1 Restoration times for restoring phosphagen 7

Table 2.2 Restoration times for different energy systems 7

Table 2.3 Estimating intensity of effort 10

Table 2.4 Factors related to force generating capabilities 33

Table 2.5 Types of explosive exercises 40

Table 3.1 Primary muscle groups used 63

Table 3.2 Experimental group training program 69Table 3.3 Control group training program 70

Table 4.1 Strenth testing results 75

Table 4.2 Flexibility testing results 77

Table 4.3 Functional strength testing results 78

Table 4.4 Explosive strength testing results 78

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Table 4.5 Muscular endurance testing results81

Table 4.6 Postur testing results 81

Table 4.7 Athletic type lifts testing results 81

Table 4.8 Antropometric measurements testing results 82

Table 5.1 Effect of training on tested variables 86

Table 7.1 Discus Power exercises 102

Table 7.2 Discus Weight training 104

Table 7.3 Discus Core exercises 106

Table 7.4 Javelin Power exercises 106

Table 7.5 Javelin Weight training 107

Table 7.6 Javelin Core exercises 110

Table 7.7 Shot put Power exercises110

LIST OF TABLES

PAGE

Table 7.8 Shot put Weight training111

Table 7.9 Shot put Core exercises 114

Table 7.10 Explosive exercises 114

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CHAPTER 1

1. THE PROBLEM

1.1 Introduction

The high school setting provides confines for the strength and conditioning specialist to develop a

training program. There needs to be change, revision and modification along the way (Conroy

1999:52).

The challenge created therefore by the school environment, Conroy (Feb 1999:52-54) is to develop

a training program for athletes with continuous progression. Stone et al (1999:56-62) discusses the

fact that research in the field of strength training is limited. According to the authors, most currentinformation on periodization and variations on strength training programs are obtained from

observations, written data, referred information from related studies and a series of meso-cycle

length periodization studies.

Stone et al (1999:56-62) explains that the periodization concept is not a new one and that its focus

is on preparing athletes for seasonal competitive programs. Periodization is defined by Stone et al

(1999:56-62) as a logical facet method to manipulate training variables in an effort to increase the

potential for achieving a specific goal. Periodization does not only prepare the athlete for

immediate competition but also for forthcoming training years. Periodization therefore is long term

planning of quality preparation to increase performances.

1.2 Study Purpose

The importance of this research study is the implementation of basic periodization concepts that will

assist schools, coaches and athletes to overcome problems such as over training, overuse injuries,

limited performance capabilities and ineffective maintenance of sport specific seasonal

programmes.

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1.3 Problem statement

Preparation for the in-season school athlete in South Africa is forced into a week or two after the

summer holidays. According to the head coach javelin at the Menlo Park High School, the start of

each athletic season is an advanced form of crisis management.

This is attributed to the fact that athletes do not participate in an off-season training program for

throwing events such as javelin, and the consequences of this are poor results and that the athletes

are not physically fit to compete. The incidence of injuries is very high and yearly talented athletes

end up on the injured list. This however, is not just a South African problem and is seen worldwide.

Arnheim and Prentice (2003) found the same situation at schools in America and Europe.

1.4 Hypothesis

The implementation of an off-season training program for high school field athletes will cause a

noticeable progression in the results that are achieved.

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CHAPTER 2

2. LITERATURE STUDY

2.1 The Basis For Designing a Scientifically Based Training Program

According to Bompa (1999:3) the need for scientifically based training programs has progressed

over the past few years. Performance levels unimaginable before are now commonplace, and the

number of athletes capable of outstanding results are increasing. There is no easy answer to these

dramatic improvements. One factor is that athletics is a challenging field, and intense motivation

has encouraged long, hard hours of work. Coaching has become more sophisticated, partially due to

the assistance of sport specialists and scientists. A broader base of knowledge about athletes now

exists, which is reflected in training methodology. Sport sciences have progressed from descriptive

to scientific.

Bompa (1999:4) state exercise is now the focus of sport science". Research from several sciences

enriches the theory and methodology of training, which has become a science of its own (Fig 2.1).

Anatomy Physiology Biomechanics Statistics Test &Measurements

SportsMedicine

Theory and methodology of training

Psychology Motor learning

Pedagogy Nutrition History Sociology

Figure 2.1 Auxiliary sciences

(Adapted Bompa. 1999: 4)

Bompa (1999:4) states that during training the athlete reacts to various stimuli, some of which may

be predicted more certainly than others. All this diverse auxiliary science information is collected

from the training process. The coach, who builds the training process, may not always be in

aposition to evaluate it. However, we must evaluate all the feedback from the training process to

understand the athletes reaction to the quality of training and properly plan future programs.

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According to OShea (2000:4) a blueprint for athletic strength training and conditioning, represents

a strategic long term master plan designed to optimise true athletic potential (Fig 2.2). The key

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CHAPTER 2

elements of such a plan encompass the principle of training specificity, and the

concepts of variability, progressive overload, and periodization.

Blueprint of Athletic Strength Training ManagementKeys to Superior PerformanceAnalysis of Sport Specific Performance Demands

(Physical and Biomechanical)

Evaluation of Present Performance Goals

Design of the Training ProgramApplication of Scientific Training

Principles and Concepts

SAID Principle/Specificity Concept (specific adaptation to imposeddemands)

Progressive Overload Concept Variability Concept Periodization Concept

Training Prescription

Strength Speed Power Endurance FlexibilityMobility

AdaptationsPhysical Metabolic Mechanical Psychological

OPTIMAL ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE

Figure 2.2Blueprint of Athletic Strength Training Management

(OShea. 2000:5)

As previously mentioned, OShea (1995:7) designing a scientifically based athletic

strength and conditioning training program begins with the development of a multidimensional working blueprint. To achieve this the following is done:

STEP 1 Make a sports specific analysis of the physical and biomechanical

performance demands of your sport in terms of neural control, primary

muscle groups used, range of movement, duration of movement,

strength/speed requirements, and metabolic considerations.

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CHAPTER 2

STEP 2 Objectively test and evaluate your present performance level and its

relevance to the specific demands of your sport. Identify both strong

and weak points. Any deficiencies or imbalances must be corrected.

STEP 3 Based on your present performance level determine your future

performance goals, both long term and short term. Be realistic in

setting these goals. Dont expect to become bigger, stronger, and faster

overnight; it just wont happen. Keep in mind that total athletic

strength training is a long-term process.

STEP 4 Formulate and design your strength-training program using the datagenerated in steps 1 3. This requires an applied understanding of the

SAID principle (i.e. specific adaptation to imposed demands), and the

concepts of variability and periodization. Without the application of

these principles and concepts, all training is ultimately doomed to

failure.

2.2 Principles and concepts of strength training

Regardless of the training program used by a coach or athlete, it must conform to the

same principles of training. They are called principles because they will always hold

true. Any effective system must be planned around them. We will look at three types

of principles: the physiological, psychological, and pedagogical (teaching) (O Shea

2000:11).

