Impact of Earthquake on Water Resources in Selected

Earthquake Hit Areas

2

Disclaimer The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed

herein are those of the author (s) and do not necessarily

reflect the views of the institutions.

3

Foreword

This research was part of WACREP activity of Jalsrot Vikas Sanstha

(JVS)/GWP Nepal. JVS/GWP Nepal highly appreciates the

contribution of the study team Mr. Somnath Paudel and Ms. Anju

Air. Our sincere gratitude also goes to Dr Amod Mani Dixit, General

Secretary of National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal

(NSET) for reviewing the draft by providing valuable suggestions.

JVS/GWP Nepal also acknowledges the contribution from Mr.

Tejendra GC during the preparation of this publication.

Jalsrot Vikas Sanstha/GWP Nepal

4

Executive Summary

Earthquake has been notoriously devastating Nepal since time immemorial. Nepal is ranked

11th globally in terms of relative vulnerability to earthquake. The impacts of earthquake are

more studied on physical, social and geographic sectors but impacts on water resources are

less documented.

This study evaluated visible impacts on water resources caused by the Gorkha earthquake in

Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality (Kavre-palanchowk district), Chandragiri, Dakshinkali

Kirtipur Municipalities and Bagmati river (Kathmandu district). The studied water sources

include stone spouts, rivers, ponds and springs in the study areas. Primary information were

gathered by visual observations, Focus Group Discussion (FGD) and Key Informants

Interview (KII). Web based information, published reports and journals were sources of

secondary information. The main objectives of the study were i) to assess the status of water

resources (water quantity and quality), ii) to explore the associated impacts due to loss of

water resources and iii) to assess available protective measures/disaster preparedness with

regard to water resources.

The study revealed that most of the ponds, stone spouts and springs were affected. Although,

there lies other factors responsible for drying up of water sources, earthquake is equally

responsible for impacts on water sources. The quantity and quality of water was mainly

affected by earthquake. The flow of water was found increased, decreased and static. There

have been also reported pseudo-changes in the quantity of water in all the study sites. The

turbidity in the water resources was high soon after the earthquake. Locals have to face

adverse impacts due to the scarcity of water such as loss on agricultural production affecting

the Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems (FMIS), problems in animal husbandry, hurdles in

daily activities, perturbation of social harmony and impact on aquatic ecosystem.

Unfortunately, locals are not practicing any protective measures to enhance water security

except in Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality and Bagmati River Basin (BRB). The efforts of

locals in conservation of Daraune-Pokhari Pond (Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality) as

recharge pond is praiseworthy. Likewise, BRB in Kathmandu Valley is being managed by

High Powered Committee for the Integrated Development of the Bagmati Civilization

(HPCIDBC) to ensure water security in Kathmandu. The study recommends that the water

security in the areas can be achieved through rain water harvesting, restoration of

traditional spouts, identification and conservation of recharge ponds. Furthermore,

identification of water stress and water availability shall solve the water scarcity to some

extent. Likewise, improvement of water supply services are important to meet the water

demands. Public awareness is also important to secure existing resources.

It is mostly said that there is no problem of water availability in Nepal, the existing problems

are due to the socio-economic water scarcity. Socio-economic water scarcity is caused in

absence of infrastructures, coordination and implementation problems among institutions.

The water scarcity in study areas seems like a problem of management and human-induced

actions such as change in land-use patterns. Locals consume water from traditional water

sources such as stone spouts, ponds and springs. This has emphasized the need of

institutional framework to conserve and monitor these traditional sources.

5

Acronyms

ADSR- Annual Disaster Statistical Review

BRB- Bagmati River Basin

BRBIP- Bagmati River Basin Improvement Project

CBS- Central Bureau of Statistics

DPCC- Daraune Pokhari Conservation Committee

FGD- Focus Group Discussion

FMIS- Farmer Managed Irrigation System

GDP- Gross Domestic Product

GFCF- Gross Fixed Capital Formation

GLOF- Glacial Lake Outburst Flood

GPS- Global Positioning System

HPCIDBC- High Powered Committee for Integrated Development of the Bagmati Civilization

KUKL- Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited

KMC- Kathmandu Metropolitan City

KII- Key Informants Interview

masl- meters above sea level

MHT- Main Himalayan Thrust

NPC- National Planning Commission

NPR- Nepalese Rupees

NSC- National Seismological Center

NTFP-Non-timber Forest Products

PDNA- Post Disaster Needs Assessment

VDC- Village Development Committee

WHS- World Heritage Site

WUA- Water Users Association

6

Table of Contents 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 7

1.1. Background ............................................................................................................................. 7

1.1 Gorkha Earthquake and Its Impacts ........................................................................................ 8

1.2 Scope of the Study ................................................................................................................ 10

1.3 Objectives of the Study ......................................................................................................... 10

1.4 Limitation of the Study.......................................................................................................... 10

2. Study Area ..................................................................................................................................... 11

3 Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 16

3.1 Research Design .......................................................................................................................... 16

3.2 Direct Field Observations ............................................................................................................ 17

3.3 Focus Group Discussion/ Key Informants Interview ................................................................... 17

3.4 Secondary Information ............................................................................................................... 18

