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1^SSuTllHMJune 1973 (26th year) U. K. : 13p - North America : 50 cts - France : 1,70 F

TREASURES

WORLD ART

HUNGARY

Photo © Konya Kalmen - Corvina, Budapest, Hungary

Ancient Magyar pottery

Unearthed in Hungary in 1958, these three funerary urns dateback some 4,000 years to the late Bronze Age. They rangefrom 24 to 48 centimetres in height. With their grey colouringand primitively fashioned human faces, they recall potteryof the same period discovered at Troy. They are now preservedin the Hungarian National Museum, in Budapest.

Page

JUNE 1973

26TH YEAR

PUBLISHED IN 15 LANGUAGES

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38

EDITORIAL

By Alain Danié/ou

MUSIC OF THE CENTURIES

By Maurice Freedman

THE JUKE-BOX' CRISISIN ASIAN MUSIC

By Tran Van Khê

BEETHOVEN TAMES THE JUNGLE

By Dmitri Shostakovich

THE ANGEL OF THE MARACASHow Latin American instruments and rhythmshave influenced modern music

By Alejo Carpentier

FOUR PAGES IN FULL COLOURTHE MOOD-MUSIC OF INDIA

UNESCO AND THE WORLD OF MUSIC

THE DICHOTOMYOF AFRICAN MUSIC

By Akin Euba

CYMBALS AND TRUMPETS

FROM THE 'ROOF OF THE WORLD'

By Ivan Vandor

ON THE DELIGHTS AND PLEASURES OF MUSICReflections of a 10th-century Islamic philosopher

By Mohammed Abu Nasr al-Farabi

UNESCO RECORDS:AN INTERNATIONAL COLLECTION

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

TREASURES OF WORLD ART

Ancient Magyar pottery (Hungary)

IUSIC OF THE CENTURIES

This issue is devoted to the place of traditional music in the world of todaysymbolized by the four instruments on the front and back covers. From rightto left: 1. a Chinese "moon" guitar; 2. a set of Japanese gong-bells, each ofthe varied-sized bells giving a different note; 3. a Persian bow-instrumentsimilar to the rebeck; 4. a deep-toned wind instrument known as the serpent.Now obsolete it belongs to the trumpet family and was used in Europe upto the early 19th century.

Photos I 2, 3. taken from "Musique Antique - Musique d'Orient", by Romain Goldron,Editions Rencontre, Lausanne, and La Guilde du Disque

1, 2. © Stadtmuseum, Munich 3, © Hausman, Munich

A. Photo © taken from "L'Eveil des Ecoles Nationales", by Romain Goldron, EditionsRencontre, Lausanne, and La Guilde du Disque

4

"OTH human beings and animals use sound asa means of communication and it is often difficult to dis¬

tinguish the articulated sounds we call language from otherelements, such as the pitch and the relative duration ofsounds which form the basis of what we call music.

There are tone languages, sung recitations and musicalstructures analogous to those of spoken language. Closeconnexions exist between gesture and articulated speechand between gesture and music, and this is what we calldancing.

In societies with an oral tradition, that is to say in theearly stages of every society, we find psalmody or sungrecitation as the vehicle for historical narrative, mythologyand the teaching of philosophical and moral concepts.

Bards specializing in this art and possessing highlytrained memories become veritable living libraries. Weowe the Iliad and the Vedas to sources such as these

and it is the bards of today who preserve a great numberof the epic poems of India that have not yet been trans¬cribed and almost the entire vast oral heritage of Africanthought and culture.

Throughout the world, sung recitation has provided thevehicle for the transmission of culture among men ; but, inall cultures, it was the union of gesture, rhythm and dancingthat led to the evolution of psycho-physiological processeswhich make it possible to create states of trance and tocommunicate with the supernatural world.

We find this intoxicating use of sound everywhere, inthe Dionysiac dances of ancient Greece, in the Indiankirtana, in the Islamic dhekr and in the dances of exorcismand magic once practised by all the peoples of Asia, Africaand pre-Columbian and African America.

From these forms of music, associated as they are withlife itself and with human society, forms of musical artevolved in all civilizations which, to a greater or lesserextent, are liberated from their social function and whichwe sometimes call learned music or art music.

This evolution, however, has taken on very different formsaccording to the conceptions which the various cultureshave come to hold of the nature of the arts, their role and

their purpose.

Apart from Western harmonic music which is a compa¬ratively recent creation, we can distinguish among thecivilizations of today four great musical "epicentres", whosepoints of origin cannot be fixed with certainty, but whichcorrespond to principles of musical art common to vastareas of the world.

The first of these is the modal conception, according towhich a melody is developed on the foundation of a fixedand continuous sound called the tonic. To this form ofmusic belong the music of India and Iran, Arab andTurkish music, and almost all the ancient music of theMediterranean countries.

The second very ancient musical sphere is that of south¬east Asia, the old kingdom of Champa, of Cambodia,Thailand and Indonesia. This is a wholly independentculture that makes particular use of percussion instrumentsin polyphonic forms superimposing several kinds of sound.

The third sphere is that of the Far East including China,Korea, Mongolia, Japan and Viet-Nam. The highly sophistic^ated musical forms encountered here are based on a systemof five-note scales.

The fourth sphere of musical culture has its centre inAfrica and is characterized by the predominance of rhythm.African culture suffered greatly during the colonial period,but musical forms of great refinement still exist whichrecall the presence of highly evolved cultures.

Outside these major cultural currents there are of courseseveral regions in which distinctively independent musicalforms survive, such as the music of the Pygmies in theheart of Africa, or the music of Tibet in the heart of Asia.Many of the musical forms of pre-Columbian America,however, appear to have connexions with the music of theFar East and the music of Polynesia is related to an ancientmusical family extending from tribal India to Australia butwhich now survives only in folk music forms. '

ALAIN DANIELOU

The timeless appeal of perhaps the world'soldest instrument the drum. A child beatsout a tattoo on an ancient drum from a

Shinto temple during an annual children'sfestival in Japan.

c

ALAIN DANIELOU, world-famous ethno-musl-cologist, has been director of the Institutefor Comparative Music Studies, Venice, forten years. He has been a member of theEcole Française d'Extrême-Orient since 1959,and consultant for African and Asian music

to the International Music Council since 1960.

He is general editor and director of threeseries of recordings in the "Unesco Collec¬tion" ("A Musical Anthology of the Orient"."Musical Atlas" and "Musical Sources", see

page 36). He is the author of "The Ragasof Northern Indian Music" (2 vol., London,1953), "Le Polythéisme Hindou" (Paris, 1960)and "Situation de la Musique et des Musi¬ciens dans les pays d'Orient" (Florence,197)) and many studies on comparativemusic, Indian philosophy and translationsfrom Sanskrit (his private collection of Sans¬krit manuscripts on music is one of thelargest in the world).

MUSIC

OF THE

CENTURIES

New and lost horizons

of musical traditions

by Maurice Freedman

MAURICE FREEDMAN fs an internationallyfamous name in the world of anthropology.He is Professor of Social Anthropology atOxford University (U.K.) and the author ofa 230-page chapter on Social and CulturalAnthropology to appear in the forthcomingPart II of Unesco's study entitled "MainTrends of Research in the Fields of Social

and Human Sciences." Part I was publishedin English by Unesco-Mouton, The Hague,in 1970 (See "Unesco Courier", March 1973.page 4). The text presented here is apassage from a special section on music.