The physiological principle is the physical effects of training on the athlete; they

concern the athletes physical state. The psychological principle affects the athletes

mental or physiological state. The pedagogical principles relate more to how training

is planned and implemented and how skills are taught, than to its physiological effects

(OShea 2000:11).

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CHAPTER 2

2.3 The physiological laws of training

2.3.1 Law of overload

The law of overload states that any improvement in fitness requires an

increased training load that challenges the athlete level of performance,

(Kirksey and Stone 1998:42). According to Bompa (1999:45) the

overloading principle represents another traditional loading pattern used

in training. According to the original proponents of this principle,

performance will increase only if athletes work at their maximum

capacity against workloads that are higher than those normallyencountered. Fox, Bowes and Foss (1989) suggest that the load in

training should increase throughout the course of the program. On a

short-term basis, an athlete may be able to cope with the stress of

overloading. On a long-term basis, however, it will lead to critical levels

of fatigue, burnout, and even over-training, because when rigidly applied

it does not allow phases of regeneration and psychological relaxation.

This can lead to overuse injuries and burnout. Many young athletesleave the sport before maximizing their physical capacity because they

are constantly exposed to continuous high intensity training, year in and

out. As illustrated in fig 2.3 loading causes fatigue, and when the

loading ends, recovery begins. According to Bompa (1999:115) and

Howley and Powers (1996:4658) under normal training situations

recovery (i.e. restoring fuels and removing metabolic by products)

require a certain length of time, depending on the energy system the

athletes use during training or competition (i.e. aerobic; anaerobic; or

anaerobic lactic). Different activities require different restoration times

for restoring phosphagen (Table 2.1). If the training load was optimal,

after recovery the athlete will be more fit (as a result of

overcompensation) than before the training load was applied (OShea

2000: 11-12).

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CHAPTER 2

According to Bompa (1999:115) restoring phosphagen (ATP CP)

requires energy derived from the oxygen system through the metabolism

of carbohydrates and fats. Phosphagen is restored rapidly, with 50% to

70% restored during the first 20 to 30 seconds and the remainder in 3

minutes.

Table 2.1Restoration times for restoring phosphagen

Adapted from Bompa (1999:115)

For 30sec 50%For 60sec 75%For 90sec 87%

For 120sec 93%For 150sec 97%For 180sec 98%

Table 2.2 indicates the time necessary for each energy system.

If the effort is less than 10 seconds, the phosphagen used is minimal.

Although phosphagen restoration demands little time, PC requires up to

10 minutes for full recovery.

Table 2.2

Restoration times for different energy systems

Adapted from Bompa(1999:116)

Recovery process Minimum MaximumRestoration of muscle phosphagen 2 min 3 5 min

Restoration of alacticid O 2 debt 3 min 5 minRestoration of O2 myoglobin 1 min 2 minRestoration of alacticid O 2 debt 30 min 1 hr

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CHAPTER 2

Figure 2.3

Training effect (Overcompensation curve)Adapted from Track Technique (1999)

This super compensation by the body is what training is all about. The

coach tries to plan a training load that will result in improved fitness

when the athlete has recovered. Loading imposed too soon during the

recovery stage, depending on the energy system demanded by activity,

will cause super compensation to fail and performance to decrease (Siff

and Verkhoshansky 1993:85). Siff and Verkhoshansky (1993:86) state

however that if the training load is too infrequent or imposed too late,

then super compensation (training effect) is minimal and performance

tends to stagnate after recovery (Fig 2.4).

Figure 2.4Effective and Ineffective Training Effect

Adapted from Siff & Verkhoshansky (1993:86)

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Zatsiorsky (1995:15) state that if the training load is too big the athlete

will be fortunate to return even to the original fitness level. An

overloading micro cycle may be designed with too little rest, followed by

a longer recovery that results in super compensation as illustrated in fig

2.5.

Figure 2.5Overloading Micro cycle (Super compensation)

Adapted from Zatsiorsky (1995:15)

The law of overload is challenged by two components that needs

consideration:

i) Principle of individualization Each athlete reacts to a training

stimulus in a slightly different way. This principle requires that

training be planned in terms of the individuals abilities, needs

and potential (Kurz 1991). The coach must consider the athletes

chronological and biological (physical maturity) age, experience

in the sport, skill level, capacity for effort and performance,

training and health status, training load capacity and rate of

recovery, body build and nervous system type, and sexual

differences (especially during puberty), (Kraemer & Fleck,

1993:9-15).

ii) Principle of Multilateral Development This principle calls for developing a base of general skills and fitness as a foundation for developing the more

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specialized skills of each event. This multilateral development refers to the

general motor skills and fitness development that are the major goal of the

early part of the training year. This principle should be a major consideration

in the training of children and junior athletes (Bompa, 1999: 29).

2.3.2 Law of Specificity

The law of specificity states that the nature of the training load

determines the training effect. The training needs to be specific to the

desired effect (Dick, 1978:36-39). To train properly for an event, an

athlete must use training methods designed to meet the specific demandsof that event. The training load becomes specific when it has the proper

training ratio (load to recovery) and structure of loading (intensity to

load).

Intensity is the quality or difficulty of the training load. The measure of

intensity depends on the specific attribute being developed or tested.

Dick (1978:36-39) and Harre (1982:73-94) state that the intensity of theeffort is based on the percentage of the athletes best effort (Table 2.3).

Table 2.3Estimating Intensity of Effort

Adapted from Dick (1978:36) & Harre (1982:73)

Intensity Work

Percent of Maximum

Strength Heart rate* Endurance %VO 2 max

MaximumSub maximum

HighMedium

LightLow

95 10085 9575 8565 7550 6530 50

90 10080 90

70 8050 7030 50

190+180 190

165150

-130

100907560-

50* Should be based on % of athletes max heart rate.

The extent of the training load is the sum of all training in terms of time,

distance and accumulative weight, while the duration of the load is the

portion of the load devoted to a single type of training.

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Law of specificity supports two principles:

i) Principle of specialization refers to training exercise that

develops the capacities and techniques needed for a specific

activity or event as illustrated in fig 2.6 interdependence of bio

motor abilities and in fig 2.7 dominant bio motor abilities

(Bompa 1999:29-49).

Elite training is not purely specialized training, any more than it

is all general or multilateral training. Bompa (1999:33-51)

suggests a gradual change of emphasis from multilateral tospecific training as the athlete ages.

ii) Principle of modelling the training process calls for the

development of a model of the competitive event. This model is

used to develop the training pattern, which closely simulates the

competitive requirements of the event. The greatest difficulty of

modelling is that it requires years to develop and perfect themodel. It begins with the coachs analysis of the competitive

event, but from that point onward the emphasis is upon trial and

error based refinement of the model (Bompa 1999: 40-44).

Strength Endurance Speed Co -ordination

Flexibility

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CHAPTER 2

Muscular endurance

Speed endurance Agility Mobility

Power

Maximumstrength

Anaerobicendurance

Aerobicendurance

Maximumspeed

Perfect co -ordination

Full rangeflexibility

Figure 2.6 Interdependence of bio motor abilitiesAdapted from Bompa (1990: 8)

Figure 2.7Dominant bio motor abilities


2.3.3 Law of Reversibility

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The law of reversibility states that if the loading does not continue the fitness

level will fall. In essence, the training effect will reverse itself. If the training

does not become more challenging, the fitness level will plateau (flatten out). If

the training were to stop, the fitness level will gradually drop until it reaches

such a level to only maintain normal daily activities (Dick 1978:36-39).