4 Findings and Discussion ................................................................................................................ 19

4.1 Visual Status of Water Resources ............................................................................................... 19

A) Changes in Quantity of Water Level ......................................................................................... 19

B) Changes in Quality of Water Resources ....................................................................................... 23

C) Pseudo-changes in Water Level .................................................................................................... 24

4.2 Associated Impacts Due to Water Scarcity ................................................................................. 25

A) Loss on Agricultural Production .................................................................................................... 25

B) Problems in Animal Husbandry ................................................................................................ 25

C) Hurdles in Daily Activities ......................................................................................................... 25

D) Perturbation of Social Harmony ............................................................................................... 25

E) Impact on Aquatic Ecosystem ................................................................................................... 26

4.3 Protective Measures ................................................................................................................... 26

4.4 Identified Gaps ............................................................................................................................ 28

5 Conclusion and Way Forward ....................................................................................................... 29

Annex .................................................................................................................................................... 30

Annex 1: Glossary .............................................................................................................................. 30

Annex 2: Checklists ........................................................................................................................... 31

Annex 3: Photographs ....................................................................................................................... 33

References ............................................................................................................................................ 37

7

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

Earthquake has been notoriously devastating Nepal since time immemorial. Nepal is ranked

on 11th in terms of relative vulnerability to earthquake. The first recorded earthquake was of

1255 A.D. which killed one-third population of Kathmandu Valley along with King Abhaya

Malla. Likewise, in the earthquake of 1260, many buildings and temples collapsed. Although

the exact number of fatalities cannot be confirmed, we know from the facts that there was a

heavy loss of live (1www.seismonepal.gov.np). Another earthquake of 1408, hit the valley of

Kathmandu and the surrounding areas. The temple of Rato Matchendranath was completely

destroyed while many other temples and buildings were damaged and collapsed causing

heavy loss of lives and property. In 1681 A.D., another major earthquake hit Nepal and the

valley. Although little information is available on this particular earthquake, heavy loss of

lives was reported including the destruction of buildings and temples. Similarly, earthquakes

were also recorded in the years 1767, 1810, 1832, 1834 and 1934. The earthquake of 1934 is

the biggest with the magnitude of 8.4 recorded. This earthquake is known as 'Great Nepal-

Bihar Earthquake'. The casualty figures were highest in the history of the region with 8,519

persons dead in Nepal only (2www.seismonepal.gov.np).

Earthquakes of more than 5.0 magnitude have occurred at least once every year in Nepal

since 1987. It has been seen that there were twenty-two earthquakes with magnitudes ranging

from 4.5 to 6.5 throughout the country from 1971-2007 (3www.nset.org.np). The studies by

Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements have confirmed the convergence of India

and southern Tibet at the rate of 20 ± 3 mm/year. In contrast, control points in southern India

and southernmost Nepal approach each other no faster than a few mm/year. In the Himalayas,

the potential slip accumulates almost entirely as elastic strain, which would permanently

deform the rock. Analyses of deformed river terraces in the foothills of the Himalaya

demonstrate an advance of 21 ± 3 mm/year in southern Nepal during the past 10,000 years

(Bilham, Gaur, & Molnar, 2001).

The recent earthquake of 25th April 2015 resulted from unzipping of the lower edge of the

locked portion of the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT) fault. The earthquake ruptured a 140

km long segment of the fault. The MHT accommodates the convergence between India and

southern Tibet with a rate between 17 and 58 mm/yr. (Galetzka et al., 2015).

This study intends to evaluate visible impacts on water resources caused by the recent

earthquakes (named Gorkha earthquake) in selected disaster hit areas. The studied water

sources include stone spouts (Dhungedhara), rivers, ponds (Kuwa), springs (Muhan) and dug

wells (Inar) in the study locations. Rural societies depend upon these sources for domestic

water supply and other uses.

1 Retrieved on 21/09/2016

2 Retrieved on 21/09/2016

3 Retrieved on 21/09/2016

8

1.1 Gorkha Earthquake and Its Impacts

The earthquake of M 7.8 was recorded by National Seismological Centre (NSC) Nepal, near

Barpak of Gorkha district, about 76 km northwest of Kathmandu on 25th April 2015

(Saturday) at 11:56 Nepal Standard Time. Due to its epicenter at Gorkha, the earthquake is

named as 'Gorkha Earthquake'. The main shock was followed by hundreds of aftershocks.

Aftershocks damaged previously shaken buildings and also caused terror and anxiety among

the survivors. There were over 8,790 deaths and 22,300 injuries affecting the lives of almost

one-third population from thirty-one districts of Nepal. In spite of these casualties, people

consider themselves lucky considering the day (Saturday) and time (11.56 NST) of Gorkha

earthquake. Most public offices/private business remain closed on Saturday due to public

holiday. The day time was helpful to locate safety areas which minimized the casualties.

The estimated value of total damages and losses is equivalent to about one third of the Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) for FY 2013- 2014 (NPC, 2015). Annual Disaster Statistical

Review (ADSR) has listed Gorkha earthquake as the costliest natural disaster in 2015 costing

US$ 5.7 billion loss to Nepal (Guha-Sapir D, 2015).