HE study of the music ofnon-literate societies, and more widelyof non-European societies, was nurtur¬ed during the first half of the twentiethcentury by some university depart¬ments of anthropology in the U.S.A.and Europe and largely ignored bythe more conventional musicologists.For the latter, music was an art belong¬ing almost exclusively to the Europeantradition.

The exotic element in musicologywas represented for the most part bythe popular traditions collected andanalyzed within the folklore studies ofcontinental Europe. Since about 1950that general trend has been reversed.

While in much of continental Europethe folklore tradition of musicologyhas pursued its course, ethnomusico-

logy has during the last few yearsexhibited a number of newer trends.

In the first place, there has been

a tendency partly to disengage thestudy of non-European music from theframework established within Western

musicology, the non-Western musicalcultures being examined in their ownterms. One stimulus for this devel¬

opment has been the emergence ofa body of scholars within the "new"nations who, in studying their ownmusic by the basic methods devised

within the Western tradition, yet bringto their work a view from the inside.

A related movement, although onewhich embraces the foreign investi¬gators, might be called the fieldworker's "internalization" of non-Eu¬

ropean music by his study of practicalperformance and composition, an effort

CONTINUED PAGE 37

5

THE 'JUKE-BOX' CRISIS

IN ASIAN MUSICby Tran Van Khê

LLMOST all the countries of

Asia, Africa, Oceania and LatinAmerica are non-industrial societies.

In all these countries, as in certain

strata of society in Western countries,music, for the workers who constitute

the great mass of the population, isnot simply entertainment, a source ofspiritual satisfaction, or an art cultivat¬

ed for its own sake, but is closelyinterwoven with everyday work andlife.

Professional musicians and music-

lovers approach music more as an art

form, clothing it in theory and relatingit to a certain world outlook or philo¬sophy. Yet both for this élite and forthe ordinary people, music remainsbound up with social and religiousfunctions.

Music rocks babies to sleep, andchildren use music in their games. Ithelps the labourer to forget how hardhis work is, it is "the food of love"and a balm for hurt bodies and minds.

It sees the dead on their way andconsoles the living. It provides anaccompaniment to all the operations

of the farming calendar, the ploughing,harrowing, sowing, planting, harvestingand threshing and the husking andgrinding of the rice.

In non-industrial societies, particu-

6

TRAN VAN KHE is not only a specialist onAsian music but an accomplished performerhimself. He comes from a Vietnamese

family that has produced several generationsof musicians and has an extraordinary know¬ledge of Asian musical instruments. He atpresent directs the Centre for the Study ofOriental Music at the Sorbonne's Institute of

Musicology in Paris. He also heads aresearch team at the Centre National de la

Recherche Scientifique, also in Paris, and Isa member of the Unesco-sponsored Internat¬ional Music Council. For his recordings andcommentaries on Vietnamese music he wasawarded the Grand Prix de l'Académie des

Disques Français in 1960 and 1970 and theDeutscher Schallplatten Preis (1969). A moredetailed study of the subiect dealt with byProf. Tran Van Khe in this article will be

published in September 1973 in a specialissue on 'Music and Society" of Unesco'snew international magazine "Cultures".

larly among the mass of the people,music is not an art pursued for thesake of art, but is present at all theimportant events of life birth and

betrothals, weddings and funerals.Farmers and craftsmen each have

their own repertoire and music is pre¬sent at all rural and seasonal festivities,

at ceremonies to ward off misfortune,

to placate evil spirits or thank thetutelary gods and guardian spirits.

Such music is usually vocal, some¬times with the accompaniment of sim¬ple but ingenious folk instrumentswhich provide the melody or therhythm. It is anonymous and orallytransmitted, and each performer hasthe right to imprint his own characterupon it. Performers are for the most

part workers or semi-professionals.

Being essentially functional, thismusic differs from that practised as anart by professional musicians and con¬noisseurs who use more elaborate in¬

struments, more complex vocal andinstrumental techniques and morevaried scales, and have richer reper¬toires.

Music of this kind, seen as an art

form, may have its origins in the musicof the people, but differs from it in itsartistic level and its function. As it

is more sophisticated, it is harder tolearn, and those who spend yearslearning it must either be able to makea living from it or be rich enough toregard it as a pastime.

In the old days, professional musi¬cians, often of humble origin, had toseek employment in many cases asbondsmen or menials with music-

loving chiefs, aristocrats or sovereigns.At the Court of Hue (Viet-Nam), forexample, palace musicians were gen¬erally regarded as servants and weregiven jobs to do which were quite un¬connected with their musical functions.

Musicians were somewhat better

treated in China, Korea and Japan butwere not held in great esteem. Inancient Persia and in India under the

reign of the Emperor Akbar, musiciansand singers enjoyed the favour of thesovereigns, but at the end of the 19thcentury in Persia, when rich men enter- *

tained, there were only two or threemusicians who, according to ClaudeHuart in Lavignac's Encyclopédie dela Musique, sat on the floor in a cor¬ner during the meal.

The griots, or professional musi¬cians, of Mauritania formed a separatecaste. Michel Guignard, in a bookentitled Musique, Honneur et Plaisir au

Sahara, has offered an explanation oftheir menial status : "To place thegn'ot on any but a very low rung ofthe social ladder would be to suggestthat entertainment and amusement

were of no less value than the courageand political strength embodied by thewarriors or the religion and learningembodied by the marabouts."

Even in countries where music is

held in high regard, professional musi¬cians do not always enjoy the statusthey should be entitled to. In present-day Iran, for instance, performers andteachers of traditional music prefer tocall themselves employees of theMinistry of Fine Arts or teachers atthe Conservatoire or the University.

I|N the nineteenth century,after attempting to conquer the coun¬tries of Asia and Africa by the"peaceful" method of converting thepopulation to Christianity, the Westernpowers tried to overrun them by forceof arms. Several of these countries

lost their independence, whilst otherscame under foreign economic control.

The vast majority of the populationin the countries which thus fell under

colonial rule consisted of countryfolklandless peasant tenant-farmers,

agricultural workers at the mercyof landowners and money-lendersdeeply attached to the traditions oftheir ancestors.

CONTINUED PAGE 8

The invasion of modern technology threatensthe musical traditions of the Orient

Perched high on the broad back of a water-buffalo, ashepherd-boy plays his flute. This ancient Sung dynasty(960-1260) painting is preserved in the Shanghai Museum.

Photo Paolo Koch © Rapho, Paris

ASIAN MUSIC (Continued)

A few chords to get rich quick

8

Craftsmen, tradesmen and petty offi¬cials belonged to the "middle class",forming a moneyed and partly western¬ized bourgeoisie. The introduction ofcapitalist production methods createda proletariat which worked in themines, factories, mills and plantations.

All these political and social upheav¬als brought about profound changesin the musical life of the non-industrial

societies. Some kinds of music fell

into disuse or disappeared altogether.

Science and technology have doneaway with certain back-breaking jobs,but at the same time many work songshave disappeared or are about to doso. With the advent of power-drivenploughs, machines to husk the riceand modern irrigation systems, the oldsongs that used to accompany theseoperations are no longer heard. Assteamboats replace sampans, canoes

or sailing craft, the songs of theboatmen will become a thing of thepast.

The development of science andmedicine has spelt the end of the oldsuperstitions in many countries.People now prefer to go to the doctorrather than the witch-doctor when theyare ill, and the incantations for healingthe sick, driving out devils and com¬municating with spirits are beginningto disappear.

Transistor radios have now penetrat¬

ed even into very remote areas, andthe peasants and shepherds who cannow listen to music at home are not

In any hurry to go to the market-placeto listen to strolling singers, just ascity-dwellers are no longer so easilydrawn to concerts or plays when theyhave television at home. Listening tothe "new" music put out by the broad¬casting stations, country folk tend toimitate an urban style of singing, parti¬cularly that of well-known singers ormusicians.

