ilde, Eros by NEAR - FAUpulsar.sternwarte.uni-erlangen.de/wilms/teach/intro_11/hand04.pdf · Comet...
24
I E F C O D R I L A I N R D N X A E A E S I I C M L M V A A I A D R E L G E 7–1 Small Solar System Bodies: Asteroids, Comets, and Transneptunians 951 Gaspra (NASA) Asteroids: Minor planets mostly between Mars and Jupiter (main belt), diameters <1000 km First discovery in 1801 (Piazzi: Ceres, diam. 1000 km) Today >100000 known, only 7 with diameters >300 km Total mass ∼0.5% of Earth (40% of moon), of which ∼30% in Ceres, 75% are C-type (car- bonaceous), 17% S-type (silicaceous), and 8% M-type (metallic) asteroids. Several asteroids surveyed by interplanetary probes (Mathilde, Eros by NEAR Shoemaker; Gaspra [19 × 12 × 11 km], Ida [58×23 km] by Galileo) 2001 Feb 12: NEAR lands on Eros
Transcript of ilde, Eros by NEAR - FAUpulsar.sternwarte.uni-erlangen.de/wilms/teach/intro_11/hand04.pdf · Comet...
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
7–1
Sm
allS
olar
Sys
tem
Bod
ies:
Ast
eroi
ds,C
omet
s,an
dTr
ansn
eptu
nian
s
951
Gas
pra
(NA
SA
)
Ast
eroi
ds:
Min
orpl
anet
s
mos
tlybe
twee
nM
ars
and
Jupi
ter
(mai
nbe
lt),d
iam
eter
s
<10
00km
Firs
tdis
cove
ryin
1801
(Pia
zzi:
Cer
es,d
iam
.100
0km
)
Toda
y>
1000
00kn
own,
only
7w
ithdi
amet
ers>
300
km
Tota
lmas
s∼
0.5%
ofE
arth
(40%
ofm
oon)
,ofw
hich
∼30
%in
Cer
es,7
5%ar
eC
-typ
e(c
ar-
bona
ceou
s),1
7%S
-typ
e(s
ilica
ceou
s),a
nd8%
M-t
ype
(met
allic
)as
tero
ids.
Sev
eral
aste
roid
ssu
rvey
edby
inte
rpla
neta
rypr
obes
(Mat
hild
e,E
ros
byN
EA
R
Sho
emak
er;G
aspr
a[1
9×
12×
11km
],Id
a[5
8×23
km]b
yG
alile
o)
2001
Feb
12:
NE
AR
land
son
Ero
s
MO
VIE
TIM
E:
•http://near.jhuapl.edu/iod/20010205/index.html:
Rot
atio
nof
Ero
s[2
000
Dec
3/4]
•http://near.jhuapl.edu/iod/20010731/index.html:
desc
ento
nto
Ero
s
Wik
iped
ia
Orb
itdy
nam
ics
lead
sto
stru
ctur
ing
ofth
eas
tero
idbe
lt:as
tero
idfa
mili
es.
NE
As:
Nea
rE
arth
Ast
eroi
ds:
Ear
thpa
thcr
ossi
ng(A
tens
,Apo
llos)
,
Ear
thap
proa
chin
g(A
mor
s).
PH
A:P
oten
tialh
azar
dous
Ast
eroi
ds:>
150m
,<0.
05A
U:∼
1000
know
n,
seehttp://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/index.html
Est
imat
e:th
ere
are>
1000
000
Ear
thor
bitc
ross
ing
aste
roid
s
Co
met
s
153P
/Ikey
a-Z
hang
(c ©
M.J
äger
)
Com
etH
ale
Bop
pov
erB
ambe
rg,1
997
sprin
g
Com
etH
ale
Bop
p,M
arch
30,1
997
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
7–12
Com
ets
4
Str
uctu
re
NA
SA
Maj
orco
mpo
nent
sof
aco
met
:
•N
ucle
us:
“Dus
tyS
now
ball”
(Whi
pple
,
1951
),1–
50km
dom
inat
edby
wat
eric
e,pl
usup
to15
–20%
CO
2
and
CO
•C
oma:
104–1
05km
,eva
pora
ted
gas
surr
ound
ing
nucl
eus
incl
udes
H2O
,CO
2,C
O,b
utal
soH
2S
,CH
3O
H,
H2C
O,N
H3,H
CN
,CH
4,S
2
•Io
nta
il:Io
nize
dga
s,ty
pica
lext
entu
p
to10
8km
,ofte
nbl
uish
•D
ustt
ail:
Dus
teva
pora
ted
away
from
nucl
eus,
typi
cals
ize∼
106–1
07km
.H
igh
vola
tility
spec
ies
indi
cate
orig
inin
cool
re-
gion
sof
sola
rsy
stem
and
“sto
rage
”ou
tthe
reun
-
tilre
cent
ly.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
7–13
Com
ets
5
Str
uctu
re
Bus
tofA
pian
(Ruh
mes
-
halle
,Mun
ich)
How
doco
met
ary
tails
form
?