Generally, the impacts of earthquake is categorized in physical, social, geographic sectors

(Lindell & Prater, 2003), most of which are anthropological centered. The impacts on natural

resources such as air, water, land, mines, etc. have been less studied and documented in case

of Gorkha earthquake. In developed countries such impacts are better studied.

The other losses can be summarized as:

The losses caused by earthquake (adopted from NPC, 2015)

Primary impacts are the direct impacts caused by loss of human lives and property due to

collapse of old buildings. The loss of human lives are irreparable and can't be monetized.

Most of the historical sites enlisted under World Heritage Sites (WHS) have also been

collapsed or damaged. Secondary impacts refers to indirect impacts hampering the livelihood

of people. Loss of source of income, lack of food, clothing and other essential accessories,

collapse or damage of infrastructure such as electricity, water supply, roads, telephone, etc.

Primary Impacts

i) Human casualties

ii) Collapse/Damage of buildings (Residences, Industries, Institutions,

Hospitals etc.)

Secondary Impacts

i) Impact on livelihood-loss of income ,

Intermittent supply of food and other necessities

ii) Loss of livestocks

iii) Collapse of Infrastructures (water supply, access ways, electric supply, etc.)

Tertiary Impacts

i) Hurdles caused by water amd other scarcity induced

by earthquake.

ii) Psychological stress caused by loss of family

members/property.

9

creates hurdles in sustaining life. Nepalese economy substantially depends upon agriculture

together with fishery, livestock husbandry, bee keeping, etc. Hence, loss of livestock also

hampered the livelihood.

Some of the tertiary impacts are hurdles caused to local population due to water scarcity

induced by earthquake and psychological stress faced by family members and their relatives.

However, no written records are available for the psychological impacts. Some of these

losses on humans, environment and other natural resources are tentatively mentioned by

National Planning Commission (NPC) under Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) study.

The impacts on environment and forestry includes destruction of forest, protected areas,

environmentally friendly technologies and community managed structures. The total damage

on forestry, watershed, biodiversity and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) was 29,344

million in Nepalese Rupees (NPR). The associated impacts include landslide, risk of Glacial

Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) in Himalayan and Hilly districts (NPC, 2015).

The data from Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS) showed that 3,067 water

sources of the 14 highly-affected districts have been completely dried up and 4,836 sources

were partially dried by the quake (Figure1). Over 325 water sources of 14 quake-hit districts

have dried up after the earthquake. Similarly, water production of 617 sources has shrunk

(DWSS, 2015).

Figure 1 Number of Water Resources Affected by Earthquake (source-Department of Water Supply and Sewerage, DWSS)

The overall impacts of earthquake are non-uniform as per the adaptive capacity of societies,

though, rural areas have been badly affected while compared to city areas. 'Gorkha

Earthquake' has reported for damaging 10,506 number of water and sanitation structures.

While, irrigation schemes worth 304 million NPR and hydropower generation of almost

12,134 million NPR were damaged (NPC, 2015).

10

1.2 Scope of the Study

Water resources are an integral part of life and during disasters they become life saving

necessities. The preparedness for water security can lessen the direct impacts and associated

loss from natural disasters. This study has highlighted impacts of earthquake on water

resources including associated impacts due to scarcity of water resources in study areas.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The overall objective of the study is to identify the impacts of earthquake on water resources

in earthquake hit districts. The specific objectives are:

To assess the status of water resources (water quantity and quality through visual

observation and focused group discussion).

To explore the associated impacts due to loss of water resources.

To assess available protective measures/disaster preparedness with regard to water

resources.

1.4 Limitation of the Study

The study acknowledges following limitations:

It does not include geological study of the sites.

It does not include study of all earthquake affected water resources of the selected

areas and depends more on interviews than on field observation.

11

2. Study Area

The study was carried out in selected sites of Kavre-palanchowk and Kathmandu districts

which were also hit by the earthquake. The Kavre-palanchowk district has an area of 1,396

sq. km. and a population of 381,937. The literacy rate of the District is 69.8% with the 58.7%

economically active population. The total households are 72,846 and 85.5% of local people

have safe drinking water facilities (CBS, 2011). It is situated in mid-hilly area having

subtropical climate with elevation range of 280m-3018m. It is bordered to the east by

Ramechhap and Dolakha, west by Kathmandu valley, north by Sindhupalchok and south by

Sindhuli and Makawanpur. It has 76 Village Development Committees (VDCs) and five

municipalities including two newly declared i.e. Panchkhal and Dapcha-Kashikhanda

Municipality. The study area is Ward No. 14 (comprising of five wards 2,6,7,8 & 9 from

Daraune Pokhari VDC) of Dapcha-Kashikhanda municipality (Fig.4). This municipality has

about 500 households.

The sources of water in Kavre-palanchowk district has been categorized in Table 1.

Table 1 Sources of water in Kavre-palanchowk District (CBS,2011)

S.N. Sources of water Percentage (%)

1 Tap water 79.1

2 Tube well 0.27

3 Covered well 6.18

4 Uncovered well 6.45

5 Spout 5.90

6 River/stream 0.67

The table shows that only 79.1% of the population has access to taped water supply while

0.27% of population uses tube well water, 6.18% uses covered well water, 6.45 % uses spout

water and 0.67% uses uncovered well (Table 1) (CBS,2011).