The worst thing about this situationis that young country folk are deterredby the "new" music composed byyoung people under western influencesfrom composing new songs in thetraditional styles.

In contact with city-dwellers and lis¬tening to "arranged", "harmonized"versions of folk-music, they adopt anew repertoire composed by youngmusicians who are often unaware of

their own traditions and have merely

picked up a few rudiments of western-style composition, modelling theirstyle on that of popular songs. Crea¬tive talent and the artistic level of

folk-music are everywhere in decline.

Several musical genres have indeeddisappeared. Chinese, Korean andViet-Namese court music is dying outnow the courts themselves have gone.It is performed only on very specialoccasions, e.g. for national holidaysfor receiving ambassadors, for groupsof tourists, etc.

Confucian temple music is no longerplayed in China and Viet-Nam andis only heard in Seoul and Taipeh,where societies for the preservation ofmusical traditions have attempted tosave them. The old ceremonies are no

longer performed in Confucian temples.

In Iran, the ta'ziya, a historical andreligious spectacle comparable withthe medieval passion-plays, showingthe martyrdoms of the Imams (legiti¬mate successors of Mohammed), is

no longer performed in the big towns,with the exception of Shiraz where itwas presented during the internatio¬nal festivals of 1967 and 1970. The

custom lingers on in the countrysidebut the plays are no longer performedwith the same spontaneity as of old.

In Mauritania today, the characterof the griot has greatly changed.Michel Guignard, whom we quotedabove, writes in this connexion that

they are becoming less and less theminstrels and familiars of the nobility.Anyone can now go and listen to themor hear them on the radio. Theytherefore reach a wider audience with

tastes and needs different from those

of the minority whom they formerlyserved.

Similarly, the expert Hugo Zempwrites that now that the traditional

way of life of the chiefs of the Senufoof the Ivory coast has gone intodecline, or has completely vanishedas a result of changing political condi¬tions, the flute orchestra has lost itsraison d'être.

In Morocco, the Near East, India

and Cambodia, all observers empha¬size that modern life and the intrusion

of modern technology deprive folk-artof new subject matter and seem todry up the wellsprings of musicalinspiration.

new music is appearing

everywhere, often as a result of the"acculturation" of traditional music, a

process which is no less prejudicial totradition than the disappearance of theold musical genres. "Acculturation"is a modern term signifying the adop¬tion by a given people of a culture

i -Hi?

other than its own, but the phenomenonis by no means new.

Japan adopted Chinese music of theT'ang dynasty, Korean music and chammusic in the ninth century, and theresult was the Togaku, Komagaku andRinyugaku styles of Japanese courtmusic (Gagaku). Viet-Nam not onlyassimilated the Chinese tradition but

also the Indian, through the inter¬mediary of the ancient Indian-influen¬

ced civilization of the Champa king¬dom, while north Indian music was

influenced by the music of Islam.

In the last few centuries, it has beenprimarily the encounter between west¬ern music and the traditional music of

the non-industrial societies which has

caused the most profound upheaval inthe latter.

The causes of acculturation are

many. In the beginning, it may be apraiseworthy desire to learn some¬thing new, a desire for progress, whichincites musicians to do something dif¬ferent from their masters or predeces¬sors, . to give their music a personal

WANDERING MINSTRELS AND DANCING MUSICIANS. Two young Nepalese minstrels sing to theaccompaniment of a form of viol, one in a miniature version. They travel the length of the Katmandu

valley presenting their repertoire of popular folk songs in one small town after another. Left, sculptureof a dancer holding a kind of trumpet found on a column of a temple in the town of Jaisalmer in theThar desert, India.

stamp. When they had to rely ontheir own resources, change was slow;when they came into contact withneighbouring countries, more significantchanges occurred. Acculturation isthe product of contact between peo¬ples and civilizations, combined withthe attraction of novelty.

Contact between countries with the

same culture is very fruitful considerthe impact of Chinese music, particu¬larly of the Tang dynasty (eighth-ninth centuries) on Japanese music,of T'ang and Sung (tenth-eleventh cen¬turies) music on Korean music, and ofMing dynasty (fourteenth-fifteenth cen¬turies) music on the Vietnamese of

the Le dynasty (fifteenth-sixteenth cen¬turies). Thai music owed a great dealto the Khmer tradition and the instru¬

ments of the p'iphat orchestra of Thai¬land are the same as those in the bas-

reliefs of Angkor. Turkish, Arab andPersian musicians all paid allegianceto the same musical theorists.

Above all, the encounter with the

West has engendered hybrid musical

forms. Africa and the East have fol¬lowed the western lead and some have

ascribed this to the superiority ofwestern music.

The colonial peoples tried to imi¬tate those who dominated them bythe superiority of their technology, inthe belief that their culture too must

be equally superior, and ended upconfusing progress and modernizationwith westernization.

Lastly, the development of such mediaas radio, television and records speedsthe process of acculturation evenmore. Transistors and records have

reached even the remotest villages.Under constant musical attack from

all sides, young people today aredrawn and fascinated by this easy-to-write, easy-to-play, easy-to-remembermusic, and no longer have the patienceto spend several years of their liveslearning the traditional music.

They need only learn to play a fewchords on the Spanish guitar and aftersix months they can accompany them¬selves singing the western-style songs

written by their compatriots. Thosewho fall in with the fashion of the daymay become radio, television or record¬ing stars and get rich quick.

The development of communicationshas also made it easier for musicians

to travel. Some Oriental virtuosi who

have given concerts in the West havebeen impressed by symphony orches¬tras and returned home with the idea

of writing concertos for a traditionalinstrument and symphony orchestra.The result is hybrid music.

Etymologically, the words hybrid orhybridization are not pejorative. Asbiological terms, they refer to thecrossing of different species or evendifferent varieties of the same species.In everyday speech, a hybrid is some¬thing in which two elements of differ¬ent nature are artificially combined.Applied to language, to art or music,the term implies a certain disdain.

At the Shiraz seminar on Asian

Music in 1968 and again at the Con¬gress of the International Music Coun¬cil in New York, I suggested that there

Photo Unesco - M Serraillier

Photo © Claude Sauvageot

WATER

AND

BAMBOO

MUSIC

Gongs, xylophones and bowls ofwater are Instruments which pro¬duce sounds by natural vibrations.Above right, the Khong-Vong, atraditional Thai Instrument com¬

posed of 17 knobbed gongsstrung in a circular bamboo framein which they vibrate. Above,bowls with different levels of

water are used by an Indian musi¬cian to create an unusual musical

instrument with a lovely tinklingsound. Once widely played inIndia and Viet-Nam, it is nowrarely heard. Right, an Indone¬sian class plays traditional musicon the Anklung. The instrumentis played by sliding the bamboopieces in a groove, thus produc¬ing a musical sound.

10

ASIAN MUSIC (Continued)

were two distinct sorts of hybridization.

Firstly, there is the sort which im¬poverishes, which sometimes destroysthe national character of one of the

two traditions involved, which is what

happens in most cases when the musicof the East or of Africa comes into

contact with western music.

Oriental or African musicians accom¬

pany songs based on particular tona¬

lities on a piano tuned to an equallytempered scale, or use clarinets, saxo¬

phones and even electric guitars toperform traditional music, playing com¬mon chords or arpeggios to punctuate

the musical phrases of traditionalmusic. Hybridization in such cases isdetrimental because it tries to applythe instruments and styles of one tra¬dition to another tradition with which

they are incompatible.