•ta
ilsal
way
spo
inta
way
from
the
Sun
(Api
anus
,
1531
)=⇒
Sun
caus
esth
eph
enom
enon
•D
ustt
ail:
scat
tere
dS
unlig
ht.
•D
ustp
artic
les
are
acce
lera
ted
byra
diat
ion
pres
-
sure
•G
asta
il:io
nise
dpl
asm
a,io
nsem
itlig
htby
fluor
es-
cenc
e
•W
urm
(194
3):
plas
ma
can
notb
eac
ccel
erat
edby
radi
atio
npr
essu
re
•B
ierm
ann
(195
1):
The
rem
ustb
ea
sola
rw
ind
of
part
icle
s
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
7–14
Com
ets
6
Hal
ley
ES
A
1P/H
alle
y:
•O
rbita
lper
iod:
76–7
9.3
year
or-
bit(
earli
estr
ecor
ded
appe
aren
ce:
239
B.C
,fam
ous:
1066
,Tap
estr
yof
Bay
eux)
.
•A
naly
zed
inde
tail
durin
g19
86re
-
turn
,flyb
yof
ES
A’s
Gio
ttosp
ace-
craf
tclo
seto
nucl
eus,
furt
her
anal
y-
sis
byR
ussi
anV
ega
1an
d2
prob
es,
Japa
nese
Sui
seia
ndS
akig
ake,
and
NA
SA
’sIn
tern
atio
nalC
omet
ary
Ex-
plor
er.
•“I
nter
natio
nalH
alle
yW
atch
”w
ith
stro
ngco
ntrib
utio
nsfr
omB
ambe
rg
obse
rvat
ory.
side
rialp
erio
d:6y
r22
7d,p
erih
el:
1.03
7A
U,a
phel
:6.
015
AU
redi
scov
erd
byZ
inne
r,A
ssis
tent
atB
ambe
rgob
serv
ator
y(la
ter
itsse
cond
dire
ctor
)
first
com
etob
erve
dby
asp
ace
prob
e:19
85:
ICE
(Int
erna
tiona
lCom
etE
xplo
rer)
flys
thro
ugh
tail
in78
00km
dist
ance
from
core
Orig
inal
Sem
i-maj
orax
is:∼
400
AU
,clo
sest
appr
oach
toE
arth
:0.
1A
U
i=
125◦
;e>
0.99
9784
Pre
-per
ihel
ion
Orb
italp
erio
d:∼
8000
year
s
Pos
t-pe
rihel
ion
Orb
italp
erio
d:∼
1400
0ye
ars
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
7–18
Com
ets
10
Com
etW
ild2
NA
SA
,sta
rdus
tmis
sion
,siz
e∼
5km
NA
SA
’sS
tard
ustm
issi
on:
flyby
atco
met
Wild
2on
2004
Janu
ary
2,co
llect
ion
ofpa
rtic
les
from
vici
nity
ofco
met
’snu
cleu
s(c
lose
stap
proa
ch:
240
km),
impa
cted
with
sam
ples
inU
tah
on20
06
Janu
ary
15
P/W
ild2:
larg
ese
mi-m
ajor
axis
,per
ihel
ion
outs
ide
Mar
saf
ter
Jupi
ter
enco
unte
rin
1974
(∼
Jupi
ter
befo
reth
at)=⇒
Mat
eria
lhas
notb
een
proc
esse
dby
Sun
befo
resa
mpl
ere
turn
.S
ekan
ina
etal
.(1
994,
A&
A28
9,60
7)
HS
T:I
mpa
ctof
frag
men
tsD
and
G.O
uter
ring:
d∼
1200
0km
(Ear
th!)
.
Evo
lutio
nof
impa
ctG
:bot
tom
toto
p:18
July
1994
,5’a
fter
impa
ctof
frag
men
t(pl
ume!
),un
til5
days
afte
rth
eim
pact
).
HS
Tim
age
ofJu
pite
raf
ter
the
impa
cts
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
7–25
Com
ets
17
Sun
graz
ers
Sun
graz
ing
com
ets:
...t
heun
luck
yon
es,m
embe
rsof
the
Kre
utz
grou
pof
com
ets,
whi
chco
me
with
in∼
5000
0km
ofth
eS
un.
Nam
edaf
ter
Hei
nric
hK
reut
z,w
hodi
scov
ered
thes
eco
met
sin
the
late
1800
s.
Unt
il19
79:
9co
met
skn
own.
Sin
ceth
en:
sola
rob
serv
atio
nsfr
omsa
telli
tes,
mor
eco
met
sfo
und.
Sin
ce19
96:>
1800
sung
raze
rsdi
scov
ered
with
inst
rum
ents
onbo
ard
ES
A’s
SO
HO
spac
ecra
ft.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
7–26
Com
ets
18
Sun
graz
ers
MO
VIE
TIM
E:
•Hyakutake.mpg
:P
erih
elio
npa
ssag
eof
P/H
yaku
take
.N
ote
dust
tail
and
plas
ma
tail!
