Ashley Watts

Research Proposal

The Impact of Mentoring on the Academic Achievement of African American Students at

Predominantly White Institutions

At 46 and 47 percent respectively, bachelor’s degree completion rates within six years for

African Americans and Hispanics enrolled at four-year institutions in the year 1996-97 lagged

behind that of whites as much as 11 percent (Swail, 2003). Only Asians surpassed whites in this

area (Swail, 2003). Achievement gaps between non-Asian minorities and whites students will

continue to widen unless critical factors contributing to their success are addressed.

According to Swail (2003), “lack of diversity in the student population, faculty, staff and

curriculum often restricts the nature and quality of minority students’ interactions within and out

of the classroom, threatening their academic performance and social experiences;” therefore, the

academic success and social integration of minority student at predominantly white institutions

(PWIs) creates a unique concern (p. 9). Mentorship of minority students at PWI, especially by

faculty and staff of color could drastically change students perceptions of the university, help

them acclimate to university life and persist until graduation.

The abundance of research about mentoring is focused the more psychological aspects of

the mentoring relationship – student attitudes toward mentoring relationships, desirable mentor

qualities and how to pair mentees with mentors to achieve higher levels of student satisfaction

(Campbell & Campbell, 2007). Several studies also cite mentoring relationships as being

beneficial in the eyes of the students (Schultz, Colton & Colton, 2001; Santos & Reigadas,

2002). Again, however, these benefits are not examined in quantifiable terms.

Campbell and Campbell (2007) suggest that there is a need for more “goal-based

outcome studies” in order to understand how mentoring affects student learning (p. 145). The

available research which concludes that mentored students do experience higher grade point

averages (GPAs) and retention rates than that of non-mentored students to varied degrees is

limited in scope and quantity (Campbell & Campbell, 2007; Vivian, 2005; Schultz et al., 2001).

Furthermore, research specific to minority students at PWIs could not be found.

A quantitative study of the how mentoring underrepresented students at PWIs,

specifically African Americans, affects the academic achievement, retention, and involvement of

those students will be beneficial to those seeking to gain support for such programs in an

environment where all programs are subject to a cost benefit analysis. Such research could also

encourage more faculty and staff to accept the responsibility of becoming a mentor or even just

to understand the importance of student-teacher or student-advisor relationships.

Psychological Impact of Mentoring

Mentoring relationships impact students both mentally and academically. Psychologically,

mentoring can impact students’ self-efficacy, ease adjustment to academic life and goal-setting

ability. Development in these areas is important for students’ continued growth and achievement

personally, academically and professionally. This development is especially important for

minority students at predominantly white institutions (PWIs).

The normal challenges associated with maneuvering through the college are

stressful to most students; however, minority students at [PWIs] encounter

additional stresses that come from being a minority… including social climate,

interracial stresses, racism and discrimination, within-group stresses, and

achievement stress (Swail, Redd & Perna, 2003, p. 57).

Swail et al.’s (2003) study also revealed those stressors related to campus climate “[threaten

minorities’] academic performance” (p. viii).

Paglis, Green and Bauer (2006) note that “formation [of self-efficacy] is subject to social

influence” and can impact student “motivation and performance” (p. 455). Both Paglis et al.

(2006) and Santos and Reigadas (2002) saw positive correlations between mentoring and self-

efficacy in the areas of research and “ability to succeed in college,” respectively (p. 46). That

success is hinged on many things. One of the greatest contributors to success is adjustment to the

academic aspects of collegiate life.

According to Swail et al.’s (2003), “[s]pecial programmatic efforts, including mentoring

… programs designed to support ethnic minorities’ academic and social integration, have eased

some students’ transition to college” (p. 60). Students in Shultz, Colton and Colton’s (2001)

study of Kutztown University’s Adventor Program believed that their mentors had a definite

impact on their ability to adjust to college. This is echoed in Davis’s (2008) study whose students

felt that “[w]orking closely with faculty mentors… helped [them] to demystify academic life”

(Davis, 2008, p. 283).

Another of Davis’s (2008) findings included an increased ability of participants to assess

their own educational and career goals. The ability to set goals is an important mentoring

outcome which can carry through to mentees’ personal and professional lives. After participating

in the Faculty Mentor Relationship study conducted by Santos and Reigadas (2002), students had

better defined academic goals than before participating in the study. Tinto (as cited in Swail et

al., 2005) also linked “goal commitment” to “college performance and persistence,” (p. 61).

However, there are influences that can temper student attitudes toward the mentoring

experience. One such influence is the mentees perception of the mentors’ interest in him or her.