Several principles support the law of reversibility:

i) Principle of increasing demands states that the training load

must continue to increase if the athletes general and specific

fitness are to continue to improve. According to OShea(2000:142-143) this progressive overload principle, states that if

continuous progress is to be made in strength and conditioning,

training demands (intensity/volume/frequency) must be

progressively increased. When the demands are increased too

fast or are of two great a magnitude, over training occurs. If they

are not progressive, adaptation stops and performance stagnates.

Zatsiorsky (1995:15-16) explains that the training load mustincrease regularly (progressive overload) for the performance

level to improve (Fig 2.8).

ii) OShea (2000:142-143) states further that the progressive

overload principle must be applied in a systematic step wise

increase, weekly or bi-weekly, in the intensity of the core lifts.

The increase is made in small graded steps to allow for adequate

physiological adaptations to the training stimuli and build your

work tolerance. Making a too large jump in intensity or volume

results in over training, negative progress and injury. Although

the progressive overload principle calls for a weekly increase it is

not a hard and fast rule. If an off-day is experienced continue

with previous weeks intensity or use the workout as an active rest

day.

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CHAPTER 2

Figure 2.8Progressive overload

Adapted from Zatsiorsky (1995:5)

iii) Bompa (2000:46) indicates that the load may rise and fall

(allowing recovery and compensation) across the different micro

cycles (Fig 2.9). The training ratio is critical (load to recovery).

Figure 2.9Progressive overload over micro cycles


iv) Principle of continuous load demand requires that the athlete

does not have long interruptions to training. While tapering is used

to reach a peak, too much time spent with low training loads will

cause a drop in fitness level. Only constantly increasing the

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training load from year to year will create superior adaptation and

thus superior performance (Bompa 1999:44).

v) Principle of feasibility is that the planned training load must be

realistic. This is a critical aspect of the principle of increasing

demands. The demand should never be beyond the reasonable

capability of the athlete, or it will become psychologically

destructive to the athletes progress (Bompa 1999:45).

vi) Restoration is time spent recovering from a high training load. If

too little restoration is allowed, the athlete will gradually losefitness. According to Bompa (1999:117) the amount of glycogen

depleted during exercise will determine some replenishment

requirements (i.e. the greater the exercise time, the greater the

carbohydrates metabolised). During intermittent exercise, blood

glucose levels are hardly affected due to the greater involvement of

fast twitch fibres that do not rely on blood glucose or liver glycogen

stores for fuel. Instead these fibres rely heavily on glycogen andCP (Bompa 1999: 117).

vii) Active rest is a form of restoration that includes physical activity

of a light nature. It allows the athletes recovery, yet it helps to

maintain a base of general fitness, consisting of low intensity and

low volume weight training or other activity (Baechle 1994: 456).

According to Bompa (1999:225), active rest should begin

immediately following the main competition. During the first week,

progressively reduce both work volume and intensity, and

emphasize exercise of a different nature from those regularly used

in training. If athletes want to completely postpone physical

activity, either because of specific medical treatment or a high

degree of nervous exhaustion, it should be done the week after the

first week of detraining. After total rest, the following two to three

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CHAPTER 2

weeks should consist of active rest, fun, and general enjoyment

including physical activities (Bompa 1999: 225).

Plan the activities for this phase or allow athletes to plan it on their

own. The coach should not be present when the athlete perform

these activities and the athletes have to be comfortable to do what

they want and have fun. Active rest creates changes in environment

and training, and positively affect central nervous system

relaxation. Active rest, among many things, allow the body to use

protein to build and repair damaged tissues (Bompa 2000:225).

2.4 The Psychological Principles Of Training

2.4.1 Principle of active, conscientious participation means that for optimal

results the athlete must be actively involved in the training process by his

or her own choice. Training is a co-operative venture between the coach

and the athlete (Bompa, 1999:225).

2.4.2 Principle of awareness is the requirement that the coach explain to the

athletes what the training program involves. Harre (1982:73-94)

states that It also implies that they are in a position to participate

actively in the planning and evaluation of their training. This includes

developing the determination and independence of the athlete.

2.4.3 Principle of variety According to OShea (2000:11) the complex nature

of training is where the training variable encompasses the concept of

cross training. It differs from sport specific training in that it allows for

the simultaneous training of multiple physiological variables (e.g.

aerobic and anaerobic power, strength, speed, and power) contributing to

peak athletic performance. In this way boredom or staleness can be

avoided.

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2.4.4 Principle of psychological rest at times the exhaustion experienced

comes from mental or psychological strain, rather than the physical

training load (Bompa 1999:111114). An athlete benefits from change

of pace activities that free the mind from training and competing.

2.5 The Pedagogical Principles Of Training

2.5.1 Principle of planning and use of systems requires that the training

program be designed systematically and efficiently, from the long-term

program down to the individual training unit (McInnis 1981: 7-12).

2.5.2 Principle of periodization calls for the development of the training

program through a series of cycles or training periods (Harre, 1982:73-

94).

2.5.3 Principle of visual presentation is to try to make training information as

vivid as possible for the athlete.

2.6 Trends in Training Theory

Wells & Gilman (1991: 15-29) examine the athlete as an ecosystem, declaring that the

biological, psychological, and sociological factors of the athletes ecosystem

determine the athletes potential for adaptation to training (Fig 2.10).

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Figure 2.12Training structure for athletes

Adapted from Tschiene (1989:150)

This quality approach that Tschiene (1989:150) calls for is the basic periodization concept of controlling and manupilating intensity, volume,frequency, duration, rest, variation and specificity. To manage this over theentire training year (macrocycle), within smaller periods of several months(mesocycle) and day to day (microcycles), as indicated in fig 2.12.

Gambetta (1989:7-10) suggests that seven trends are visible in the current training

theory:

2.6.1 Synergy The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

2.6.2 The concepts of periodization are being re-evaluated.

2.6.3 Validity of the Matveyevan model This simple model applies best to earlier

years of training. As an athlete reaches higher levels, a more complex model

(Fig 2.13) of Tschiene (1989:151) becomes more appropriate.

2.6.4 The effects of drugs

2.6.5 Youth training and early specialization.

2.6.6 The long-term career plan.

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2.6.7 Modelling and quantifying training.

The basic conceptions. Theory of functional systems. Theory of human acting.

The laws of functional adaptation Problems of transfer

The role of competition exercise

Variations of adaptations.

* Differentwork organization.* Differentlevels of

performance.* Sex and age.

The specificmuscle fibrecomposition.

Theaccumulated

effect of training in

sports.

The annualstructure of training indifferentsports.

* Complexesof methods for

specialconditioning.* Abilities.

* Variation of methods.

* Apparatusfor specific

conditioning.

The training potential of exercises. A

newclassification

of exercises intraining

technical perfectioningstrategy with

& withoutapparatus

application.