•cometM.mpg
:pe
rihel
ion
pass
age
ofco
met
P/M
acho
lz
•c2002v1.mpg
:pe
rihel
ion
pass
age
ofan
othe
rco
met
in20
02
•C3_2comets_CME.mpg
:tw
oco
met
shi
tting
the
sun,
follo
wed
byan
(unr
e-
late
d!)
coro
nalm
ass
ejec
tion
Met
eors
Orig
inof
met
eor
swar
ms
•≈
25M
io./d
ayhi
tEar
th’s
atm
osph
ere.
•m
ostb
urn
up
•≈
1M
io.
kg/d
ayto
Ear
th’s
surf
ace.
•la
rge
ones
brea
kin
topi
eces
,are
ab-
late
d,bu
trea
chth
esu
rfac
eas
met
e-
orite
s
•or
igin
:de
bris
ofco
met
s:du
stta
ils
•sh
ower
s/sw
arm
sw
hen
eart
hcr
osse
s
aco
met
’sor
bitn
amed
afte
rco
nste
lla-
tion
ofra
dian
t
•e.
g.,L
eoni
dsdu
eto
55P
/Tem
pel-
Tuttl
e(m
idof
Nov
embe
r).
Met
eorit
es
thre
em
ajor
type
s:
•C
hond
rites
:m
ostc
omm
on,s
tone
,rad
iom
et-
ricda
ting:
age=
4.55
billi
onye
ars
•P
alla
site
s:st
one
with
met
als
•iro
nm
eteo
rites
:13
subc
lass
es:
iron-
nick
el
allo
ws
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
7–30
Com
ets
22
Orig
inof
Com
ets
Long
perio
dco
met
s:P
≥20
0ye
ars,
have
very
ecce
ntric
orbi
tsw
ithhu
gese
mi-
maj
orax
es,a
llan
gula
rm
omen
taan
din
clin
atio
nsob
serv
ed.
Jan
Oor
t(19
50)
sugg
este
dth
epr
esen
ceof
ala
rge
clou
dof
com
ets
athu
gedi
s-
tanc
esar
ound
the
Sun
(Oor
tclo
ud).
For
mal
defin
ition
:O
ortc
loud
isen
sem
ble
ofal
lcom
ets
with
sem
i-maj
orax
isa≥
104
AU
;est
imat
edco
nten
t∼
1011
to10
12ob
ject
s,to
talm
ass
1–50
Ear
thm
asse
s,te
mpe
ratu
re5–
10K
.
Long
perio
dco
met
sor
igin
ate
inO
ortc
loud
,orb
itsar
edi
stur
bed
bypa
ssin
gst
ars
orG
iant
Mol
ecul
arC
loud
s.
S.A
.Ste
rn(2
003,
Nat
ure
424,
639–
642)
shor
tper
iod
com
ets:
P<
200
year
s:sh
owan
gula
rm
omen
tasi
mila
rto
plan
ets,
mai
nly
foun
din
plan
eof
sola
rsy
stem
.
=⇒
prob
ably
from
Kui
per
belt,
high
colli
sion
rate
sth
ere
frag
men
tobj
ects
,lea
ding
to
com
etar
yde
bris
.
NA
SA
/A.F
eild
(ST
ScI
)
Tran
snep
tun
ian
sP
luto
-th
edw
arfp
lane
t
NA
SA
/ES
AH
ST
Plu
to/C
haro
n:
•di
scov
ered
1930
/197
8
•do
uble
syst
em(P
luto
:D
=23
20km
,
Cha
ron:
D=
1270
km)
•ic
ysu
rfac
e,pr
obab
lycr
ater
ed
•on
eof
the
larg
estt
rans
nept
unia
nob
ject
s,
mem
ber
ofth
eK
uipe
rbe
ltK
uipe
rbe
lt:si
mila
rto
aste
roid
belt,>
7000
0ob
ject
sou
tsid
eN
eptu
nein
30–5
0A
Ure
gion
Art
ist’s
impr
essi
onof
Plu
toan
dC
haro
n(D
.Dur
da,S
WR
I)
New
Hor
izon
s:N
AS
A
Mis
sion
toP
luto
and
be-
yond
laun
ched
2006
Jan-
uary
19,
2007
Feb
ruar
y:Ju
pite
r
grav
ityas
sist
,
2015
July
:F
lyby
atP
luto
and
Cha
ron,
Kui
per
Bel
tmis
sion
until
2020
R.H
urt(
SS
C-C
alte
ch)
Vie
win
gin
war
dsfr
omS
edna
(NA
SA
/JP
L)
Dis
cove
ryim
ages
ofth
edw
arfp
lane
tEris
.T
heth
ree
imag
esw
ere
take
n1
1/2
hour
sap
arto
nth
eni
ghto
f200
3O
ctob
er21
st.