African-American McNair students at Truman State University indicated that a mentor’s

personal interest in them was more important than his/her expertise (Ishiyama, 2007). Caucasian

students, conversely, felt they had better mentoring experiences when they perceived that their

mentor was an expert (Ishiyama, 2007).

Academic Impact of Mentoring

One factor that affects both student satisfactions, a psychological aspect of mentoring, and

academic achievement is ethnicity. “African-American men and women protégés believed that

mentor relationships were more personally beneficial when the mentor matched in racial identity

or at least was culturally sensitive, and that such mentors were more credible and effective”

(Ferrari, 2004). Santos and Reigadas (2002) found that of participants in their study, ethnically

matched students “felt that their mentors were more helpful personally and professionally, had

more academic self-efficacy and had greater program satisfaction than non-matched participants”

(p. 42). Additionally, Pope (2002) found that students themselves felt that the needs of different

ethnic groups should be considered when determining the mentoring process for students.

These sentiments, although qualitative in nature, are supported by the factual data. Not

only do ethnically matched protégés attain higher GPAs, those gains are more sustained than

protégés whose mentors are of a different ethnicity (Schultz et al., 2001; Campbell & Campbell,

2007). Studies have also delved into the impact that gender matching has on student attitudes and

performances; however, academic performance among those matched by gender was found to be

statistically insignificant (Campbell & Campbell, 2007).

The impact of mentoring on the academic achievement of minorities is an area in which

little research has been done. However, there is evidence that mentoring positively impacts

students’ grade point average (GPA), retention, and productivity. Campbell and Campbell (2007)

found that within the first year of the study, mentored students had significantly greater

achievement than non-mentored students; however, the gap narrowed over time becoming

statistically insignificant by the end of the study. In Shultz et al.’s (2001) study of the Adventor

Program, a mentoring program at Kutztown University showed increased GPAs among first-year

students of color in the program than the control group. The students in Vivian’s (2005) study

who persisted saw an improvement in their GPA versus approximately one third of the control

group; even of those who withdrew more left in good academic standing.

In addition, Vivian (2005) found that the retention rate for the group of mentored students

was higher than that of the control group and that they graduated at a significantly higher rate.

There were also increased retention rates among first-year students of color in the program than

the control group in Shultz et al.’s (2001). Swain identifies “interaction between faculty and

students… as a major factor in the ability of students to persist in college while also increasing

their level of satisfaction” (p. 65).

Although all of the aforementioned studies touch on mentoring’s impact on college level

students, I could find none that specific to academic outcomes of African American students at

PWIs. The vast majority of research is qualitative in nature. Studies by Davis (2008), Pope

(2002) and Santos and Reigadas (2002), despite focusing on minorities, are all qualitative in

nature, and Davis (2008) who does address the mentoring of African Americans focuses on

doctoral students. Paglis et al.’s (2006) study also centers on aspects of mentoring doctoral

students more qualitative in nature. Ishiyama (2007) examines the psychological impact of

mentoring on low income white/Caucasian and African American students in the McNair

program, but again more quantitative measures are not addressed.

The quantitative studies I located, such as Campbell and Campbell (2007) and Vivian (2005),

both measure academic performance of undergrads in mentoring programs versus those not in

mentoring programs; however they do not focus on African Americans. Shultz et al. (2001),

while focusing on minorities, mainly focus on first-year students and do not limit their study to

African Americans or PWIs. Given our knowledge about social and academic challenges faced

by and attrition rates of African Americans at PWIs, a study of this nature would be beneficial

for student services administrators at a number of institutions. The purpose of this study is to

determine the ways in which African American students are positively affected by mentorship

while at predominantly white institutions (PWIs) and intends to answer the following questions:

1. How does mentoring effect African American student performance at PWIs?

2. How do the GPAs of mentored students compare with that of non-mentored students?

3. What is the attrition rate of mentored students in comparison with non-mentored

students?

4. How many extracurricular activities do mentored students participate in as compared to

non-mentored students?

Methods

Participants

In order to get a true representative sample without surveying students at every PWI in the

nation, multistage cluster sampling must be used. For the purposes of this study, four-year

institutions must be used in order to assess retention and graduation rates. Utilizing the Carnegie

Foundations institutional classifications and online tools, it is possible to create a list of similar

universities from various locations which share enough similar qualities to eliminate extraneous

variables. Should the list include more than ten universities, ten schools will be chosen at

random. I would then obtain permission from each university through institutional review board.

Proper documentation, as well as consent forms would be prepared and submitted as instructed

by each review board. After submitting my project for review, should consent not be granted by

any institution an alternate school would be selected.