Typology of sportsmen.

Individual approach psychology.

The modelling of:* The result.

* The special load.The system of control in training.

Figure 2.13Details of a future theory of trainingAdapted from Tschiene (1989:151)

SAID principles (OShea 2000:11) states, According to this principle, the bodys

response to stress is specific adaptation to imposed demands. The SAID principle

underlies sport specific training and is the guiding force of athletictype strengthtraining (defined as training to assist the athlete to attain their potential by developing

the qualities of strength, speed, quickness, and full range body power, which are

transferable to power orientated sports), (OShea 2000:105). It explains that

physiological, neurological and psychological adaptation will occur in direct response

to the imposed training demands. If, however, these demands are not specific to the

performance demands of your sport, no functional adaptation will take place,

(Functional, in this sense, means transferable.). To a large extent, this explains whyexplosive athletictype strength training holds a high degree of specificity for all

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sports. Compared to other types of strength training (bodybuilding or machines),

athletictype strength training comes the closest to duplicating the strength, speed, and

power requirements for highpowered athletic performance.

According to OShea (2000:11) in formulating a strength training program the SAID

principle dictates:

i) Choice of athletictype lifts,

ii) Choice of auxiliary or supplemental lifts,

iii) Intensity of training,

iv) Volume of training (i.e., number of reps and sets),

v) Type of supplemental conditioning training,vi) Recuperative rest periods.

Bompa (1999:318) indicated that strength is the ability to apply force. Its development

should be the prime concern of anyone who attempts to improve an athletes

performance. Using several strength development methods leads to faster growth, by

8 to 12 times that of using only skills available for a certain sport. It seems that

strength training is, therefore, one of the most important ingredients in the process of developing athletes. Theoretically, we can refer to force as a mechanical

characteristic and a human ability. In the former case, force is the object of studies in

mechanics, and in the latter, it is the scope of physiological and methodical

investigation in training.

2.7 FORCE AS A MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTIC

Direction, magnitude, or the point of application could determine force. OShea

(2000: 88) state Newtons second law of motion, force is equal to mass (m) times

acceleration (a), or:

F = m . a

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Consequently Bompa (1999:319) showed that an athlete can increase strength by

changing one or both factors (m or a). Such change results in quantitative alterations

to consider when developing strength.

The following equations used in mechanics illustrates this point:

F mx = M mx . A

And

F mx = m . A mx

Where F. mx is maximum force; M. mx is maximum mass; and A. mx means

maximum acceleration.

In the first equation, maximum force develops by using the maximum mass (or load)

possible; whereas the same result occurs in the second equation by using the

maximum speed of movement. The force that an athlete can apply and the velocity atwhich he or she can apply it maintain an inverse relationship. This is true for the

relationship between an athletes applied force and the time over which he or she can

apply it. The gain in speed or time ability is at the expense of the other.

Consequently, although force may be the dominant characteristic of ability, you

cannot consider it in isolation because the speed and time component will directly

affect its application (Bompa, 1999:319). OShea (2000: 86) states force is the effect

one body has upon another. A weight can be lifted only when force has been applied,

however it is possible to have force without motion, as in functional isometric lifting.

O Shea (2000: 86) states further that force does not affect motion when its result is

zero though the effects can be seen and measured in terms of magnitude, direction and

point of application.

The force-velocity inverse relationship, is demonstrated by Hill (1922:19-41) and

Ralston et al. (1949:526-533). An adaptation of Ralstons force velocitycurve is

illustrated by fig 2.14, which demonstrates that when the mass is low, the acceleration

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is high, given maximum effort by the participant. As the mass increases the

acceleration decreases up to no movement at all.

Figure 2.14Force velocity curve

Adapted from OShea (2000:89)

The magnitude of the force directly relates to the magnitude of the mass. This

relationship is linear only at the beginning, when the force increases as the mass of the

moving object increases. A continuous elevation of a mass will not necessarily result

in an equally increase in applied force. The force per gram that an athlete applies

against a shot putt will, therefore, be greater than that for lifting a barbell. As

suggested by Florescu et al . (1969), to put a shot of 7.250 kg a distance of 18.19 m, an

athlete displays a power of 6.9 horsepower (h.p.) or 5.147 watts, but to snatch

(weightlifting) 150 kg requires only 4.3 h.p. or 3.207 watts.

3. PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS OF POWER PRODUCTION

The primary purpose of athletictype strength training is to increase maximum kinetic

energy and increase acceleration and speed for maximum time and/or distance through

a full range of multi joint movements (OShea, 2000:85).

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According to Chu (1996:2) the optimal way to develop explosive strength and

maximum power is by using complex training which is a workout system that

combines strength work and speed work for the optimal training effect. Exercise

scientists define power as the optimal combination of speed and strength to produce

movement. Power is what separates the medal winners from the also runs, and it is

power that will make you a winner. Some athletes lift weights to develop power,

some perform plyometrics and some do both. Complex training develops power in a

very sport specific manner.

According to Haff & Potteiger (2001:13-20) explosive exercise can be defined as

having a maximal or near maximal initial rate of force development that is maintainedthroughout a specified range of motion. These types of exercises are marked by a

rapid initiation of force production and focus on movement accelerations, which result

in near maximal or maximal movement velocities at a given resistance.

Baker (2001:47-56) indicated that Intensity for strength training is defined in a

number of accepted manners (e.g. 5 repetition maximum [5 RM] or a percentage of 1

RM). However, intensity in power training may refer to the percentage of maximum power output. Therefore, intense power training resistance is the resistance that

allows for power output to be as close to the maximum as possible. Consequently, an

intense power training session may require that the athlete generate a power output of

80% to 100% of his maximum even though the resistance may only be 40% to 60% of

his 1 RM. OShea (1995: 172-175) is of the same opinion.

3.1 Principles of Power Production

The concept of athletic type power does not mean the ability to lift heavy weights,

but rather the ability to apply force throughout a full range of body joint movements

with speed for maximum time and/or distance. Athletic power production involves

torso kinetic energy, torso rotational energy, and stored kinetic energy (OShea

1995:75) and (Adams et al. 1992:36-41)

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According to OShea (1995:83) kinetic energy is the energy of motion and is related

to both the mass of the body and velocity (momentum = MV). Torso kinetic energy is

the movement, which can be generated with athletic type lifts that produce torso

rotational energy, allowing you to exert force in multiple directions. Torso rotational

energy is the energy that comes from a body segment. It involves large muscle

groups generating great force through and around the centre of mass (bodys

power zone). For example, bending the hip flexor when jumping, squatting, or

cleaning, the hip joint creates a high torque, or movement force situation.

Stored kinetic energy, referred to as stored elastic energy, applies to all movement

involving eccentric forces. When a muscle contracts eccentrically under externalforce, it stretches and stores energy. Subsequently, stored energy is added to the

muscle force generated during concentric contraction as both are converted to kinetic

energy of motion (OShea, 1995:83). Application of the concept of stored kinetic

energy is the key to maximum high power output during athletic-type lifting and all

other activities requiring high instantaneous power (OShea, 1995:83).