12

Figure 2 Map of Nepal Highlighting Gorkha, Kavre-palanchowk and Kathmandu District

Figure 3 Map of Kavre-palanchok Highlighting Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality, Kathmandu

Dapcha-Kashikhanda is a recently declared municipality by merging six VDCs, namely

Puranogau Dapcha, Dapcha Chatra-bhanjhyang, Daraune Pokhari, Khanalthok, Methinkot

and Mathurapati Fulbari of Kavre-palanchok district.

Other study sites were in Kathmandu district. This is the most populated district in Nepal

(Figure 4) with population of 1,744,240 and 436,344 households in the area of 49.45 km2.

13

The population density is 4,416 per sq. km. The literacy rate of the district is 86.3% with

45.5% of economically active population. Only 62% of the population has access to taped

water supply while 8.03% of population uses tube well water, 6.68% uses covered well water,

4.42 % uses spout water and 1.28% uses uncovered well (Table 2) (CBS,2011).

Table 2 Sources of Water in Kathmandu District (CBS,2011)

S.N. Sources of water Percentage (%)

1 Tap water 62.0

2 Tube well 8.03

3 Covered well 6.68

4 Uncovered well 1.28

5 Spout 4.42

6 River/stream 0.34

Figure 4: Built in Areas in Kathmandu Valley (BRBIP, 2016)

Water resources located at Kirtipur, Chandragiri and Dakshinkali Municipality of Kathmandu

district were studied including Bagmati River which is the main river that flows in the

Kathmandu valley. The Kirtipur municipality is situated almost 7 km south-west of

Kathmandu Metropolitan City (KMC). The altitude ranges from 1284m to 1524m above sea

level. It has 19 wards covering 14.76 km2

areas. It is encircled by Bagmati River in the East,

Chandragiri Municipality in the West, KMC in North and Dakshinkali Municipality in South.

The Chandragiri Municipality has a total population of 85,195. The Matatirtha water spouts

have been studied in this Municipality. The Dakshinkali Municipality is famous for religious

14

tourism and recreational activities. It consists of six VDCs with historical temples and

beautiful landscapes. The Chandra Jyoti Hydropower Plant (500 KW) constructed in 1908-11

is second oldest in Asia, still operational but water from the reservoir is transferred for water

supply in Lalitpur Sub-metropolitan City The reservoir including Saatmule, Naumule and

Sheshnarayan spouts were observed in Dakshinkali Municipality.

Bagmati River is the largest river in Kathmandu Valley comprising 7 rivers and rivulets as its

tributaries. It originates from Baghdwar, northern part of Kathmandu. The river is a part of

Bagmati River Basin (BRB). The basin has a total catchment area of 3,750 sq. km. and total

length of river in Nepal is 220km (BRBIP, 2016).

The BRB is divided into sub-basins. The area draining into the Karmaiya station is called

upper watershed area and below Karmaiya station, it is called the lower watershed area. The

upper watershed area which is 2720 km2 covers the Kathmandu valley as well (fig. 5)

(Sharma & Shakya, 2006).

Bagmati is one of the medium rivers in Nepal, fed by seasonal springs and monsoon rainfall.

The average annual rainfall in the basin is 1900 mm of which more than 80% occurs in

monsoon season. This is one of the most populated basin with a population density of 741

person/km2 (Pandey, Babel, & Kazama, 2009).

Figure 5: Bagmati River Basin (BRBIP,2016)

15

Bagmati River is victim of massive urbanization and high population growth. The untreated

sewage are directly discharged into the river. The river bank is being used as waste disposal

site and the river is taken as cleanser of urban waste. The aquatic ecosystem in the river has

been affected and the river was considered as 'biologically dead' one. The direct impacts of

these activities can be seen in quality and quantity of water resources around Kathmandu

valley (BRBIP, 2016).

16

3 Methodology

The study was carried in several planned stages. A desk study was done before conducting

the field survey and for identifying the possible sites for research. Information was collected

about the earthquake's impacts on water resources in earthquake hit districts. Research was

accomplished under scientific research design as given in the flow chart .

3.1 Research Design

Figure 6. Methodological Framework for Study

Data Collection

Primary Data Secondary Data

Published/Unpublished

Reports/Web Information,

Journals

Focus Group Discussion with

stakeholders/ Key Informants

Interview

Direct Field Observation/ Visual

Information on Water Resources

Data Management

Data Analysis & Report

Preparation

17

3.2 Direct Field Observations

Field observations were done to gather visual information on water resources in study areas.

Checklists were used to collect data on previous and existing condition of water resources.

A Checklist for data collection is included in Annex 2 and Photographs are included in

Annex 3.

3.3 Focus Group Discussion/ Key Informants Interview

Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was done in Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality, Kavre-

palanchowk district. Stakeholders consisting of representatives from Water Users Association

(WUA), members from Women's Group, Youth Club and Chairman and other members of

Daraune Pokhari Conservation Committee (DPCC) had been consulted to obtain data on

water quality, quantity, associated impacts of water scarcity and protection measures for

water resources especially during disasters.