After narrowing down the list of universities, further provisions would need to be made

to ensure enough participants would meet the criteria to acquire the desired data without diluting

the results. Stratified sampling within each university would be appropriate because at PWIs “the

population reflects an imbalance;” thus “a simple random sample from this population would

likely result in selection of more [Caucasians] than [African Americans] or maybe even no

[African Americans]” (Creswell, 2007, p. 154). Because part of the study includes tracking

graduation and retention, students would need to be freshmen. Students would also be asked to

sign a consent form outlining the purpose of the study and guarantee anonymity.

Instrument

In assessing whether or not mentorship positively affects African American students at

Predominantly White Institutions (PWIs), it is first necessary to clarify what is meant by

mentorship and what are positive effects. For the purposes of this study, mentoring will be

defined as a relationship between a student and a member of faculty or staff, which consist of

regularly scheduled contact, for the purposes of improvement in student academic confidence

and performance. The specific positive effects we are seeking include an increased GPA,

retention, and student involvement as determined by extracurricular involvement and

volunteerism.

Ideally, a tested instrument would be used; however, the novelty of this research would

require the creation of and instrument. A created survey would include a series of statements

similar to the following:

During the past semester:

I had a mentor.

I went to a member of faculty or staff about academic matter.

I developed a relationship with a member of faculty or staff to whom I go for advice

pertaining to my academic decisions.

I regularly talk to one or more members of faculty or staff regarding my academic future

and professional goals.

I participated in extracurricular activities.

I am a member of one or more recognized campus organizations.

I regularly attend meetings for one or more campus organizations.

I held an office in one or more recognized campus organizations.

I participate in one or more intramural sports teams.

I participated in volunteer activities.

I participated in community outreach.

I find ways to help those in need.

Students would then select responses on a Likert scale of strongly disagree, disagree, agree or

strongly agree. Students would also be asked to indicate their GPA for the corresponding

semester.

Procedures

A secure website would be created on which participating students would create a profile. The

profile would allow student anonymity for the duration of the study, while allowing me to know

the race and sex of each student. The students would indicate their GPA at the beginning of each

survey and answer the aforementioned questions by selecting either response of: strongly

disagree, disagree, agree or strongly agree. Participants will be emailed a reminder at open of

each semester to take the survey. Once the data is gathered, correlations will be performed to

assess the relationship between mentorship and GPA, between mentorship and student

involvement and between mentorship and volunteerism.

There are several considerations in using these methods. The first is that students will

simply opt not to take the survey leaving me with insufficient data to draw any conclusions.

Students’ dishonesty about GPAs is another consideration. The absence of accurate information

would skew the data rendering results useless for practical application. Finally, there is the

possibility that without clarification, students will find the statements confusing and provide

inaccurate answers. Seeking a way to verify student GPA may be a consideration. Also in order

to receive as many responses as possible it may be necessary to send follow-up emails or even

letters.

References

Campbell, T., & Campbell, D. (2007). Outcomes of Mentoring At-Risk College Students:

Gender and Ethnic Matching Effects. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning,

15(2), 135-148. Retrieved from ERIC database.

Creswell, J.W. (2007). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Davis, D. (2008). Mentorship and the Socialization of Underrepresented Minorities into the

Professoriate: Examining Varied Influences. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in

Learning, 16(3), 278-293. Retrieved from ERIC database.

Ferrari, J. (2004). Mentors in Life and at School: Impact on Undergraduate Protégé Perceptions

of University Mission and Values. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning,

12(3), 295-305. Retrieved from ERIC database.

Ishiyama, J. (2007). Expectations and Perceptions of Undergraduate Research Mentoring:

Comparing First Generation, Low Income White/Caucasian and African American

Students. College Student Journal, 41(3), 540-549. Retrieved from ERIC database.

Paglis, L., Green, S., & Bauer, T. (2006). Does Adviser Mentoring Add Value? A Longitudinal

Study of Mentoring and Doctoral Student Outcomes. Research in Higher Education,

47(4), 451-476. Retrieved from ERIC database.

Pope, M. (2002). Community College Mentoring: Minority Student Perceptions. Community

College Review, 30(3), 31-45. Retrieved from ERIC database.

Santos, S., & Reigadas, E. (2002). Latinos in Higher Education: An Evaluation of a University

Faculty Mentoring Programs. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 1(1), 40-50.

Retrieved from ERIC database.

Shultz, E., Colton, G., & Colton, C. (2001). The Adventor Program: Advisement and Mentoring

for Students of Color in Higher Education. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education

and Development, 40(2), 208-18. Retrieved from ERIC database.

Swail, W. S., Redd, K. E., & Perna, L. W. (2003). Retaining Minority Students in Higher

Education: A Framework for Retention. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, 30(2),

Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

Vivian, C. (2005). Advising the At-Risk College Student. Educational Forum, The, 69(4), 336-

351. Retrieved from ERIC database.