Analysis of the squat movement illustrates the role stored kinetic energy plays in high power production. In the execution of a squat, during the hip flexion phase (descent),

energy generated from eccentric hip and quadriceps contraction and stretch reflex

contraction, in resisting gravitational force, is stored as kinetic energy. On the squat

recoil (extension), the lifter utilizes stored kinetic energy to generate greater

quadriceps force, and greater hip and torso rotational energy to accelerate and power

out of the bottom position (OShea, 1995:83).

According to Chu (1996:2) the proposed model of power training, called complex

training, focuses mainly on four major concepts, including resistance training,

plyometrics, sprint training and sport specific training.

3.1.1 Resistance Training

Most people tend to associate this with weight training, but anything that

makes a muscle work harder can be classified as resistance training.

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According to Baechle & Earle (2000:170) an athlete trains the various

physiological systems to encourage adaptation and improve performance.

This training must be specific to the desired outcome, since the body can

be subjected to large variations in exercise intensity and duration. At one

extreme, resistance training can involve very heavy loads with minimal

repetitions. At the other end, distance cycling or running requires a very

sub maximal muscular effort but it is extended over a long period of

time.

According to Chu (1996: 6) resistance training raises the bodys ability

to excite the motor neurons by nearly 50%. This gives the nervoussystem more involvement in the workout and prepares the muscle for

even greater challenges. However, the activity has to be a highintensity

session of strength training to achieve the best results. As with

plyometrics, quality is more important than quantity. The resistance

training portion of the complex training model will therefore consist of

low repetitions of moderate to heavy loads, as they produce the greatest

amount of motor neuron firing and preparation for plyometrics, (Chu,1996:5).

3.1.2 Plyometrics

Defined by Chu (1998:2) plyometrics are exercises that enable a muscle

to reach maximum strength in as short a time as possible. This speed

and strength ability is known as power.

Explained by Baechle & Earle (2000:428) plyometric exercises is a

quick, powerful movement using a pre-stretch, or counter movement,

that involves the stretch shortening cycle.

The purpose of plyometric exercises according to Baechle & Earl

(2000:428) is to increase the power of subsequent movements by using

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both the natural and elastic components of muscle, and tendon and the

stretch reflex.

According to Hedrick (2002:71-74) and Holcomb et al. (1998: 36-39)

plyometric training is emphasized when the goal is to increase power.

However, it is important to select plyometric drills that are movement

specific; i.e. plyometric drills should be selected based on their similarity

to movements that occur within the sport. In this manner, plyometric

training can be used to link increases in strength to improved movement

capabilities. If the athletes ability to move effectively during

competition is enhanced as a result of training, then training can beconsidered on the right track toward developing optimal performance.

According to Chu (1996:6) plyometrics consists of hopping, skipping,

jumping, and throwing activities designed to make the athlete faster.

During the complex training method plyometrics must be done at

maximum speeds; sub maximal efforts will produce sub-maximal

results. This is an application of the law of specificity. Going from slowmuscles to fast muscles requires performing quick, explosive

movements. These activities must allow for minimal contact with the

ground (lower body) or the hand contact surface (upper body).

Plyometrics are the best answer for these types of exercise needs. Lower

body plyometrics exercise emphasizes quick foot movements and the

ability to get off the ground quickly. Upper body plyometric exercises

emphasize using medicine balls to teach the muscle to respond more

quickly to external forces (Chu, 1996:6).

According to Pettit & Bryson (2002:20-29) a plyometric program, if well

designed and properly performed, will have a positive effect on a

players speed, quickness, agility, and jumping ability and can ultimately

help prevent the incidence of non-contact knee injuries.

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According to Chu (1998:23) a plyometric training program for pubescent

athletes should begin as gross motor activities of low intensity. They

should be introduced into warm ups and then added to sport specific

skills. When designing the program Haff (1999:92-97) states that an

effective program accomplishes specific goals through manipulation of

four variables: intensity, volume, frequency, and recovery.

Intensity is the effort involved in performing a given task, in plyometrics

this means the type of exercise used, beginning with easy (skipping

drills) and progressing to more difficult (alternate bounding), (Chu,

1998: 27).

Volume is the total work performed in a single workout session. In

plyometric training this means counting foot contacts during a session.

In the off-season 60 to 100 foot contacts would be used for beginners and

120 to 200 for advanced athletes in the same season. This number will

increase as the season progress (Chu, 1998:28).

Frequency is the number of repetitions performed as well as the number

of times a session during a training cycle take place (Chu, 1998:29).

Recovery (Chu, 1998:30) is a key variable in determining whether

plyometrics will succeed in developing power or muscular endurance.

For power training, longer recovery periods is needed (45 to 60 seconds).

A work to rest ratio of 1:5 to 1:10 is required to assure proper execution

and intensity of the exercise.

3.1.3 Sprint Training

The third component or building block of the complex training method is

sprint training. According to Pettitt & Bryson (2002:20-29) a sprint

training program should focus on developing a variety of locomotor

skills observed in the specific sport. Too often, coaches devote

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significant time to general sprint training only to neglect training

explosive backward and diagonal movements.

According to Baechle & Earle (2000:472) in most sports, the ability to

change direction and speed is more important than simply achieving or

maintaining high velocity.

Chu (1996:7) from a totally theoretical standpoint, states that the speed

of movement in running depends on two factors: stride length and stride

frequency. Stride frequency is generally considered to be largely

dependent on the type of muscle fibre the athlete has. Faster musclefibre types give an athlete an advantage in the quality and speed of

muscle contraction. Slower muscle fibres provide an advantage in

maintaining work over prolonged periods because when faster fibres

fatigue there is a shift to slower fibres and maximum strength is

developed (OShea 2000: 62).

If an athlete cant make significant improvements in stride frequency by pushing harder and faster off the ground, the athlete looks toward

improving stride length. This is usually the case because it is so difficult

to improve stride frequency. Increasing stride length allows athletes to

cover the same distance as athletes with greater stride frequency in the

same amount of time, thereby offsetting their competitors advantage

(Baechle & Earle 2000:475).

The question can be posed: How do you go about increasing the ability

to push off the ground with more power? According to Baechle &

Earle (2000:472) the answer lies in the fact that such agility requires

rapid force development and high power output, as well as the ability to

efficiently couple eccentric and concentric actions in ballistic

movements. To get to this point (Chu, 1996:7), you have to take a

course slightly different from the norm: The workouts may be shorter

but of higher intensity. Quality is the key not quantity. The athlete

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will also have much longer rest periods. This is needed because these

workouts are extremely stressful on the nervous system.

3.1.4 Sport Specific Training

The final component of complex training method is sport specific

training and according to Chu (1996:8) the better way is to stimulate the

muscle with resistance training, rather than perform sport specific

movements. The essence of complex training is that athletes must do

more than just build muscle to increase strength: they need to train the

nervous system as well. Complex training allows athletes to work themuscles in conjunction with the nervous system in such a way that the

slow twitch fibres behave like the fast twitch fibres (OShea 2000:63).