On the other hand, there have been

cases of beneficial hybridization wherethe borrowing of foreign elements hasled to a new flowering of a particulartradition.

This was what happened when themusic of northern India came into

contact with the Islamic tradition, when

Japanese court music was enriched by

the influence of T'ang dynasty Chinesemusic, Korean and cham music, and

when Vietnamese music assimilated

both the Chinese and Indian traditions.

The effect is beneficial because the

elements borrowed are compatible

with the original tradition.

Acculturation has reached epidemic

proportions and caused havoc amongthe musical traditions of the non-indus¬

trial societies, because instead of bor¬

rowing from the West new and con¬structive elements such as would lend

new vigour to their own musical tra¬ditions, Asians and Africans have bor-

rowed elements which are incompatiblewith the basic principles of their tra¬ditional music.

Acculturation is a universal pheno¬menon. What we must try to do isto turn the potentially destructiveforces involved into constructive

forces. The problem appears to meto be one of incompatibility and com¬patibility. Whereas the combining ofcompatible elements produces a suc¬cessful "graft", the incompatibility ofthe elements concerned causes "re¬

jection".

A very thorough knowledge of one'sown national culture and the culture

from which the elements are to be

borrowed is needed in order to avoid

"rejection". Unfortunately, the leadingexponents of the traditional music,aloof in their ivory towers and blindedby their own superiority complexes,refuse to allow change and in manycases are unfamiliar with any traditionother than their own, which they con¬sider to be the only valid one.

Young people, on the other hand,are only interested in western music,the only form they consider valid, themusic of their own country being

regarded as mere "folklore". Thusneither the traditional musicians nor

the young are capable of distinguishingwhich elements are compatible andwhich are incompatible and thus avoid

ing a type of acculturation which isprejudicial to their traditions.

In many countries, the new musiccorresponds to a new need, the needto sing together at mass gatherings.It has thus made its own contribution

to the awakening of national conscious¬ness and to preparing the peoples ofthose countries for the national lib¬

eration struggle, and has hence fulfilledits historical mission. In most cases,

however, such music leaves a greatdeal to be desired from the artistic

point of view.

Several young musicians have stud¬ied composition in the conservatoiresof Europe and America and have

adopted the# Western musical idiomonce and for all. The general publicis not yet receptive to their music, butat the same time it has lost interest

in traditional music, which now only

has a minority audience. Private con¬certs are given less and less frequen¬tly, while radio, television and recordsplug the new, heavily westernizedmusic.

I do not agree with the fatalisticargument that traditional music isdying and must soon disappear tomake way for another type of music,which, though perhaps less authentic,is more in keeping with the needs ofmodern society.

The traditional music of the non-

industrial societies is not "dying" ;it may be sick, but the thing to dowith a sick man is not to kill him off

or to let him die without trying to curehis sickness. The present troublemay turn out to be nothing more thangrowing pains if proper steps aretaken straight away.

The re-birth not the survival of

musical traditions is, needless to say,a problem which requires primarily anational solution. The cultural and

educational organizations, public andprivate, and the governments of Asiaand Africa could improve the teachingof traditional music, raise the standard

of living of traditional musicians andreorganize national musical life.

Western countries could, however,

help us in our task of rescuing our* musical heritage by showing an interestin our authentic traditional music.

Performers of such music who have

been invited to give concerts inWestern countries enjoy greaterprestige among their compatriots.

The International Music Council and

the International Institute for Compa¬rative Music Studies and Documenta¬

tion have not only helped the Westernpublic to appreciate Asian music atits true worth but have also helped torestore the confidence of masters of

the art of traditional music in Asia.

FROM CONCH-SHELL TO TRUMPET-BELL. The conch-shell, once played as a musical instrumentthroughout almost the whole of Asia, is fast disappearing and Is now only used In ceremonial andprocessional music. The end of the shell Is broken off to form the mouthpiece. Below right, thebell of a modern jazz trumpet.

Photo © taken from "Du Romantisme à l'Expression",Photo © Hausman, Munich, Fed. Rep. of Germany Editions Rencontre, Lausanne, 1966

Photos © Alain Gheerbrant

MUSIC HATHCHARMS...

Indians of the Maquiritaretribe listen entranced to a

recording of Mozart's 26thSymphony. The Maquiri¬tares live in complete isolat¬ion on the borders of

Venezuela and Brazil.

Photos are stills from a

film by the French explorerAlain Gheerbrant made in

1950 during an expeditionto the unexplored upperreaches of the Amazon.

The tribesmen preferredBeethoven to boogie-woogie and Ravel to rock,but Mozart, reportedGheerbrant, could move

them almost to ecstasy.

BEETHOVEN

TAMES THE JUNGLE

by

Dmitri

Shostakovich

A great Soviet composerpresents his viewson music without frontiers

HE interaction and the playof mutual influences between the mu¬

sical cultures of West and East, of

peoples brought up in the traditions ofEuropean musical thought and the peo¬ples of the rest of the world, con¬stitutes a key factor for the under¬standing of the evolution of nationalmusical traditions.

In this connexion, I fully agree withthose who rightly point out how wrongit is to use the term "developingcountries" with regard to the ancientand great cultures of the Asian, Afri¬can and Latin American states. Where¬

as these countries may lag behindEurope and North America industrially,it is highly inappropriate to speak ofthem patronizingly as "developing" inthe sphere of the arts.

To what extent can the means of

expression accumulated over the cen¬turies by one people be used or sub¬ordinated to the artistic norms of

another national culture ? To me the

question of the so-called "incompati¬bility" of modal and harmonic sys¬tems, of the "harm or benefit" whichthe polyphonic or harmonic devicescharacteristic of European music bringto the cultural heritage of the coun¬tries of the East, is not entirely clear.

But of one thing I am firmly con¬vinced, namely the basic equality inhuman culture of all the various natio¬

nal musical traditions, the whole rich

fund of melodies, rhythms, timbres andsubtle poetic discoveries created byfolk singers, instrumentalists and pro¬fessional composers.

To my mind, the point is not the

DMITRI SHOSTAKOVICH Is the world

famous Soviet composer. He has writtenmore than a dozen symphonies as well asballets, operas, chamber music, choral worksand film scores. The article presented hereis an address given by Shostakovich at aninternational music congress held in Moscowin 1971 on traditional and contemporarymusic, organized by the International MusicCouncil and the Soviet National Music Com¬mittee.

"compatibility" or "incompatibility"of the various musical systems, buthow and by which methods the prob¬lem of the interaction and mutual in¬

fluence of the cultures of peoples dif¬fering from one another ethnically andgeographically is solved.

Here everything depends on theartistic tact and talent of the peopleconcerned the composer, performer,teacher or theoretician their sense of

responsibility to the art and their pro¬fessional honesty.

They may, of course, encountermany a stumbling-block. There isalways the great danger of standardi¬zation, of reducing the musical cul¬tures of various peoples to the

"average European level".

And one can well understand the

concern of people who are closely in

volved in guiding these processes,who are connected with training pro¬fessional musicians for their country,and who are familiar with all the forms

of propagating music.

One cannot allow of a thoughtlessor, worse still, commercial approach,

a disregard for the great humanist tra¬ditions of all the peoples of our planet.Such a course could lead to the des¬

truction of century-old artistic valuesand to the burying of one's own natio¬nal heritage in oblivion.

But nor should one attempt to iso¬late the art of this or that people fromthe natural exchange of creativeachievements between nations, from

the mutual borrowing of elements inthe various systems of musicalthought and musical speech.