Key Informants Interview (KII) were done in Matatirtha (Chandragiri Municipality), Chandra

Jyoti Hydropower, Saatmule and Sheshnarayan areas (Dakshinkali Municipality).

Photos: Glimpses of Focus Group Discussion and Key Informants Interviews

18

3.4 Secondary Information

The secondary information have been gathered by reviewing the published reports/booklets

and journal articles, etc. Data on BRB was obtained from High Powered Committee for

Integrated Development of Bagmati Civilization (HPCIDBC), Office, Guheswori,

Kathmandu.

Field data were analyzed based on their nature. The quantitative data were analyzed by

diagram whereas qualitative data were analyzed by description and discussion.

19

4 Findings and Discussion

4.1 Visual Status of Water Resources

A) Changes in Quantity of Water Level

Locals revealed that the water sources have been drying-up in Dapcha-Kashikhanda

Municipality since last 5-10 years. Although, the associated reasons are of varied nature,

earthquake is substantially responsible for drying up of water sources in study areas. The

study found that almost twenty water sources out of thirty-five (Stone spouts, ponds and

springs) have been dried after earthquake in Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality. The

information on level of water sources in Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality, Ward 14 (Ward

No. 2, 6, 7, 8 & 9 of previous Daraune Pokhari VDC ) have been described in Tables 3 to 7.

Checklists were used for identifying water resources dried before and after the earthquake

(Annex). The flow of water has been either increased or decreased in almost all water sources

while some are completely dried. The water sources with stable water supplies are negligible

(Figure 6).

Table No.3 : Water Level Status of Ward No. 9

S.

N.

Name of

Water

Resource

Type of

Water

Resource

Completely Dried Increased

water level

after

earthquake

Decreased

water level

after

earthquake

Stable

Water

Level After

Earthquake

Dried

before

Earthquake

1 Kalikuwa Pond √

2 Nursery

Kuwa " √

3 Gotedanda

Ban Kuwa " √

4 Phalate

Kuwa " √

5

Thuldhara

Muhan

Mathillo

Spring √

6 Thuldhara

Muhan Spring √

20

Water flow in Thulodhara

has decreased substantially

after the earthquake.

Thulodhara is the main

stone spout in Dapcha-

Kashikhanda Municipality

area. The locals from

surrounding areas also

collect the water from

Thhulodhara. The main

usage is for domestic

purpose. Kalikuwa pond

has been releasing less

water while Jimalbote

spring has been releasing

more since the earthquake

(Table No. 4).

Photo: Decreased Water Flow at Thulodhara stone spout, Kavre-palanchowk

Table No.4: Water Level Status of Ward No. 8

S.

N.

Name of

Water

Resource

Type of

Water

Resource

Completely Dried Increased

water level

after

earthquake

Decreased

water level

after

earthquake

Stable

Water

Level After

Earthquake

Dried

Before

Earthquake

1

Pandheraban

ko Kuwa

Upstream

Pond

√

2 Pandheraban

Kuwa

" √

3 Kafalbote

Kuwa

" √

4 Khadkole

Dhara

Stone

Spout √

5 Jaruwapani

Muhan

Spring √

6 Nattepani

Dhara

Stone

Spout √

7 Jimalbote

Muhan

Spring √

21

Table No. 5: Water Level Status of Ward No. 7

S. N.

Name of

Water

Resource

Type of

Water

Resource

Completely Dried Increased

water level

after

earthquake

Decreased

water level

after

earthquake

Stable

Water

Level After

Earthquake

Before

Earthquake

1 Jogipani

Kuwa

Pond √

2 Simpokhari " √

The water levels at Simpokhari and Jogipani kuwa have been completely dried after the

earthquake (Table No.5). There is no stable supply of water in the area so locals have to

depend upon the neighboring water sources.

Table No. 6: Water Level Status of Ward No.6

S. N. Name of

Water

Resource

Type of

Water

Resource

Completely Dried Increased

water level

after

earthquake

Decreased

water level

after

earthquake

Stable

Water

Level After

Earthquake

Before

Earthquake

1 Kapikatte

Muhan

Upstream

Spring √

2 Kapikatte

Muhan

Downstream

" √

3 Dhap Dhara Stone

Spout

√

4 Sisnepani

Kuwa

Pond √

5 Saheleria

Dhara

Stone

Spout

√

6 Simkhoria

Dhara

Stone

Spout

√

Sisnepani Kuwa and Simkhoria Dhara has stable water supplies in ward no. 6 while

Kapikatte Muhan upstream has decreased water flow (Table 4) in contrast to Kapikatte

Muhan downstream. Bhundanda Muhan has increased water flow in ward no.2, while

Pandhero kuwa and Bhutkhoriya is completely dried. Bhalayo kuwa has stable supply of

water (Table No. 7).