Eris
can
bese
ento
mov
eve
rysl
owly
acro
ssth
esk
yov
erth
eco
urse
of3
hour
s.(M
.Bro
wn
etal
.C
alte
ch)
Eris
(200
3U
B31
3):
disc
over
ed20
05:
dist
ance
∼10
0A
U,
brig
htne
sssi
mila
rto
Plu
to
=⇒
larg
erth
anP
luto
,unl
ess
itis
100%
refle
ctiv
e(u
nlik
ely)
!
Eris
Plu
to
afte
rM
.Bro
wn
etal
.(C
alte
ch)
3m
oons
ofP
luto
:
http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap060624.html
The
orbi
tofD
ysno
mia
arou
ndE
ris:
•ci
rcul
aror
bit
•P
erio
dP
=15
.773
days
•O
rbita
lrad
ius:
R=
3740
0km
(Bro
wn
&S
chal
ler,
Sci
ence
Vol
316,
15
June
2007
)
Eris
:V
iew
ofth
eS
olar
Sys
tem
(dra
win
gco
urte
syM
.Bro
wn
etal
./NS
F/N
AS
A)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
8–1
Cos
mog
ony:
For
mat
ion
ofth
eso
lar
syst
em
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
8–2
Cos
mog
ony
1
For
mat
ion
ofth
eso
lar
syst
em
Fact
sto
beex
plai
ned:
•pl
anet
ary
orbi
tsal
llie
alm
osti
nth
esa
me
plan
e,pa
ralle
lto
the
Sun
’seq
uato
r,
alm
ostc
ircul
ar
•al
lpla
nets
orbi
tcou
nter
cloc
kwis
e,in
the
sam
edi
rect
ion
asth
eso
lar
rota
tion
•pr
ogra
dero
tatio
n(e
xcep
tVen
us&
Nep
tune
)
•pl
anet
sha
ve0.
15%
ofth
eto
talm
ass,
but9
8%of
the
tota
lang
ular
mom
en-
tum
ofth
eso
lar
syst
em
•(p
lane
tary
dist
ance
sob
eyth
eem
piric
alT
itius
-Bod
ela
w:
an=
0.4+
0.32
n(8
.1)
forn=
−∞
,0,1,...
,n=
3:as
tero
idbe
lt(C
eres
))
•te
rres
tria
land
gian
tpla
nets
are
phys
ical
lyan
dch
emic
ally
diffe
rent
•sa
telli
tesy
stem
sre
sem
ble
min
iatu
reso
lar
syst
ems
inst
ruct
ure
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
8–3
Cos
mog
ony
2
Neb
ula
Hyp
othe
sis
•A
clou
dof
inte
rste
llar
gas
and/
ordu
stco
llaps
esun
der
itsow
ngr
avity
.
•D
urin
gco
llaps
ega
she
ats
upan
dco
mpr
esse
sin
the
cent
er.
•A
prot
osta
ris
form
edan
dth
ere
stof
the
gas
orbi
ts/fl
ows
arou
ndit.
=⇒
accr
etio
ndi
sk
•M
etal
,roc
kan
dic
e(o
nly
far
from
star
)co
nden
seas
gas
cool
s.
•T
hedu
stpa
rtic
les
colli
dew
ithea
chot
her
and
form
larg
erpa
rtic
les.
•O
nce
the
larg
erof
thes
epa
rtic
les
getb
igen
ough
toha
vea
nont
rivia
lgra
vity
,
thei
rgr
owth
acce
lera
tes=⇒
Run
away
grow
th.
•≈
1M
yrs
afte
rth
ene
bula
cool
ed,s
tar
gene
rate
sa
very
stro
ngso
lar
win
dan
d
swee
psaw
ayth
ega
sle
ftin
the
prot
opla
neta
ryne
bula
.
•T
he”p
lane
tesi
mal
s”w
ould
slow
lyco
llide
with
each
othe
ran
dbe
com
em
ore
mas
sive
.
•E
vent
ually
,afte
r10
to10
0M
yrs
plan
ets
are
inst
able
orbi
ts
=⇒
sola
rsy
stem
form
ed.
Firs
tdis
cuss
edby
I.K
anti
n17
55
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
8–4
Cos
mog
ony
3
Neb
ula
Hyp
othe
sis
Con
dens
atio
nof
dust
and
ices
Tem
pera
ture
grad
ient
inth
eea
rlyso
lar
nebu
la(C
arro
ll&
Ost
lie)
Che
mic
aldi
ffere
ntia
tion
ac-
cord
ing
tote
mpe
ratu
re:
•T>
1500
K:
Fe,
Ni,
CaO
,AlO
cond
ense
•15
00K>
T>
1000
K:
Sili
cate
s(e
.g.
feld
spar
)
•10
00K>
T>
800
K:
FeS
•80
0K>
T>
500
K:
Met
allic
Oxi
des
•T<
150
K:W
ater
ice
Th
efr
ost
line
Dis
kar
ou
nd
the
you
ng
star
βP
ic
”Fal
seco
lor”
imag
esh
ows
grad
atio
nsin
the
brig
htne
ssof
the
disk
,whi
chsc
atte
rsth
est
arlig
ht.