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

Dmitri Shostakovich, left of photo, holding fire-hose to extinguish incendiarybombs in Leningrad during World War II. Shostakovich wrote the first threemovements of his 7th Symphony ("Leningrad") in 1941 during the siege of the city.

Caruso and

Chaliapin:the centenaryof two

'Mastersingers'

This year the whole world is celebrating thecentenary of the birth of two great singers

the bass Fedor Ivanovich Chaliapin andthe tenor Enrico Caruso. Born at Kazan

(USSR), Chaliapin quickly won inter¬national fame not only for his stupendousvoice, but also for his skill as an actor whichenabled him to interpret such great roles asStrauss' Don Quixote (left) and Mussorgsky'sBoris Godunov, on the principal stages ofthe world. Caruso was born in Naples

(Italy). The exceptional purity and power ofhis voice earned him world-wide acclaim

and a reputation as one of the greatesttenors of all time. His prestige is still sogreat that a London street-musician (right)can attract an audience merely by advertising"songs of Caruso".

BEETHOVEN TAMES THE JUNGLE (Continued)

14

One of the natural and logical formsof development of the national tradi¬tion is not only its direct link with thelife around it, with new social condi¬

tions and the growth of people'sawareness but also its ability toabsorb and enrich itself from every¬thing that is genuinely progressive inthe ideological and technologicalsense, which is created by other tradi¬tions, sometimes even very remoteones.

Naturally, this process must takethe form of mutual exchange and notbe imposed from outside. To illustratethese remarks I should like to men¬

tion a few well-known facts from the

history of Russian music.

Did not Borodin, Balakirev, Mus¬

sorgsky and Rimsky-lKorsakov enrichtheir work by turning to individual spe¬cimens or elements of the folklore of

the peoples of the East? How muchpoorer Russian music would bewithout Borodin's Polovtsian Dances,

Balakirev's Islamey, Mussorgsky's Per¬sian Dance and Rimsky-Korsakov'sScheherazade and many other pagesof Russian music about the East.

And then there is the dedicated

work of a number of Moscow and

Leningrad composers in the CentralAsian republics, where an incrediblyshort period of time saw the emer¬gence of national schools of compo¬sition using the experience of Russianand West European music to build theirown national cultures.

The experience, of my country Ihave in mind the period after the vic¬tory of the Great October Revolutiontestifies to the fact that the efforts of

several generations of Soviet musi¬cians to build a musical culture for all

the peoples of the U.S.S.R. weredirected along the right lines.

In order to appreciate the greatnessof this task presented by history it¬self one must be able to envisage thevast size of our country and the greatvariety of geographical and ethnic con¬ditions which mould the life and cha¬

racter of its peoples, who speak and

sing in a hundred and five languages.

In the complex process of foundinga musical culture for the Soviet peo¬ples an important part is played byRussian classical music and the fine

traditions of the Russian school of

composers. These traditions aredeeply rooted in the everyday life andculture of the Russian people. Theyhave been further developed in thenew conditions of socialist life in our

multinational state.

The last thing I should want is thatthe development of our musical cul¬ture composition, performing, teach¬ing and musicology should appearto be smooth and entirely free fromcontradictions and difficulties. We

have also had our difficulties and mis¬

takes and irritating failures.

Nevertheless I am convinced that

the direction of our searching was andremains a correct and fruitful one.

This may be seen from the truly his¬toric accomplishments in the buildingof a progressive culture and art in theSoviet Asian republics which can bemeasured by quantitative and, moreimportantly, qualitative data of an in¬disputable kind.

The intensive advance of Soviet

musical culture in breadth, embracingmillions of people in all parts of ourcountry, has developed and is still

developing in depth, enriching ourlives with bold, truly innovatory findsand discoveries.

It should suffice to mention here the

name of the great composer SergeiProkofiev, who has given a mighty im¬pulse to the creative searchings ofmany composers and performers allover the world. Another of Prokofiev's

great contributions is his profoundlyoriginal discovery of the riches of Rus¬sian, and not only Russian, folk music.I should just like to mention his finesecond string quartet on Kabardinian-Balkar themes.

The world-famous composer AramKhachaturian, who has delved deepinto the music of the Transcaucasian

peoples, has succeeded in using thisbasis to create symphonic works

which have greatly influenced thedevelopment, first and foremost,but not exclusively of his native Ar¬menian music.

The same can be said of the crea¬

tive role of the talented composerKara Karayev who stands at the head

of an interesting and most promisingschool of composers in Soviet Azer¬baijan.

To my mind, those who support"protective tendencies" with respectto the musical cultures of non-Euro¬

pean peoples, are somehow ignoringthe realities, the generally recognized

artistic values which have been and,

I am convinced, will be created as a

result of the bold, creative interven¬

tion of the composer in a spherewhich is at first alien to him.

While rejecting the crude repressionof one culture by another and theviews current in the West about cul¬

tural genocide and the implanting of analien musical culture, we cannot never¬

theless agree with the appeals forcomplete isolation of one musical sys¬tem from another for the sake of pre¬serving these cultures in their originalpurity.

HhET the Asian and African

peoples who have created a highculture and a rich original folklore,develop their art and perfect theirmusical speech, but at the same timelet them not close their ears to the

great achievements in the music ofother peoples.

I remember the unforgettable im¬pression which a certain documentaryleft on me. It was a film about the

life of what appeared to be a veryprimitive Indian tribe living in analmost inaccessible area somewhere

in the upper reaches of the Amazon.

There was a really moving scene in

it, where the chief and several of the

tribesmen listened to a tape-record¬

ing of the Beethoven violin concerto.On the faces of these people, whohad just been shown at work, hunt¬ing, in their primitive everyday life,one saw extremely strong emotionsverging on shock. Beethoven wasaddressing himself to a person fromanother world and that person was lis¬tening to his speech and understand¬

ing it.

This seems to me to suggest thefollowing conclusion. Music does notallow of national limitations and does

not need protective measures aimedat isolating one culture from another.

On the contrary, what is requiredis that countries possessing moredeveloped means of spreading musi¬cal culture, highly qualified specialistsand teachers should come to the aid of

peoples who suffered centuries ofcolonial rule without the opportunity todevelop their national culture freely.

Of course, this help should not turninto cultural "aggression". And musi¬cians who are sincerely concernedabout the fate of music the whole

world over, must try to find a common

language for affirming and preservingthe great cultural values, those whichthe peoples of the world have alreadycreated and those which they are sureto create in the future.

15

' "«V

THE ANGEL

OF THE MARACAS

By Alejo Carpentier

Latin American rhythms andinstruments have influenced

the work of every modern

composer

16

ALEJO CARPENTIER of Cuba is not only afamed novelist whose books have been

translated into 22 languages, but also amusicologist of repute, author of a bookentitled "La Música en Cuba", and a formerlecturer in music at the Universities of

Havana (Cuba) and Caracas (Venezuela).His books translated Into English include:"The Kingdom of this World" (1957), "TheLost Steps" (1957), "The War of Time" (1958),all published by Knopf, New York, and"Explosion in a Cathedral", Little Brown,Boston, 1963. Formerly Professor of theHistory of Music at the Cuban NationalConservatory, Havana, he is at present Coun¬sellor for Cultural Affairs at the CubanEmbassy in Paris.