22

Table No.7: Water Level Status in Ward No. 2

S. N.

Name of

Water

Resource

Type of

Water

Resource

Completely Dried Increased

water level

after

earthquake

Decreased

water level

after

earthquake

Stable

Water

Level After

Earthquake

Before

Earthquake

1 Bhundanda

Muhan

Spring √

2 Padhero

Kuwa

Pond √

3 Bhutkhoriya Pond √

4 Maplekhor

Muhan

Spring √

5 Khichha

Kuwa

Pond √

6 Bhalayo

Kuwa

" √

7 Pithok Kuwa " √

8 Sapneswori

Muhan

Spring √

In Sheshnarayan pond,

(DakshinkaliMunicipality)

the water level has been

drastically reduced after

earthquake. Likewise, in

Matatirtha (Chandragiri

Municipality) the water

level in the natural spouts

decreased. The key

informant (Mr. Krishna

Bahadur Lama, local

resident) informed that the

level of water was high

after the earthquake for

some days. But, later it

diminished.

And again the amount of

water increased on the day of Bhadra Kushe Aaushi (Bhadra,16, 2073). The level of water

found decreasing in recent months. Likewise, another informant (Mr. Krishna Lamichhane)

also revealed the same information.

Photo : Decreased water in Sheshnarayan Pond, Dakshinkali Municipality

23

Figure 6 Status of water level in water resources, Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality,Kavre-palanchok

Ponds have been adversely affected by the earthquake in Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality.

Most of the ponds have been dried up after earthquake in Kavre-palanchowk while the water

level of some ponds have been decreased. The study showed that almost 36% of the ponds

and 14% of stone spouts have been completely dried. Similarly, almost 14% springs got

increased water flow (Fig. 6). Unlike to Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality, most of the stone

spouts have dried in the Chandragiri Municipality, Dakshinkali Municipality and Kirtipur

Municipality in Kathmandu District. Though, the Matsyanarayan pond in Kirtipur

Municipality was dried before the earthquake. The drastic rate of increment in drying up of

water sources could also be the impact of urbanization and population growth.

Secondary information on water resource status have also described significant impact on

water resources in other areas of Kavre-palanchowk district. The water resources were also

dried and affected in Patlekhet, Chandenimandan, Mahadevsthan, Jyamdi, Koshipari,

Mangaltar and Nala VDCs of Kavre-palanchowk district.

B) Changes in Quality of Water Resources

Locals reported that there is not so much changes in the quality of water resources besides the

turbidity of water. The turbidity of water in water resources were high after the immediate

days of earthquake. For example, there has been seen high turbidity at Bhoondanda water

source (Ward No.2) of Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality after the earthquake. Likewise,

turbidity at Saatmule, Naumule and Sheshnarayan spouts were high after earthquake. In

Chandra Jyoti hydropower reservoir (Dakshinkali Municipality), the level of water was not

affected but the quality of the water was affected (Mr. Buddhi Basnet, employee at

Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL), Pharping Pump House Section). The

water had high turbidity after the earthquake. The office of KUKL at Pharping collects water

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Completely Dried Increased Flow Decreased Flow Stable flow of water

Stone Spouts

Pond

Spring

24

from Sheshnarayan and Saatmule. The reason behind this could be the changes in the water

table. The turbidity can also occur due to leaking tube wells, stand pipes and septic tanks

(Blaikie, Cannon, Davis, & Wisner, 2014). Sometimes, wastes and silts are washed into

waterways, increasing the concentration of suspended sediment and causing impacts on water

quality. There have also been reported changes in the physicochemical parameters of water.

For example, Potter et al.(2015) found changes in quality of water with low dissolved oxygen

levels, high ammonia concentrations, and an accumulation of contaminant in river bed

sediments in Canterbury earthquake (Potter et al., 2015).

C) Pseudo-changes in Water Level

The changes which didn't last for long term with reference to water level and water quality

have been termed as 'pseudo-change'. Haleti Khola in Kavre-palanchowk has increased water

discharge for some time which didn't last for long. Thuldhara and Sangachowk in Dapcha-

Kashikhanda Municipality got increased flow of water immediately after the earthquake but

decreased afterwards.

The Key informants

also revealed the

increased water level

from stone spouts at

Matatirtha, Naumule

and Sheshnarayan in

Dakshinkali

Municipality

immediately after the

earthquake,

unfortunately, the

increased discharge

faded in due course of

time. These kind of

changes are of no

benefit to the locals as

they are not reliable

sources of water. Locals surrounding the areas are highly depended on these water resources.

Besides, the water is also distributed in Kathmandu. Water from Matatirtha has been traded in

most areas of Kathmandu. Chandrajyoti Hydropower Plant is multi-purpose hydropower

mainly used for drinking water, irrigation and hydropower generation. Although, the plant

was primarily established for hydropower generation in 1911 A.D. and the first hydropower

plant in Nepal, it is serving more for drinking water supply in Lalitpur district and local

irrigation and has been preserved as 'Living Museum' by Government of Nepal. Turbidity

level was high soon after the earthquake in hydropower reservoir.

Photo: Decreased Water Flow from Stone Spouts of Matatirtha

25

4.2 Associated Impacts Due to Water Scarcity

A) Impact on Agricultural Production

Locals of Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality revealed that the agricultural activity in the area

is directly affected by the water scarcity. People have left their lands barren or shifted

towards less water demanding crops. Locals depend highly on farming activities, mainly

vegetables, which is affected by inadequate water. More than 50 hectare of land is left barren

in Dapcha-Kashikhanda municipality due to scarcity of water. Cultivation of paddy and

wheat have been severely affected in the municipality. Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems

(FMISs) in Dakshinkali Municipality has also been affected due to water scarcity. Kudaliphat

in Pharping area receives irrigation water from Chandrajyoti Hydropower Plant since its

establishment time as per the agreement with local people. Although, the irrigation is limited

to one month in a year, it has huge impact on local agricultural production. Similarly,

Saatmule spring irrigates Simlephant in Dakshinkali municipality. These FMIS have been

affected by water scarcity and local agricultural production has been affected.