War
psin
the
disk
mig
htbe
caus
edby
the
grav
itatio
nalp
ullo
fone
orm
ore
unse
enpl
anet
s.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–1
Coo
rdin
ates
and
Mea
sure
men
tMet
hods
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–2
Intr
oduc
tion
1
Intr
oduc
tion
We
now
mov
eaw
ayfr
omso
lar
syst
em
=⇒
befo
rew
eca
nco
ntin
uew
ithsc
ienc
e,w
ene
edto
unde
rsta
nd
•w
here
astr
onom
ical
obje
cts
are=⇒
coor
dina
tesy
stem
s
•ho
was
tron
omic
alm
easu
rem
ents
are
mad
e=⇒
tele
scop
es
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–3
Coo
rdin
ates
1
Pos
ition
son
Ear
th
λ
ϕ
Nul
l−m
erid
ian
Ort
s−
S
N
mer
idia
n
λ:
geog
raph
iclo
ngitu
de(d
eg),
ϕ:
geog
raph
icla
titud
e(d
eg)
λ=
0◦de
fined
bypo
sitio
nof
am
erid
ian
circ
lein
Gre
enw
ich
(Lon
don)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–4
Coo
rdin
ates
2
Hor
izon
Sys
tem
Zen
ith
Nor
th
Mer
idia
n Sou
th
E
W
afte
rG
iese
Pos
ition
onsk
y:
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–4
Coo
rdin
ates
3
Hor
izon
Sys
tem
Zen
ith
Nor
th
Mer
idia
n Sou
th
E
W
star
Dire
ctio
n to
a
afte
rG
iese
Pos
ition
onsk
y:
•D
efine
posi
tion
bygi
ving
dire
ctio
nto
star
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–4
Coo
rdin
ates
4
Hor
izon
Sys
tem
Zen
ith
Nor
th
Mer
idia
n Sou
th
E
W
star
Dire
ctio
n to
a
Azi
mut
h A
afte
rG
iese
Pos
ition
onsk
y:
•D
efine
posi
tion
bygi
ving
dire
ctio
nto
star
.
•A
zim
uthA
:an
gle
inho
ri-
zont
alS
-W-N
-E
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–4
Coo
rdin
ates
5
Hor
izon
Sys
tem
Zen
ith
Nor
th
Mer
idia
n Sou
th
E
W
star
Dire
ctio
n to
a
Azi
mut
h A
Alti
tude
h
afte
rG
iese
Pos
ition
onsk
y:
•D
efine
posi
tion
bygi
ving
dire
ctio
nto
star
.
•A
zim
uthA
:an
gle
inho
ri-
zont
alS
-W-N
-E
•A
ltitu
deh
:an
gle
from
horiz
onto
war
dsze
nith
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–4
Coo
rdin
ates
6
Hor
izon
Sys
tem
Zen
ith
Nor
th
Mer
idia
n Sou
th
E
W
star
Dire
ctio
n to
a
Azi
mut
h A
Alti
tude
h
Zen
ithdi
stan
ce z
afte
rG
iese
Pos
ition
onsk
y:
•D
efine
posi
tion
bygi
ving
dire
ctio
nto
star
.
•A
zim
uthA
:an
gle
inho
ri-
zont
alS
-W-N
-E
•A
ltitu
deh
:an
gle
from
horiz
onto
war
dsze
nith
•Z
enith
dist
ance
z:z
=
90◦−
h
http://joeorman.shutterace.com/Trails/Trails_021227_5.html
Ear
thro
tate
s:A
,hdo
notd
efine
posi
tion
ofst
ars
atan
ytim
e
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–6
Coo
rdin
ates
8
Equ
ator
ialS
yste
m
Mov
ing:
t=
hour
angl
e(h
,m,s
),ch
ange
sco
nsta
ntly
with
time
δ=
decl
inat
ion
(◦,′
,′′ ),
cons
tant
with
time
Fix
ed:
repl
acet
by
α:
right
asce
nsio
n(h
,m,s
),an
gle
mea
sure
d
alon
geq
uato
rfr
omve
rnal
equi
nox
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–7
Coo
rdin
ates
9
Sid
eria
lTim
e
Zen
ith
Mer
idia
n Sou
th
E
WH
oriz
on
Nor
th
star
Dire
ctio
n to
aN
orth
Pol
e
ϕ
Equ
ator
δ
Ecliptic
αΘ
Defi
nesi
deria
ltim
e:24
h
corr
espo
ndon
ero
tatio
nof
the
cele
stia
lsph
ere.
0h
side
rialt
ime
=tim
e
whe
nve
rnal
equi
nox
pass
esth
roug
hm
erid
-
ian.
=⇒
Loca
lsid
eria
ltim
e:
Rig
htas
cens
ion
of
star
spa
ssin
gth
roug
h
mer
idia
n.