According to Chu (1996:9) the human body contains both fast twitch and

slow twitch muscle fibres. Slow twitch fibres are called type I and are

capable of producing sub maximal force over extended periods. These

are the fibres athletes involved in aerobic activities (such as distancerunning) want to develop. Fast twitch fibres are classified as type IIa and

type IIb and are capable of producing maximal force for brief periods.

These are the types of fibres strength and power athletes such as

participants to this study, and sprinters want to develop. Type IIc can

develop either fibre characteristic. The difference between these two

fibre types is that type IIa has more endurance characteristics whereas the

type IIb has more speed characteristics (Chu, 1996:10). Powers &

Howley (1996:136) is of a similar opinion in that slow twitch fibres (type

I) contain higher concentrations of myoglobin than fast twitch fibres. The

high concentration of myoglobin, the large number of capillaries, and the

high mitochondrial enzyme activities provide type 1 fibres with a large

capacity for aerobic metabolism and a high resistance to fatigue. Powers

& Howley (1996:136) states further that fast twitch fibres (type IIa and

type IIb) have a relative small number of mitochondria, a limited

capacity for aerobic metabolism, and are less resistant to fatigue than

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slow twitch fibres. However, these fibres are rich in glycolytic enzymes,

which provide them with a large anaerobic capacity.

Despite the implied preference a strength and power athlete would have

for predominantly fast twitch fibres, both are important to the athletes

overall development. Fast twitch muscle fibres give the athlete the

ability to move quickly and explosively. Slow twitch muscle fibres

are responsible for the stabilization and posture the athlete needs when

performing any movement. In other words, they provide the stability to

make the action complete (Chu 1996:10)

In context to sport specific training the primary goal of a strength and

power athlete is to first emphasize the type IIb fibres and get the type IIc

fibres to act like type IIb fibres. The type IIa fibres, although called fast

twitch muscle fibres, are often not useful to sport specific training

because strength gains cannot be displayed explosively. OShea

(2000:61) discuss this with regards to recruitment order where in

strength training, slow twitch motor units are recruited first, because of their small size and low activation threshold. Fast twitch fatigue resistant

units are second and the fast twitch fatiguable units last. The order of

recruitment as determined by the size principle does not hold in

maximum explosive power movements. In performing such movements

it is almost entirely the fast twitch motor units that are recruited.

According to Chu (1996:10) when properly challenged, the human bodyhas the capacity to make significant changes, one of which is a change in

how muscle fibres function. It is possible to train a fast twitch muscle

fibre to behave like a slow twitch muscle fibre and visa versa. Therefore,

athletes involved in aerobic sports must be careful not to include too

much training for fast twitch muscle fibres or they will risk teaching their

slow twitch muscle fibres to behave like fast twitch muscle fibres.

However these changes are difficult to bring about and require a great

amount of work (Chu, 1996:11).

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The muscular system works like a computer in that whatever an athlete

puts into it is what the athlete gets out. If an athlete teaches muscle to

complete the given task slowly, thats what the athlete will get back. It

follows then that an athlete who needs to compete at higher speeds need

to train the muscle to function optimally at these higher speeds (Chu

1996:11).

3.2 Physiology of Power Training

OShea (2000:86) define strength as the ability of the muscle to contract andexert force. OShea (2000:89) defines power as the capacity to do a given

amount of work as rapidly as possible.

According to Haff and Potteiger (2001:13-20) when examining strength and the

factors that are involved in the production of muscular force, several factors can

be delineated (Table 2.4). The effectiveness of explosive exercises as training

tools may be related to their ability to affect these factors. The bodys abilityto recruit motor units or to stimulate the rate coding mechanism is of critical

importance to understanding the effectiveness of explosive exercises in sports

performance.

Developing explosive power, according to OShea (2000:97), neuro muscularly,

executing explosive movement involves a rapid stretching of a muscle that is

undergoing eccentric contractions. The stretch reflex, also known as myotatic

reflex, is utilized to accomplish this rapid movement. The faster a muscle is

lengthened, the greater the concentric force developed. If the switch from

muscle lengthening to shortening is done as rapidly as possible, then the

maximum advantage of the release of stored kinetic energy to produce explosive

forceful movement can be enjoyed. Additionally, the hyper trophic response to

explosive exercise may add further evidence to the effectiveness of explosive

exercises as a training modality.

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Table 2.4Factors related to force generating capabilities

Adapted from Haff & Potteiger (2001:14)

FACTORS1. Motor unit recruitment and activation patterns.2. Rate coding.3. Synchronization.4. Neural inhibition.5. Muscle cross sectional area.6. Motor unit type.

3.2.1 Motor Unit Recruitment and Rate Coding

When examining the neuromuscular system, Powers & Howley

(1996:128) describe the motor unit as being composed of a motor neuron

and all the muscle fibres it innervates.

Haff and Potteiger (2001:13-20) further states that motor units are

generally composed of between 9 and 2 muscle fibres per motor neuron.

According to Powers & Howley (1996:135) muscle fibres have been

classified in two categories: Category 1 - Slow twitch, and Category 2 -

Fast twitch. Most muscle groups are known to be composed of

predominantly fast or slow twitch fibres, most muscle groups in the body

contain an equal mixture of both slow and fast twitch fibre types. The

fibre composition of skeletal muscle plays an important role in

performance in both power and endurance events (Powers & Howley,

1996:135).

According to OShea (2000:62) one of the prerequisites in developing

maximum strength and power is increased strength of the slow twitch

fibres. To develop slow twitch muscle fibre strength, the athlete must

first fatigue the fast twitch muscle fibres. In the squat, for example, this

is done by taking 75% to 80% of your squat 1 repetition maximum

(RM) and doing 10 12 repetitions for 3 sets. The first 3 4 repetitions

involve mainly the fast twitch fatigable fibres. As these fibres fatigue

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there is a gradual shift to the slow twitch fibres, repetitions 8 12.

Important to remember is to use at least 75% to 80% of the 1 RM value

to increase strength of the slow twitch muscle fibres. According to

OShea (2000:62) training fast twitch muscle fibres is the exact opposite

to training slow twitch muscle fibres in that the slow twitch muscle

fibres need to be fatigued. Training the fast twitch fibres means to

increase the endurance capacity of both fast and slow twitch muscle

fibres. This can be done by using 60 70 percent of your 1 RM for 15

20 repetitions, 3 4 sets.

Muscle fibres that have a lower muscle fibre to motor neuron ratio areused to control fine movements, whereas muscle with large ratios is used

in the performance of gross physical movements. The ability to regulate

the amount of tension produced by a muscle is clearly related either to

the ability to recruit or to the rate coding of motor units. Rate coding is

often defined as occurring when the frequency of neural impulses sent to

motor neurons already activated is increased (Haff & Potteiger, 2001:13-

20) and (OShea 2000:60)

Generally, small motor units, which tend to have lower thresholds and

are predominantly composed of type I fibres, are recruited in response to

lower force demands (Haff & Potteiger, 2001:13-20). When higher

forces are demanded, the higher threshold motorunits, which are

typically made out of type II fibres, are recruited. The fact that larger,

more powerful motorunits are recruited only when high force or high

power outputs are demanded by activity is of particular interest to

understanding the effectiveness of explosive exercises (Haff & Potteiger,

2001:1320).