There has not been seen any damages in canals/irrigation structures in the study areas.

However, the irregular water flow has caused enormous problem for farming. Nationwide,

the earthquake destroyed irrigation canals in 31 hilly and mountain districts along with an

estimated 1877 number of small and medium scale farmer managed irrigation schemes.

PDNA reported damages on the infrastructure and functionality of about 290 of 1,877

irrigation schemes by the earthquake (NPC, 2015).

B) Problems in Animal Husbandry

Due to the scarcity of drinking water, people in quake-hit districts like Kavre-palanchowk are

facing problems in animal husbandry. The water requirement for cattle are huge so locals

have to compromise with their water requirements.

C) Hurdles in Daily Activities

Local people have to travel far for fetching water in distant areas for drinking water

collection due to the scarcity of water. The water scarcity has also affected the daily activities

of women and children. Children of school going age have to travel and wait for long hours

to collect water.

D) Perturbation of Social Harmony

Social harmony of local people have also been in dangerous situation due to scarcity of water

resources. There is limited water available for drinking and other activities. It has caused an

environment of disturbance. Locals in Dapcha-Kashikhanda were afraid of losing their

neighboring villagers due to occasional conflict caused in nearby water resources.

There was huge conflict caused by turbidity of water at Saatmule spring in Dakshinkali

Municipality. People were unsatisfied with KUKL and complained about the water quality.

26

Sheshnarayan Pond is a center of belief for Hindu devotees. The water is considered holy and

pure by Hindu believers. The decreased water level in the pond has also decreased the

number of visitors.

E) Impact on Aquatic Ecosystem

The aquatic diversity of Sheshnarayan pond is also affected by shortage of water. The

quantity of fishes have been noticeably reduced after earthquake.

4.3 Protective Measures

Locals are not adopting protective measures to save water resources from disasters such as

earthquake, landslide, floods and soil erosion in Dakshinkali and Chandragiri, Kirtipur

municipalities. Even, they lack self-realization to protect water resources from natural

disasters. In most of the cases, the soil erosion has caused turbid water. Some locals informed

that the water spouts have been covered with semi-circle wooden structures to protect from

soil erosion. But, it is not secure and reliable.

In Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality, a committee is made for the protection of Daraune-

Pokhari pond. Daraune-Pokhari Conservation Committee (DPCC) has conserved Daraune-

Pokhari Pond with the aid from Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality and local people.

Villagers believe that Daraune-Pokhari is the heart of water resources in Dapcha-

Kashikhanda area which acts as a recharge pond and conservation of which will

automatically release more water in vicinities. This has been seen important for the protection

of associated water resources.

Photo: Fencing and Retaining Wall built around Daraune Pokhari, Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality

27

Likewise, the BRB is being managed by HPCIDBC under Ministry of Urban Development,

Government of Nepal. Under Bagmati River Basin Improvement Project (BRBIP), two dams

will be built in the downstream of Dhap within Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park with a

storage capacity of 850,000 m3 and Nagmati Dam with the potential capacity of 8 million m

3.

BRBIP has also planned to install rain water harvesting structures to 2500 households to

provide 45,000 m3 of safe water supply and recharge 135,000 m

3 groundwater. Another

important part is to stabilize 12.5 ha of outward sloping agricultural land prone by

community interventions to increase water retention and reduce soil erosion. BRBIP has

planned community afforestation, agro-forestry, agri-horticulture and agri-silviculture in

degraded as well as privately owned outward sloping agricultural lands. This is important as

the outward sloping agriculture lands are considered as the source of runoff and erosion. The

sloping agriculture technologies such as contour farming, regulated water draining channels

cropping with fast growing fodder, shrubs, fruit trees and grasses having low shading effects

to the undergrowth crops will increase the stability of soil (BRBIP,2016). This project is

intended to increase the water security in Kathmandu valley.

Not only this, the project has planned to establish system and capacity for integrated and

participatory river basin management, improve river bank environment in urban areas,

increase water availability in the basin during dry season and improve watershed

conservation.

Photo: View of Dhap Dam (BRBIP,2016)

28

4.4 Identified Gaps

The study has identified some gaps in the study areas:

There is a need to rehabilitate damaged water supply schemes such as drinking water

supply and irrigation water schemes. This may be possible with the help of

community, local institutions and Governmental bodies.

There has been increased trend of drying up of water resources since last 5-10 years.

The overall study of the water resources focusing on pattern of water flow and the

associated reasons shall highlight more evidence on the actual reasons.

The single water resource is being used for multiple purpose (drinking, irrigation,

animal husbandry and domestic). This has also caused water deficiency in study areas.

Reuse of available water can lessen the water scarcity.

Lack of disaster preparedness/water security has also worsened the problems of water

shortage in study areas.