Rig
htA
scen
sion
ism
ea-
sure
din
hour
s,m
inut
es,
and
seco
nds
1h
corr
espo
nds
to15
◦.
αin
crea
ses
tow
ards
Eas
t.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–8
Coo
rdin
ates
10
Sid
eria
lTim
e
Not
e:S
ider
ialt
ime6=
com
mon
time
Com
mon
time:
24h
betw
een
culm
inat
ions
ofth
eS
un(i.
e.,p
asse
sof
Sun
thro
ugh
mer
idia
n).
BU
T
Sun
mov
eson
sky
tow
ards
east
=⇒
one
“sol
arda
y”ta
kes
slig
htly
long
erth
anon
ero
tatio
nof
the
Ear
th
Ang
ular
spee
dof
Sun
:36
0◦de
gree
sin
365.
25da
ys,i
.e.,
0.98
56◦
d−1.
=⇒
Dur
ing
365.
25da
ysth
eE
arth
rota
tes
366.
25tim
es
=⇒
Ear
th’s
rota
tion
take
s24
h×
365.
25/3
66.2
5=
23h
56m
inut
es.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–9
Coo
rdin
ates
11
Tele
scop
eM
ount
ings
azim
utha
lmou
ntin
g:ho
rizon
tala
xis
and
vert
ical
axis
equa
toria
lmou
ntin
g:de
clin
atio
n
axis
and
pola
rax
is
Bay
er’s
Ura
nom
etria
(160
3;U
nive
rsity
ofIll
inoi
sco
llect
ions
)
Bec
ause
ofpr
eces
sion
and
nuta
tion:
need
tost
ate
epoc
hof
coor
dina
te!
Ald
ebar
an=α
Tau:
αJ2
000.
0=
04h35
m55
.238
7s ,δJ2
000.
0=+
16◦30
′ 33.
485′′
corr
espo
ndin
gtoα
B19
50.0=
04h33
m02
.9s ,δ
B19
50.0=
+16
◦24
′ 37.
6′′
shor
ter
high
erlo
wer
Wav
elen
gth
in m
eter
s
Typ
ical
siz
eof
a w
ave
Nam
e of
wav
eban
d
Ter
rest
rial
Sou
rces
long
er
Fie
ldB
aseb
all
Soc
cer
Hou
se
Pho
ton
ener
gy[e
V]
[Hz]
Fre
quen
cy
cell
bact
eria
viru
spr
otei
nw
ater
mol
ecul
e
AM
radi
o
hfca
vity
FM
radi
o
Mic
row
ave
Ove
nR
adar
Peo
ple
Ligh
tB
ulb
The
ALS
X−
Ray
Mac
hine
sRad
ioac
tive
Ele
men
ts
Rad
io W
aves
Mic
row
aves
Infr
ared
Ultr
avio
let
Gam
ma−
Ray
s
Har
d X
−R
ays
Sof
t X−
Ray
s
1010
510
−9
1010
−7
10−
610
−5
10−
410
−3
10−
210
−1
100
101
102
103
104
6−
8
106
107
108
109
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1019
1020
10−
910
310
210
110
010
−1
10−
210
−3
10−
410
−5
10−
610
−7
10−
810
10−
1110
−12
−10
Visual
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–12
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es2
Ele
ctro
mag
netic
Spe
ctru
m
As
we
allk
now
,lig
htca
nbe
char
acte
rized
by
Wav
elen
gth
:λ,m
easu
red
inm
,mm
,cm
,nm
,Å.
Fre
qu
ency
:ν,m
easu
red
inH
z,M
Hz.
En
erg
y:E
,mea
sure
din
J,er
g,R
ydbe
rgs,
eV,k
eV,M
eV,G
eV.
Tem
per
atu
re:T
,mea
sure
din
K.
The
sequ
antit
ies
are
rela
ted:
λν=c
E=hν
T=
E/k
(9.1
)
whe
rec=
2997
9245
8m
s−1
(9.2
)
h=
6.62
6069
3(11
)×
10−
34J
s(9
.3)
k=
1.38
0650
5(24
)×
10−
23J
K−
1(9
.4)
Con
stan
tsar
e20
02C
OD
ATA
valu
es,http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html
unce
r-ta
inty
is1σ
inun
itsof
last
digi
tsho
wn.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–13
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es3
Ear
th’s
Atm
osph
ere
Cha
rles
&S
ewar
d,F
ig.1
.12
Ear
th’s
atm
osph
ere
isop
aque
for
all
type
sof
EM
radi
atio
n
exce
ptfo
rop
tical
light
and
radi
o.
=⇒
Ast
rono
my
isto
day
mul
ti-w
avel
engt
h
astr
onom
y,al
-
thou
ghop
tical
stud
ies
are
still
very
impo
rtan
t
=⇒
For
time
reas
ons
only
optic
alte
lesc
opes
will
bedi
scus
sed.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–14
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es4
Intr
oduc
tion
Sci
entifi
cpu
rpos
esof
ate
lesc
ope:
1.C
olle
ctlig
ht,l
ots
oflig
ht,t
osh
owfa
into
bjec
ts(“
Ligh
tbuc
ket”
)
2.R
esol
vesm
allf
eatu
res
Inst
rum
enta
tion
used
...
