Imperialism and Revolutionary Upheavals
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Transcript of Imperialism and Revolutionary Upheavals
Imperialism and Revolutionary Upheavals
• 19th century, weakened Qing Dynasty victimized by imperialist nations– Carved China into ‘spheres of influence’
• 2 major revolutions – 1911 and 1949
• revolutionary era dominated by 3 themes:– nationalism: re-establish China as an independent,
sovereign nation– new political community: competition between Nationalist
Party [Chiang Kai-shek] [Kuomintang] and The CCP [Mao]
– socioeconomic development: followed Soviet model until split in 1928, CCP driven underground
• failed revolution: Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925)– multiple military coup attempts– 1905, KMT established– 10/10/11: rebellion in Wuhan spread peacefully
throughout the country, establishment of PRC– central government nominally under control of
KMT, but country run by warlords• 1919: Treaty of Versailles: German concessions
transferred to other Allied powers, not to China• May Fourth Movement
– student run– politicized but disorganized
• 1921: formation of CCP– headed by Chen Duxiu, composed of intellectuals,
quickly dominated by Moscow
• KMT also sought approval of Soviets– KMT and CCP briefly merged – ‘united front’
• growing conflict erupted in violence in Shanghai, 1927– massacre of thousands of CCP members by
Nationalist troops
• Mao: revolution could only be based on mass mobilization– China’s population overwhelmingly rural– KMT controlled most cities– only path was guerilla war from the countryside, not
spontaneous uprising in cities
• it would take years to organize a peasant revolution
• Autumn Harvest Uprising: Mao launched attacks on Changsa
• KMT campaign to exterminate the ‘communist bandits’
• The Long March
• for almost a year, CCP fought daily against KMT or local warlords
• costly but lasting success for CCP– party used time to organize– built relationships with peasants
• January, 1936: Mao elected Chairman of CCP
• The Mass Line
• Mao and CCP rejected:– urban proletariat– vanguard of the revolution
• all correct leadership is “from the masses, to the masses”
• turned Marxism into a philosophy that could appeal to millions of peasants in Asia, Africa, and Latin America
• resistance to Japanese imperialist aggression– invasion of Manchuria, 1931– control of northern China by 1935
• Chiang Kai-shek retreated to the south, while CCP fought the invaders– resistance expanded its base of support
• message: nationalism, anti-imperialism, social justice
• initial superiority of KMT forces eventually overcome by CCP
• CCP army regained control of Manchuria, moved south, forced KMT to flee to Taiwan
• 1949: creation of People’s Republic of China
• Mao: China’s weakness due to oppression and exploitation by– foreign imperialism– reactionary domestic government
• “China has stood up.”
Factionalism
• PRC: 30 years to establish stability and continuity
• interim conflict between radicals and moderates
• struggle for ideological dominance involved– attacks on party and state institutions– personalization of power
• eventual predominance of moderates put China on a lasting path to reform
The People’s Republic of China
• 2 phases– (1) The Soviet Model (1949-1957)
• land redistribution• civil reform• 5-year plans
– (2) The Great Leap Forward (1958-1966)• radical egalitarianism• economic development• mass mobilization• political unanimity• decentralization
• world communist movement:
• North Korean conflict: Chinese had no choice but to support fellow communists in North Korea
• relied on Soviet military aid to repel UN forces
• Sino-Soviet Split
• divergence from Soviet model and philosophy– CCP depended on cult of personality– Mao criticized SU’s movement away from Marxist
goals
• SU eventually withdrew its advisers and cut off economic and military aid
• split gave CCP autonomy to develop in its own way
• factionalism: Maoists vs. Marxists
• campaigns: organized efforts to mobilize the masses to attain various goals
• Hundred Flowers Campaign, 1956 : encouraged expression of ideas– ‘success’ of campaign required immediate end
• Great Leap Forward: opposite direction– sought rapid transition to socialism and
communism– required full commitment of all Chinese people– “red-vs.-expert” conflict : ideology vs. technology
• a disaster – mass starvation
• failure of Great Leap forward undermined Mao’s authority– forced from chair of PRC– challenge to his authority precipitated the Cultural
Revolution– why?
• Mao had been the architect of the popular revolution– CCP becoming increasingly bureaucratized, rigid
and elite– new generation had not experienced the
revolution- “self-satisfied and flabby”
The Cultural Revolution
• 1963: with support of the PLA, Mao launched the Socialist Education Movement
• ideology and mobilization once again center stage
• launched frontal attack on Party leadership and bureaucracy
• Red Guards: student groups turned into revolutionaries/vigilantes
• “seizures of power” throughout the country
The Cultural Revolution
• Mao’s goal: purify the party and the state• remove all vestiges of old China (bureaucratic,
hierarchical)– scholars sent to the fields, universities/libraries destroyed– Extremely disruptive and regressive
• Mao’s death, 1976, left factions– the “Gang of Four”– the military– the Moderates: Zhou Enlai
• process of fang-shou: cycle of tightening up, loosening up
Modernization, 1978-1997: Deng Xiaoping
• “Four Modernizations”– industry, agriculture, science, military– Have continues at heart of China’s official policy
ever since
• economic liberalization– “open door” trade policy– educational reform– institutionalization of the Revolution
• Deng did not support political liberalization
Citizens, Society and the State
• Profound changes in relationship of citizen to Chinese state as leadership has changed since Mao
• For most citizens, communist ideology no longer central to their lives
• CCP now emphasizes nationalism, patriotism, pride in Chinese identity
cleavages
• minority populations within China: 8% of population, 60% of territory
• general government policy: encourage economic development, suppress dissent
• 5 autonomous regions: Guangxi, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Tibet and Xinjiang
• Tibet: failed uprising 1959, continuing tension
• Xinjiang: Uyghur militants seek to create a separate Islamic state
• cleavages, cont.
• linguistic: CCP has always tried to make Mandarin the official language of government and education, but dialects remain embedded in Chinese society
• urban-rural: most economic growth has been concentrated in cities – new meaning to “2 Chinas”– talk of new programs to lift the lagging rural
economy