Wearing sumptuous costumes,Indians in Copacabana (Bolivia)dance the "Morenada" to cele¬

brate the annual religious fes¬tival of Candlemas ("Candela¬ria") on February 2. Thoughperformed during the carnivalsand religious feasts introducedby the Spanish, this traditionaldance goes back to pre-Colum¬bian times. The dancers have

ornate plumed headdresses andwear crinoline-type costumesweighing nearly 20 kilogrammes,

. "built" over metal hoops andembellished with pearls andglass trinkets. The dancers, car¬rying hand-bells, execute gra¬ceful movements despite theweight and dimensions of theircostumes.

'NE day in the year 1608,shocking news reached the Cubantown of Bayamo. The much-lovedbishop, Fray Juan de las CabezasAltamirano, had been captured byGilbert Giron, French pirate andmarauder of the Caribbean islands,

who was holding him for ransom.

Undaunted by the demand formoney or jewels, the indignant towns¬men of Bayamo banded together intoan armed militia and set off to deliver

the captive. As a large force wasneeded for the rescue operation, theycalled upon the help of a negro slaveby the name of Salvador Golomón,who was renowned for his valour.

During the fighting, Golomón chal¬lenged the pirate to single combat andlopped off his head with a well-aimedstroke of his machete. The plunder¬ers were put to flight and the victorsreturned triumphant amid rejoicing andcelebrations.

A hymn composed specially for theoccasion by a choir master versed inthe art of counterpoint was sung in

honour of the rescued bishop in thechurch of Bayamo.

The townsfolk brought out their gui¬tars and rebecks, their flutes andfiddles, and held a great ball at whichthe sound of European instrumentsmingled with the beat of African drums,maracas and claves, and even some

Indian instruments, among them onecalled a tipinagua, which must haveresembled the bell-like instruments

played by Indians throughout theAmerican continent.

Watching the scene of rejoicing, oneof the citizens, Silvestre de Balboa

(1564-1643?), was fired by poetic ins¬piration and wrote the magnificent epicstanzas of his "Mirror of Patience" (apoem whose hero, for the first time inhistory, was a negro, on whom, as thepoet put it, all the gods of Greekmythology looked down in admiration).

This poem was to be not only oneof the first great texts of Latin Ameri¬can literature, but was also the firstaccount of a religious and secularconcert combining all the instrumentaland vocal components that were later

to characterize Latin American music.

It was these qualities which broughtthe music of the continent to the fore¬front of the rich panorama of worldmusic at the beginning of the presentcentury.

When Hernán Cortés caught sightof the coast of Mexico, relates his

companion in arms and future historianBernai Díaz del Castillo, the Conquis¬

tador, hoping for fortune in battle,quoted a romance of the "Carlovingiancycle", which told of Roland and hisvaliant companions.

In 1946, I had the surprising expe¬rience of hearing the verses mentionedby Bernai Díaz del Castillo recited bya Venezuelan folk poet who couldneither read nor write, who had neverleft his native region of Barlovento,and to whom they had been handeddown by oral tradition.

During my childhood, young Cubangirls still used to dance rounds tothe strange "romance" of Delgadina,an unfortunate maiden mistreated by"a Moorish dog and a renegademother". This reveals the medieval

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

17

ANGEL OF THE MARACAS (Continued)

origin of verses, dating back to beforethe reconquest of the Kingdom of Gra¬nada, whose extraordinary propagationthroughout the whole of Latin Americahas been the subject of intensivestudy by Ramón Menéndez Pidal.

We know the names of some of the

musicians guitarists and singerswho accompanied Hernán Cortés onhis fabulous adventure, and we alsoknown something about a certain Juande San Pedro, a trumpeter and musi¬cian at the court of Charles V, who

settled in Venezuela during the earlyyears of the 16th century.

Some time between 1530 and 1540,

the music of small portable woodenorgans could be heard in the nave ofthe original cathedral of Santiago deCuba, which at the time was no morethan a great barn, a vast straw hutwith a roof of palm leaves, and wherethe Cuban musician, Miguel Velazquez,first came into prominence.

We also know that the early evan¬gelists in the New World brought aboutone of the first close associations of

two totally alien cultures by the inge¬nious device of adapting the words ofChristian liturgical texts to the tradi¬tional melodies sung by the newly-colonized Indians.

From there it was but a step to thefull-scale, semi-religious, semi-secularconcert described by the poet Silves¬tre de Balboa.

At this point, however and thisis already apparent in the "Mirror ofPatience" the religious and thesecular parted company and went theirown separate ways, just as scholarlyand popular music existed side by sidebut quite independently of each otherin Europe at that time.

w

18

ITH the construction of

what were becoming real cathedrals,religious music took the path to MexicoCity, Morelia and Lima, where musi¬cians were beginning to develop apolyphonic art with a high degree oftechnical virtuosity and were alreadyproducing, in the 17th century, liturgi¬cal works of great importance.

The churches gradually became realschools of music : the great polyphonicworks of the Mexican composersGuerrero and Morales were sungeverywhere, as well as those of theCubans Porpera and Marcello, andespecially Pergolesi, whose StabatMater had a "best-seller" success

throughout the continent and exerteda powerful influence on many LatinAmerican composers.

This brings us to the 18th centurywhen, obviously familiar with contem¬porary developments in European reli¬gious music, composers evolved fromaustere polyphony to a harmonic stylein keeping with the fashionable aesthe¬tic dictates of the period.

There emerged a new style withgreater freedom of composition, and

which demanded a certain degree ofvirtuosity on the part of the performer.Musicians were carried along by thecurrent of their own invention and

showed increasing interest in themelodic aspects of vocal works.

Stringent discipline gave way to abreath of fresh air from Italy, wheremusicians had cast off the shackles of

a certain musical scholasticism. This

new Italy was represented in Argen¬tina by the Florentine Domenico Zipoli(1688-1726), who held the office oforganist in Cordoba's Jesuit churchand whose scores, with which choir¬masters quickly became familiar,brought to church music new modelsand techniques which fell upon recep¬tive ears.

From this background sprang theremarkable work of the Cuban Esteban

Salas (1725-1803), choirmaster of theCathedral of Santiago de Cuba. Inaddition to masses, hymns, canticles,etc., based on Latin texts, Salas pro¬duced a hundred or so Villancicos, orcarols, for voices, two violins andthoroughbass.

These pieces have the unusual cha¬racteristic for that time of being com¬posed on somewhat naive but freshand lively verses written in Spanish.(The earliest of Salas' Villancicos weknow of dates from 1783).

In the meantime, popular music wasalso evolving. From a mixture ofSpanish ballads, African drums andIndian instruments came forth the

"devilish sarabands of the Indies"

mentioned by Cervantes and othergreat classic Spanish authors such asLope de Vega and Góngora.

They were danced in the ports ofHavana, in Cartagena, in Portobelloand Veracruz, in Panama "it comes

from Panama", says Lope de Vega,describing a son (sonata), whichappears in one of his countless plays.

Here was a mingling of negrorhythms with "romance" melodies, aswell as an echo of the past in theIndian sonajeras, as the chroniclescalled them, coupled with claves, mara¬cas, bongos and drums of variouskinds, and simple percussion instru¬ments, whose most complete and finestform of expression lies in the extra¬ordinary Brazilian batucadas.

The inspiration, improvisation andspontaneous imaginative techniques oftheir dynamic rhythm patterns couldbe studied to advantage by moderngroups interested in this means ofexpression, such as the well-known"Strasbourg Percussionnists".

When Bizet wrote a habanera into

"Carmen", the word habanera themusic of Havana entered the world's

musical vocabulary. Debussy wrotepart of his Nuit à Grenade to therhythm of a habanera, and Ravel usedthe same rhythm in the third move¬ment of his "Spanish Rhapsody".Erik Satie also amused himself byputting a habanera into his S/tes Auri¬culaires.