1.to
mak
eim
ages
=⇒
Imag
ing
(with
Cha
rge
Cou
pled
Dev
ices
[CC
Ds]
,ear
lier
also
with
film
)
2.to
mea
sure
spec
tra
=⇒
Spe
ctro
grap
hs
3.to
mea
sure
stel
lar
brig
htne
ss
=⇒
Pho
tom
eter
s(o
ften
CC
Ds,
ther
ear
eal
sode
dica
ted
phot
omet
ers
for
mse
c-re
solu
tion
phot
omet
ry)
For
phys
ics
ofin
stru
men
tatio
n−→
Ast
rono
my
Labo
rato
ry
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–15
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es5
Type
sof
Tele
scop
es
Toco
llect
light
,we
have
two
poss
ibili
ties:
1.Le
nses
:R
efra
ctor
s
Dis
adva
ntag
e:le
nsca
nnot
besu
ppor
ted
from
the
back
=⇒
limits
max
.dia
met
erto.
1m
larg
estr
efra
ctor
atYe
rkes
Obs
erva
tory
(Uni
vers
ityof
Chi
cago
):d=
1.02
m
=⇒
noto
fint
eres
tfor
scie
nce
2.M
irror
s:R
eflec
tors
Mirr
ors
can
besu
ppor
ted,
inst
rum
ento
fcho
ice
for
toda
y,w
ithdi
amet
ers
upto
11m
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–16
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es6
Type
sof
Tele
scop
es
Opt
ical
axi
s
Foc
us
Tofo
rmim
age:
focu
slig
ht
with
apa
rabo
licm
irror
Sph
eric
alm
irror
ssh
owsp
heric
alab
erra
tion=⇒
not
suite
dfo
ras
tron
omic
alte
lesc
opes
(atl
east
notw
ithou
tco
rrec
tion)
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–17
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es7
Res
olut
ion
GS
U
Wav
ena
ture
oflig
htre
sults
in
inte
rfer
ence
patte
rnca
used
by
diffr
actio
non
optic
alel
emen
ts
inte
lesc
ope
(mai
nly
aper
ture
).
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–18
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es8
Res
olut
ion
Diff
ract
ion
patte
rnon
tele
scop
eap
ertu
re:
Air
ypa
ttern
For
aci
rcul
arap
ertu
rew
ithra
dius
r:
I(θ)∝
π2r4
[
∞∑
n=
0
(−1)
n1
n+
1
(
mn
n!
)
2]
2
∝π
2r4
m2(J
1(2m))
2
(9.5
)
whe
rem
=π(r/λ
)sinθ
and
whe
reJ
1(x)
sth
e
Bes
self
unct
ion
ofth
efir
stki
ndof
orde
run
ity.
I(θ)
has
min
ima
form
=1.
916,
3.50
8,5.
087,
...,
or
sinθ=
1.91
6λ
πr
,3.
508λ
πr
,5.
087λ
πr
,...
(9.6
)
orfo
rθ
smal
l(sinθ∼
θ)m
inim
aar
efo
und
at:
θ=
1.22
0λ
d,...
(9.7
)
whe
red
:di
amet
er.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–19
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es9
Res
olut
ion
Res
olut
ion
ofte
lesc
ope:
abili
tyto
sepa
rate
two
(poi
nt-li
ke)
light
sour
ces
Ray
leig
hcr
iterio
nfo
rre
solu
tion:
max
imum
ofdi
ffrac
tion
patte
rnof
one
sour
cem
ustf
alli
nto
min
imum
ofdi
ffrac
tion
patte
rnof
othe
rso
urce
.
The
refo
reth
edi
ffrac
tion
limite
dre
solu
tion
is
α=
1.22
0λ
d=
12′′
D/1
cmfo
rop
tical
light
(9.8
)
Not
e:R
ayle
igh
crite
rion
isa
crite
rion,
not
ala
w.
Det
aile
dob
ject
sepa
rabi
lity
depe
nds
onra
tioof
inte
nsiti
esof
two
obje
cts,
inpr
actic
ere
solu
tions
upto
3×sm
alle
rar
eac
hiev
able
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–20
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es10
New
toni
anTe
lesc
ope
Obj
ectiv
em
irror
Sec
onda
rym
irror
New
toni
ante
lesc
ope:
refle
ctor
with
para
bolic
mirr
or.
Com
mon
inch
eape
rte
lesc
opes
.