Haff and Potteiger (2001:13-20) explain further that in order to activate

the larger motor units, explosive exercises which generally require high

force and high power output are needed. In addition to stimulating the

recruitment of higher threshold motor units, explosive exercises, which

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require high contraction speeds, have the potential to alter the motor unit

recruitment pattern. These exercises may train higher threshold motor

units to contract before or in concert with low threshold motor units.

Therefore, the use of explosive exercises in a training program may

result in adaptations that allow the athletes to be able to recruit larger

motor units sooner or more efficiently. Another strategy for increasing

the amount of force generated is the activation of the rate coding

mechanism. The rate coding process is unique in that the force generated

increases without additional motor units being recruited. It is believed

that there is an inter-play between rate coding and motor unit recruitment

in the bodys ability to generate force. The interplay of these two force-generating mechanisms may be related to the size and fibre type

composition of the muscle. Because of their high force and power output

generating capabilities, explosive exercises appear to be the optimal

mechanism for inducing sport specific changes in motor unit recruitment

and rate coding (Haff and Potteiger, 2001:13-20). Baechle and Earle

(2000:37) discuss motor unit recruitment and rate coding as the way that

neural control affects the maximal force output of a muscle bydetermining which and how many motor units are involved in a muscle

contraction and the rate at which the motor units are fired. Baechle and

Earle (2000:37) discuss further that generally muscle force is greater

when more motor units are involved in a contraction, the motor units are

greater in size, or the rate of firing is faster. Early strength gains in

resistance training is attributable to neural adaptations (Baechle and

Earle 2000:37).

3.2.2 Hypertrophy factors

According to Haff and Potteiger (2001:13-20) the hypertrophy effects of

explosive resistance exercise training is associated with type II muscle

fibre. According to Powers & Howley (1996:136) these fibres are rich in

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glycolyctic enzymes, which provide them with a large anaerobic

capacity. This may be related to the preferential activation of higher

threshold motor units, which are predominantly, composed of type II

fibre (Haff & Potteiger, 2001:13-20). Thus, it is likely that alterations in

maximal strength are probably related to the combined effects of

hypertrophic factors, whereas rate of force development may be

associated with alterations in neural activation. However, it is likely that

hypertrophy of type II fibres can result in some alterations in the rate of

force development.

Chu (1996:9) showed that to understand fully how to use complextraining as method of power training requires not only knowing its

components, but having a general knowledge of the bodys energy and

movement systems. You should have an overall perspective on how

your muscular, nervous, and cardiovascular systems work together.

3.2.3 The Muscular System

According to Chu (1996:9); Powers & Howley (1996:135-140) and

OShea (2000: 62-63) the human body contains both fast twitch and slow

twitch muscle fibres. Slow twitch fibres are called type I and are capable

of producing sub maximal force over extended periods. These are the

fibres athletes involved in aerobic activities want to develop.

Fast twitch fibres are classified as type IIa and Type IIb and are capable

of producing maximal force for brief periods. These are the types of

fibres strength and power athletes such as, participants in study, field

athletes and football players. The difference between these two fibres is

that type IIa has more endurance characteristics whereas the type IIb has

more speed characteristics.

Despite the implied preference a strength and power athlete would have

for predominantly fast twitch fibres, both are important to the athletes

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overall development. Fast twitch fibres give the athlete the ability to

move quickly and explosively. Slow twitch fibres are responsible for the

stabilization and posture the athlete needs when performing any

movement (Powers & Howley, 1996:136).

The muscular system works like a computer system in that whatever an

athlete puts in is what it gets out. Muscles want to complete a task in the

most efficient way they know how.

3.2.4 The Nervous System

According to Chu (1996:11) the nervous system triggers a muscles

response to a stimulus, telling it what to do and when to do it. The

neurons activate muscle fibres to behave like a fast twitch or a slow

twitch muscle fibre.

The stimulation process is similar to lighting a fuse on a packet of

firecrackers. The central nervous system sparks the process, sending thesignal down the axon toward the muscle fibres. At the end of the axon is

the synapse, which holds the chemical acetylcholine (Ach) in little

pouches. The pools of Ach then jump over to the muscle membrane,

where the Ach generates the explosion of an electrical impulse

throughout the muscle fibre. The better trained the athlete the more

efficient the process (Chu, 1996:12).

To capitalize on a muscles utmost potential to gain strength and speed,

an athlete must raise the level of excitement in the muscle fibres and

challenge them when they reach their highest levels. This is a two-step

process in an athletes conditioning program, and each is equally

important (Chu, 1996:13) and (Bompa, 1999:139-155). Once the motor

neurons are fired up (resistance training), its time to teach the muscle to

function at their highest possible speeds. The second half of the workout

will thus be a plyometric exercise, matched to stimulate the muscle

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awakened during the resistance training exercise by performing a related

or specific explosive movement similar to the resistance exercise (Chu,

1996:13).

3.2.5 The Neuromuscular Connection

According to Chu (1996:13) the number of muscle fibres an athlete has

and the types of fibre in these muscles are both important factors.

However, it is the neural factors that gives the body the kick start that

allows the training process to begin. As the conditioning process

continues, the nervous system learns the necessary skills and hypertrophytakes over the limelight.

3.2.6 The Cardiovascular System

While still at school, aerobic training is necessary but not vital to

strength and power athletes. According to Chu (1996:14) aerobic

training may help an athlete recover from high intensity exercises, but itdoes so at the expense of speed and power and increases the risk of

overuse injuries and over training. Only do endurance training as much

as absolutely necessary and be certain that the type of endurance training

developed is specific to the sport.

4. EXPLOSIVE EXERCISES

According to Bompa (1999:335) the main beneficiaries of developing acyclic power

are athletes involved in throwing and jumping events in athletics, gymnastics (most

elements), fencing, diving, and every other sport requiring a takeoff, for example

volleyball.

For these sport types or athletic components, power performed acyclically is the

dominant factor in the performance. Although maximum strength is an important

element of progression, exercises using lower loads and performed extremely quickly

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ExercisesSnatch (squat and power)Clean (squat and power)Pulls (clean and snatch)

Jump squatsSpeed squatsJerks (push and split)

According to Haff and Pottgeiter (2001:13-20) when comparing athletic type strength

training (ATST) to traditional high force / low velocity exercises, higher power

outputs are encountered. Thus, the use of explosive lifts such as athletic type strength

training may partially explain the differences in power output capabilities of different

strength power athletes. Because these exercises stimulate improved power output

capabilities, many have suggested that they will produce a significant carry over to

other strength power sport. This suggestion is generally based on the belief that these

exercises produce movement patterns, velocity characteristics, and power outputs that

are similar to those needed in many sport performances (Haff & Pottgeiter, 2001:13-

20).

According to OShea (1995:75) athletic type strength trainings primary purpose is to

increase maximum acceleration and speed through a full range of multi joint

movement. As illustrated in fig 2.15, only athletic type lifting (snatches, cleans, pulls

and squats) has the capacity to effectively train your bodys power zone. A highly

developed power zone offers the greatest opportunity for the transfer of weight-trained

power to your sport, (OShea 1995:76).