CONTINUED PAGE 34

Co/our pages

THE MOOD-MUSIC

OF INDIA

The colour paintings on the following pagesare four miniatures from northern India datingfrom about the 1 7th century. They illustratea type of Indian music known as ragas. Theraga, meaning "colour," "feeling," is diffi¬cult to define since the word stands not onlyfor an infinitely variable combination ofsounds and intervals within a fixed time

scale, but also for the emotion it arouses.

Each raga is conceived with the aim of excit¬ing and sustaining a particular mood in thelistener and can last from a few minutes to

over two hours. Over the years, ragas havecome to express moods appropriate to differ¬ent hours of the day and night and theseassociations in the Indian mind are indicated

by traditional paintings, such as these en¬larged miniatures, conveying the essence ofthe ragas in pictorial form.

?>

"1

i

v . J ' tTHE RAINS

AND

ROMANTIC LOVE

(opposite)

An ancient raga megh associated with thegod Shiva. In India the rains bring relieffrom the heat and a re-awakening of natureand romantic love.

THE LADY

OF

THE LUTE

(centre page left)

This raga todi evokes a mood of lonelinessand tenderness. Her solitude alleviated onlyby the presence of three deer, a lady playsthe vina (a seven-stringed Indian lute).

JOYOUS MOOD

OF SPRING

(centre page right)A raga vasant that conjures up the joyousmood of spring. Beneath a newly-blossom¬ing tree a couple dance to the rhythm of thedrum.

LOVERS

PARTING

(page 22)

A raga laut for the very early morning. Aftera night of bliss a young man leaves hisbeloved in a mood of sad tenderness.

Photos © Sangitacharya Manfred M. JuniusBañaras Hindu University

Ä

v24fl

ö*

UNESCO & THE WORLD OF MUSIC

IM was no mere chance that led

Unesco to play an active part in the world of music. On thecontrary, judging that music offered the world a "language withoutwords" and a vehicle of artistic expression capable of transmittinga universal message, Unesco's Member States included musicin the organization's world programme from the very start.

Thus, one of the first non-governmental organizations establishedunder Unesco sponsorship was the International Music Council(IMC), which celebrates its 25th anniversary during the 1973-74musical season.

The IMC was allotted the task of studying the development ofmusic throughout the world and maintaining permanent contactbetween Unesco and national and international bodies, includingstate radio and television services, concerned with the creative

and educational aspects of music and with its diffusion.

The Council also has a responsibility for promoting contem¬porary music and encouraging the spread of knowledge of tradi¬tional music of all cultures. Thus the preservation of non-westernmusical forms is an important feature in its projects and programmein which it aims to cover all aspects of music.

Jazz and the more recent phenomenon of "pop" music are signsof the beginnings of a profound upheaval affecting the whole fieldof musical creativity. Realizing the importance of this musicalrevolution, Unesco has undertaken a number of studies of theincreasingly popular new musical forms and the instruments musi¬cians are and will be using, as well as of the sociological back¬ground against which the musical forms of today are born andflourish.

It is in this context that the meetings of music experts organizedby Unesco are held. The first of these meetings, which tookplace at Yaounde (Cameroon) in February 1970, was devotedto the study of musical traditions in Africa South of the Saharaand gave a new insight into many aspects of traditional Africanmusic, particularly with regard to its evolution and dissemination(see article by Akin Euba page 24). The findings of this meetinghave been published in English under the title "African Music"by "La Revue Musicale", Paris, 1972.

A second meeting organized by Unesco at Stockholm, inJune 1970, examined a question which preoccupies most musicianstoday the relationship between the arts and technology. Thepapers and reports presented at this meeting have also beenpublished in English under the title "Music and Technology" by"La Revue Musicale", Paris, 1971. Latin American music was thesubject of a third meeting held in Caracas (Venezuela), in Novem¬ber 1971, at which experts drew up a systematic study plancovering traditional music, avant-garde music and musique concrète.

Another Unesco initiative in this same context is the series of

records issued under the general title of the "Unesco Collection".These records are produced in collaboration with the InternationalInstitute for Comparative Music Studies, a cultural organizationestablished In Venice in 1970 with among its aims the productionof recordings of the highest technical quality of the top musiciansand groups of the various musical cultures of Africa and the East.

The Unesco Collection (see pages 36 and 39) now includestwo anthologies and two series of records prepared for the IMCand Unesco by the International Institute for Comparative MusicStudies. Another series, produced since 1972, forms an exten¬sion and sequel to the musical "Rostrums" organized by theInternational Music Council.

The two anthologies, both issued under the Bärenreiter-Musica-phon label, consist of record albums accompanied by commenta¬ries and illustrations which open the way to the study of the tradi¬tional music of several countries of Africa and the Orient. "A

Musical Anthology of the Orient" includes music from Afghanistan,China, India, Iran, Japan, the Khmer Republic, Laos, Malaysia,Tunisia, Turkey, the U.S.S.R. and Viet-Nam ; An Anthology ofAfrican Music" includes music from the Central African Republic,Chad. Ethiopia, Ivory Coast, Nigeria and Rwanda.

The "Musical Sources" series, issued under the Philips label,covers music of the world's most ancient civilizations and includes

recordings of Arab music and music from Bali, Egypt, northernIndia, Iran, Israel, Java, the Khmer Republic, Korea and Tibet.

The second series, "Musical Atlas", consists of recordings ofliving folk music still played in certain communities throughoutthe world. Issued by Odeon-EMI Italiana, if includes music fromBengal, Ivory Coast, the Khmer Republic and Portugal.

Contemporary music is catered for by the International Rostrumof Composers, initiated in 1954 by the IMC in collaboration withUnesco, which holds annual meetings attended by representativesof radio stations to encourage the exchange of contemporary music.

Delegates from the radio organizations of 34 countries took partin the 1971 Rostrum and each radio station undertook to selectand broadcast during the 1971-72 music season at least six ofthe 89 contemporary works presented at the Rostrum.

Since 1972, the Rostrum has given rise to a new series ofrecordings in the Unesco Collection entitled "ContemporaryMusic" (see page 36).

The International Rostrum of Young Interpreters, organized bythe IMC in collaboration with Unesco, and from 1973 to be heldannually, is designed to help young performers in their careersby presenting them in person before leaders in the world ofmusic, opera, radio, television, etc. The 1972 Rostrum was heldin Bratislava (Czechoslovakia) as part of the Bratislava MusicFestival. A new Unesco series of recordings Is to be based onthese Rostrums.

Two other Rostrums, organized by the IMC, Unesco and theInternational Institute for Comparative Music Studies, are held inalternate years.

The Asian Music Rostrum, created in 1969, brings togetherrepresentatives of Asian radio stations to listen to and exchangeauthentic traditional music of their countries and to make it known

in other regions of the world. Eight countries were representedat the 1971 Rostrum held at Unesco's Paris headquarters HongKong, India, Indonesia, Irak, Japan, Jordan, Korea and the U.S.S.R.

The African Music Rostrum, inaugurated in 1970, also aims toenlist the help of radio stations to make the authentic traditionalmusic of the various musical cultures of Africa known throughoutthe world. The last session was held in Venice in 1972.

THER international musical events

and meetings, such as the International Music Congress organizedby the IMC, are held throughout the year. The theme of the 1971International Music Congress, held in Moscow in collaborationwith the Soviet National Music Committee, was "The musicalcultures of peoples: traditional and contemporary." One of theparticipants at this Congress was the world-famous Soviet compo¬ser Dmitri Shostakovich who spoke on national musical traditionsand the laws of their development (see article page 13).