Dis
adva
ntag
e:la
rge
size
(∼fo
call
engt
h)
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–21
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es11
Cas
segr
ain
Tele
scop
e
Cas
segr
ain
tele
scop
e,af
ter
Wik
iped
ia
Cas
segr
ain
tele
scop
e:re
flect
orw
ith“f
olde
dop
tical
path
”
(M1:
para
bolo
id,M
2:hy
perb
oloi
d)
=⇒
Muc
hsh
orte
rth
anN
ewto
nian
=⇒
Tele
scop
eof
choi
cefo
rm
oder
nin
stru
men
ts
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–22
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es12
Sch
mid
tTel
esco
pe
Ber
nhar
dS
chm
idt(
Ham
burg
)http://www.sky-win.de/
2mS
chm
idtt
eles
cope
atth
eLa
ndes
tern
war
teT
hürin
gen
inTa
uten
burg
near
Jena
:la
rges
tSch
mid
ttel
esco
pein
the
wor
ld.
Use
ssp
heric
alm
irror
for
larg
erfie
ldvi
ew,c
orre
ctio
npl
ate
used
toco
rrec
tfor
sphe
rical
aber
ra-
tion.
Man
yam
ateu
rte
lesc
opes
are
com
bina
tion
ofS
chm
idtt
ele-
scop
ean
dC
asse
grai
nte
le-
scop
e=⇒
Sch
mid
t-C
asse
grai
nte
le-
scop
es. c ©
J.W
ilms
Exa
mpl
e:B
uild
ing
ofth
eE
urop
ean
Sou
ther
nO
bser
vato
ry’s
Ver
yLa
rge
Tele
scop
e
ES
O
Mirr
orce
llsu
ppor
ting
the
mirr
or,a
ctua
tors
keep
mirr
orin
shap
e
(“ac
tive
optic
s”,c
orre
ctin
gal
lpos
sibl
ede
form
atio
nsof
the
mirr
or).
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–30
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es20
Bui
ldin
gth
eV
LT
Nas
myt
hF
ocus
:
light
refle
cted
thro
ugh
axis
•id
ealf
orm
oder
naz
imut
alm
ount
-
ings
e.g.
,Eur
opea
nS
outh
ern
Obs
erva
tory
’sV
ery
Larg
eTe
lesc
ope
•tw
ost
atio
nary
plat
form
s
•ca
nho
stla
rge
inst
rum
ents
•ve
ryst
able
Will
iam
Her
sche
lTel
esco
pe,L
aP
alm
a
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–32
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es22
Ada
ptiv
eO
ptic
s
From
Eq.
9.8,
the
reso
lutio
nof
ate
lesc
ope
ofdi
amet
erd
is
α=
1.22
0λ
d=
12′′
D/1
cm(9
.8)
Pro
blem
:as
tron
omic
alse
eing
=⇒
turb
ulen
cein
atm
osph
ere
smea
rspi
ctur
esof
star
sto
disk
sw
ithθ&
0.3′′
=⇒
Incr
easi
ngte
lesc
ope
diam
eter
to&
40cm
does
not
resu
ltin
incr
ease
inre
s-
olut
ion!
Sol
utio
nto
seei
ngpr
oble
m:
adap
tive
optic
s
...w
hich
only
wor
ksin
the
IRso
far,
need
togo
tosp
ace
for
optic
alan
dU
V
Sch
eme
ofan
adap
tive
optic
ssy
stem
(Lic
kob
serv
ator
y)
The
AO
syst
emof
Mt.
Hop
kins
obse
r-
vato
ry,a
30W
lase
r(
c ©G
.Fur
esz)
.
The
AO
syst
emof
Mt.
Hop
kins
obse
r-
vato
ry,a
30W
lase
r(
c ©G
.Fur
esz)
.
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–36
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es26
Ada
ptiv
eO
ptic
s
Pic
ture
ofth
ega
lact
icce
nter
inth
e
IRta
ken
with
the
Gem
iniN
orth
Gem
iniN
orth
/AU
RA
I
EF
CO
DRI
L
AI
N
R
DN
XAEA
ESII
C
M LMV
A
AI
AD
R
E
LGE
9–36
Opt
ical
Tele
scop
es27
Ada
ptiv
eO
ptic
s
Pic
ture
ofth
ega
lact
icce
nter
inth
e
IRta
ken
with
the
Gem
iniN
orth
...a
ndco
rrec
ted
with
adap
tive
op-
tics
=⇒
Res
olut
ion:
diffr
actio
nlim
ited!
θ=
1.22
rad·λ/d
∼70
mas
(9.9
)
(for
d=
8m
,λ=
2.2µ
m)
Gem
iniN
orth
/AU
RA
![Large Aperture [O I] 6300˚A Photometry of Comet Hale-Bopp ...](https://static.fdocuments.us/doc/165x107/58667e3d1a28abf2408b5678/large-aperture-o-i-6300a-photometry-of-comet-hale-bopp-.jpg)
![Large Aperture [O I] 6300 Å Observations of Comet Hyakutake: Implications for the Photochemistry of OH and [O I] Production in Comet Hale-Bopp Jeffrey.](https://static.fdocuments.us/doc/165x107/56649d1f5503460f949f3a38/large-aperture-o-i-6300-a-observations-of-comet-hyakutake-implications.jpg)