Proper infrastructure management for water in the areas can also decrease the water

scarcity. For example, storage tanks can be used during dry periods to fulfill water

requirements.

More recharge ponds need to be identified in order to conserve other water resources

in study areas.

29

5 Conclusion and Way Forward

The study concludes that the water sources are highly affected by the earthquake in the study

areas. Mostly, ponds, springs, stone spouts and rivers are affected. The turbidity has also been

increased after the earthquake. Local people directly depend upon these sources which has

impacted daily life and overall activities. Mainly, the impacts have been seen in agriculture,

animal husbandry and domestic usage of water. Unfortunately, locals have no plan for

conservation of these resources neither for natural disasters nor for water security besides

Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality in Kavre-palanchowk and Bagmati river in Kathmandu

valley. Daraune pokhari (pond) has been conserved by local people. BRB in Kathmandu is

being managed under BRBIP for increasing water security which shall enhance the water

quantity of Kathmandu valley.

Consumption of water has been hugely affected with the drying up of water resources. In this

scenario, it will be quite imperative to study and identify water focused adaptation planning

and practices adopted by locals.

The study recommends that the water security in the areas can be achieved through rain water

harvesting, restoration of traditional spouts, identification and conservation of recharge

ponds. Furthermore, identification of water stress and water availability shall solve the water

scarcity to some extent. Likewise, improvement of water supply services are important to

meet the water demands. Public awareness is also crucial to secure existing resources.

It is mostly said that there is no problem of water availability in Nepal, the existing problems

are due to the socio-economic water scarcity. Socio-economic water scarcity is caused due to

lack of information, infrastructures, coordination and implementation problems. In spite of

wide coverage of piped water supply, locals still like to consume water from traditional water

sources such as stone spouts, ponds and springs. Nepal should make District Water Resources

Preservation Plan considering the fact that the country is facing a multitude of natural hazards

including earthquake, flood, landslides and debris flow that hugely impact water use of

people. There should also be institutional framework to conserve and monitor these

traditional sources.

30

Annex

Annex 1: Glossary

Muhan (Spring)- A spring is a place where groundwater naturally emerges from the Earth's

subsurface in a defined flow discharging fresh groundwater onto the ground surface.

Kuwa (Pond)- A well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging or

drilling to access groundwater.

Inar (Dug-well)- A dug well is a shallow hole dug down into the water table for accessing

water.

Dhunge-dhara (Stone Spout)- Stone spout is artificial channel made for easy collection of

water made up of crafted stones.

31

Annex 2: Checklists

Checklist 1: Information on Existing Level of Water Resources

S.N. Area

Sources of

Water

(Type)

Completely

Dried

Change in water level

Stable

Water

flow

Increased

flow

Decreased

flow

Checklist 2: Checklist for Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

1. Location:

2. Name:

3. Gender:

4. Ethnicity:

5. Age:

6. Type of Water Resources: Stone spout/ well/dug well/river/piped water

systems/pond/canal

7. Structure of Well/stone spout/dug well/river/piped water systems:

8. Discharge:

9. No of Households using the water resources:

10. Public/private/shared:

11. Level of water after earthquake: a) Increased b) Decreased

12. Usage of water :a) drinking b) domestic purpose c) agricultural purpose

13. Change in Physical appearance of water:

14. Water Quality Tested:

15. Trend of water level in last 5-10 years:

16. Alternative water sources in use if any:

17. Status of water resource at present: a) still in use b) Abandoned

18. Future plans and measures for improvement/conservation of water resources from

natural hazards:

19. Hurdles caused by water scarcity:

20. Protection measures adopted from disasters if any:

21. Other issues if any:

32

Checklist 3: Checklist Used for Key Informants Interview (KII)

1. Name-

2. Gender-

3. Type of Water sources: Stone spout/ well/dug well/river/piped water

systems/pond/canal

4. Structure of Well/stone spout/dug well/river/piped water systems

5. Discharge:

6. No of Households using the water resources:

7. Public/private/shared:

8. Level of water after earthquake: a) Increased b) Decreased

9. Usage of water :a) drinking b) domestic purpose c) agricultural purpose

10. Change in Physical appearance of water:

11. Water Quality Tested:

12. Trend of water level in last 5-10 years:

13. Alternative water sources in use if any:

14. Status of water resource at present: a) still in use b) Abandoned

15. Future plans and measures for improvement/conservation of water resources from

natural hazards/disaster preparedness:

16. Associated Impacts due to water scarcity:

17. Other issues if any:

33

Annex 3: Photographs

Photo: Teendhara Stone spout in Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality, Kavre-palanchok

Photo: Dried Well with spider web in Dapcha-Kashikhanda Municipality, Kavre-palanchok

34

Photo: Thulodhara stone spout water also used for sanitation purpose,Kavre-palanchowk

Photo: Decreased water level at Sheshnarayan pond affecting water supply in vicinity,

Kathmandu

35

Photos: (First) Stone spouts water used for sanitation & (Second) Reduced water flow from stone

spouts, Matatirtha, Chandragiri Municipality

36

Photo: Completely dried stone spouts at Matsyanarayan , Kirtipur Municipality

Photo: Stone spout water being lifted-up by local community, Naumule, Dakshinkali Municipality

37

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