ATHLETIC TYPE STRENGTH TRAININGSnatch and Clean

Explosive-Reactive-Ballistic Movements

(In execution require)

Strength, Speed, Quickness, Mobility

Utilizing

Stored Kinetic Energy

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Plyometric trainingMaximizes the relationship between

Strength-Acceleration-Speed

OPTIMAL ATHLETIC POWER PERFORMANCE.

Figure 2.15.Athletic Type Strength TrainingAdapted from OShea (2000:87)

4.1 Athletic type strength training = Transfer of training

Athletic type lifting is supposed to be hard. If it wasnt hard everyone would be

doing it. J.P. OShea (1995:93).

According to OShea (1995:74) athletic strength training falls into three major

groups:

4.1.1 Base strength training lifts,

4.1.2 Dynamic strength / speed power lifts,

4.1.3 Specific speed / quickness exercises,

4.2 Base strength training exercises

According to OShea (2000:105) these are weightlifting movements that

build foundation strength in large muscle groups of the bodys power

zone (Muscles that span both the hip and knee joint hip flexors and

extensors, spinal erectors, abdominal, quadriceps, and hamstrings).

OShea (2000:106) also states that the muscle groups of the upper torso

should also not be overlooked, because they play a significant role in

transferring the force generated by the power zone to throwing,

punching, swinging, and hitting movements.

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According to OShea (2000) absolute strength training exercises are the

parallel squat, dead lift and all types of pressing movements (especially

the standing push press and the incline dumbbell press). The push press

and squat are classified as athletic type lifts. The push press is in many

respects superior to the bench press in its ability to develop high torso

kinetic energy when lifting maximum to near maximum loads. The

ballistic nature of the lift provides for excellent transfer of power to

martial arts and throwing events (javelin, discus & shot) (OShea,

2000:106) and (Verkhoshansky, 1977).

4.3 Dynamic strength / speed power exercises

According to OShea (2000:107) lifting movements composing the

dynamic strength / speed power exercises produce high kinetic energy

and are full range multiple body joint exercises: power snatches, power

cleans, and a variety of high pulling movements. The lifting movement

is fast and explosive, which forces you to think in terms of both quick

reaction speed and movement speed, as well as strength.

According to Stone (1993:7-14) the movement specificity and the

relative power outputs of pulling movements (i.e. snatch pulls, snatches,

clean pulls, cleans, etc.) should have considerable transfer of training

effect to many strength - speed sport. This is because the movement

patterns, velocities and power outputs of these pulling movements are

more similar to many sport performances than are typical high force slow

movements.

OShea (2000:107) explains that most sport consists of highly explosive

skills and require strong torso rotational energy. To develop this type of

energy, you need to train with explosive torso rotational lifting

movements such as dynamic strength / speed power exercises. This is a

direct application of the training specificity principle.

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4.4 Specific speed / quickness exercises.

According to OShea (2000:107) for the athlete to develop optimal

power, the training program must include speed work and jumping

movements (plyometrics). According to Roper (1998:60-63) plyometric

training can be more than just eliciting a stretch shortening cycle

response. It can be tailored to the specific needs of the individual athlete

to increase not only power and movement efficiency, but balance, co-

ordination and agility as well.

Specific speed / quickness exercises will help you to effectively transmitthe forces of strength and power acquired through weightlifting to your

sport. The explosive power derived from your knees and hip extensor

muscles in sprinting and jumping provide the same ballistic movement

used in many sports, so you need to sprint and jump well. Great jumpers

make powerful athlete, (O'Shea 2000:107).

According to Stone (1993:7-14) explosive exercises are those exercisesin which the initial rate of concentric force production is maximal, or

near maximal, and maximal or near maximal force production is

maintained throughout a specified range of motion in keeping with the

exercise technique involved. Thus, explosive exercises are movements

in which rapid initiation of force production and the ability to accelerate

are of primary importance.

According to Haff & Potteiger (2001:13-20) explosive exercises can

result in improvements in power production. It appears that the Olympic

style lifts have the greatest potential to affect power production. These

lifts stimulate neuromuscular adaptations, which may potentially result in

improved sports performance. Power production may be maximised by

using a combination of explosive exercise modalities in a periodized

training program. Additionally, when these exercises are performed with

appropriate techniques and are supervised by a quality strength

professional, there is minimal risk of injury.

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3. METHODOLOGY

Preparation for the in-season school track and field athletes in South Africa are forced

into a week or two after the summer holidays. According to the head javelin coach at

the Menlo Park High School, the start of each athletic season is an advanced form of

crisis management.

This is attributed to the fact that athletes do not participate in an off-season program

and the consequences of this are that the athletes are not physical ready to compete.

The incidence of injuries is very high and yearly talented athletes end up on the

injured list. This however, is not just a South African tendency and is seen

worldwide. Arnheim and Prentice (2003) found the same situation was observed in

schools in America and Europe.

With this problem as main driving force the Menlo Park High School was approached

with this study proposal to select, pre- and post-test, train and develop high school

throwing athletes to achieve better results at the main competitive meeting of the year.

The head coach of throwing events at the school made himself available to assist with

the study. The head coach has competed at the highest level of javelin throwing in

South Africa.

3.1 Selection of subjects

The athletes were randomly picked from the previous years athletic squad to

participate in the study, and a group of twenty (20) athletes were selected (12 boys and

8 girls) who had at least 1 year of technique training and who was 16 years or older.

Both boys and girls were eligible to participate in the study. The selected athletes

were called together and the purpose of the study was explained to them. Since the

athletes were very young each was given a consent form (annexure D) that needed to be returned signed by their parents together with a letter (annexure C) explaining the

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training period after pre-testing had been completed. They were informed of post-

testing thereafter. Results achieved at the end of the 6 weeks, including the final

major athletics meeting of the year, will be compared with the prior years results.

The following characteristics of an effective test program had to be adhered to for

effective results (MacDougall et al, 1991:3).

i) The variables that are tested are relevant to that sport,

ii) The test that is selected is valid and reliable,

iii) The test protocols are as sport specific as possible,

iv) Test administration is rigidly controlled,v) The athletes human rights are respected,

vi) Testing is repeated at regular intervals,

vii) Results are interpreted to the coach and athlete directly.

Test protocols had been set up according to the anatomical and mechanical

principles of the throwing motion. (Luttgens & Hamilton, 1997:507-509).

3.2 Anatomical principles that need to be considered

According to Luttgens & Hamilton (1997:507):

3.2.1 Muscles contract more forcefully if they are first put on a stretch,

provided they are not overstretched,

3.2.2 Unnecessary movements and tensions in the performance of a motor skill

should be eliminated because it means both awkwardness and

unnecessary fatigue,

3.2.3 Skill-full and efficient performance in a particular technique can be

developed only by practice of that technique,

3.2.4 The most efficient type of movement in throwing skills is ballistic

movement. Skills that are primarily ballistic should be practised with

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ballistic movements, even in the

Implementation of an Off-season Training

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