To mark the 25th anniversary of its foundation by Unesco,the IMC is to hold a series of musical events in Switzerland,beginnning In September 1973 and continuing into 1974, which arebeing organized in co-operation with Unesco and the SwissNational Music Committee.

A predominant place will . be reserved for works and artistsselected at the four IMC Rostrums. The theme of the first partof the Symposium at Geneva will be "In search of a new musicalpublic, approached from the double angle of musical 'animation'for youth and the presentation of music by the audio-visual media".

Unesco's programme also includes plans for a musical workshop,to be held in 1974, bringing together musicians from Europe andAsia. At the same time studies on musical education and the

relation between "pop" music and youth will be undertaken incollaboration with the Fédération Internationale des Jeunesses

Musicales and the International Institute for Music, Dance andTheatre in Vienna. Finally, Unesco's programme provides for theaward of study and travel scholarships to musicians and musicalspecialists.

Music, then, is accorded the important place it merits in AAUnesco's cultural programme. For some countries the problem IÄof music is one of preserving and encouraging an art; for othersthe preservation and promotion of music is bound up with thewhole problem of national development.

Photo Unesco

By Akin Euba

24

AKIN EUBA, former Head of Music andResearch of the Nigerian Broadcasting Corp¬oration and Lecturer in Music at the Univ¬

ersity of Lagos, is now a Senior ResearchFellow in Musicology at the University ofIfe. His essays on music have been publish¬ed in the "International Folk Music Council

Journal", "Nigeria Magazine", "Africa Report'and "Odu". Akin Euba has written three large-scale compositions based on elements ofAfrican traditional music: "Four Pieces for

African Orchestra", "Chaka", a setting ofLeopold Senghor's- dramatic poem, and'Dirges", a setting of poems by Africanauthors, for speakers, singers, Instrumen¬talists and pre-recorded African music. Thearticle presented here Is based on a paperprepared for a meeting organized by Unescoon "Musical Traditions of Africa South of

the Sahara", held in Yaounde, Cameroon, inFebruary 1970.

O the casual observer it

might appear that, in face of powerfulinfluences from the Western world,

traditional African music has lost its

meaning in contemporary Africa.

Yet most Africans continue to live

according to traditional patterns ofculture and maintain their traditional

music which forms their primary

experience of musical art. It is onlyin urbanized Africa that cosmopolitanculture is so predominant and Westernmusic so much in evidence.

Among those Africans who havereceived a Western education and

whose pattern of existence exposesthem to various aspects of Westernculture, musical taste is of two kinds.

A small minority have cultivated a tastefor the more contemplative forms ofWestern music classical and sacred

(and jazz); the vast majority have littleinterest in any kind of music except"pop".

I do not believe that Africans who

have forsaken African for Western

music did so because of artistic

values; it is only that most of themwere born outside the tradition of

African musical culture and are onlyvaguely aware of the elements thatmake it so important to its practitioners.

Assuming an equal education in bothtypes of music, those who are mostsensitive to the highest music in theirown culture would probably also bethose who respond to what is best in

a foreign culture. Hence, there is littledanger of Africans, if adequatelyeducated musically, abandoning theirtraditional musical culture when heavilyexposed to Western music.

The reasons for a possible domina¬

tion of African music by Western musttherefore be sought elsewhere.

Africans qualified in Western musicare materially better off than prac-

Two facets of music in Africa. Below, an Ivory Coast harp, the indispensableaccompaniment to song. Throughout Africa the harp is played by men andthe lute by women, except in Mauritania where the custom is the reverse.The Ethiopian Government has been developing a nation-wide music educ¬ation programme and has set up a national symphony orchestra. It recentlycalled upon Unesco for help In this project Photo left, shows the neworchestra formed with the help of a Unesco expert, Mr. George Byrd, seenhere (left) with the baton.

Photo Edouard Boubat Top-Réalités, Paris

titioners of African traditional music.

A first class concert pianist can earnmore by a single recital than an equallygifted traditional musician could hopeto make in a year. African "pop"musicians not only receive muchhigher fees, but get their musicrecorded and broadcast as standard

fare on local radio stations.

A taste for Western music impliesacquiring a taste for other aspects ofWestern culture also. For the averagecontemporary African, a good Westerneducation opens the way to importantjobs and social influence, and thisexplains why an African master-drummer will encourage his son tospend his time acquiring one ratherthan spend it becoming a master-drummer.

One of the success symbols inAfrica today is a big radiogramexpensive furniture for display in theliving room perhaps but there is also

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

AFRICAN MUSIC (Continued)

Symbol of success:the record-player in the living room

26

an intent to listen. Whatever the

owner's feelings towards traditionalmusic, most of his records willinevitably contain music that is non-African or at best neo-traditional

popular African; if he wants Africanmusic records he must probably seekthem abroad.

A radiogram owner is a musicpatron, contributing to the popularityof the musicians who get recorded.In the past, African chiefs were,financially, the most influential indi¬vidual patrons of traditional musicalart. But today, financial influence haspassed from them to the radiogramowners whose musical tastes how¬

ever traditional before have now been

affected by the only records that areon sale.

Technological advance is now abasic aim of African societies. Does

technological development automati¬cally spell doom for a non-technologi¬cal art culture? So far, the parametershave largely been determined inEurope and America: is moderntechnology feasible in Africa withouta total conversion to Euro-American

standards? African traditional music

is bound up with African traditionalsocial life; if the latter becomes

westernized, can the music retain its

characteristic identity, survive in a newsocial context?

m OR some scholars, mean¬

ing in African music is bound up intothe functions music serves in society;the frequency with which it isintegrated with non-musical activitieshas led to generalizations about itsutilitarian functions with the implica¬

tion that it is meaningless outside itsspecific social context.

There is, however, a second

category of listener, little concernedwith scientific analysis, much moreinterested in the "soul" of the music.

That he does derive some satisfaction,

however incomplete, from African

music, suggests that this music,removed from its social contexts, is

not entirely meaningless.

However, for the listener not intouch with the context ¡n which its

music is customarily performed, andwho hears it purely as music, aknowledge of the speech language ofthe ethnic group to which the piecebelongs would be crucial to an under¬standing of the musical language.

For those who watch musicians

perform, the visual impression addsan artistic side, a dramatic element

that complements the musical element

with a dimension that Is lacking for alistener who is not actually present.He who sees as well as hears is

closer to a correct interpretation ofthe music's meaning, but only thatmuch closer, for the total meaning ofthe music in relation to the context

cannot be realized by the observer butonly by the participants.

Musical meaning in African tra¬ditional culture can thus be of different

shades, ranging from the purely tonalthrough the linguistic to the socio-dramatic. Lacking its socio-dramaticassociations, part of its meaning ismissing, but, purely as music, it couldnot fail to have meaning for musicalears partial but intense, and includingaspects which are unimportant or

imperceptible to the average Africanlistener.

People unfamiliar with Africantraditional music, and hearing it outof context, sometimes find it too

repetitive. But the more clearly thelistener can understand the music's

function, the less is likely to be hisirritation, until he eventually realizesthat repetition is one of the primaryaids the music utilizes in order to

fulfil its purpose.

Contact with Western culture has

introduced a few African musicians to

the idea of composing music meantjust to be listened to, an approachthat may spread in an increasinglytechnological Africa as former socialvalues break down and music sep¬arates from the context that hitherto

has provided much of its impetus.Some fear that, in such a situation,

African traditional music may cease toexist.

Music, of course, cannot live with¬out new creative forces to sustain it

through changing social circumstances.But will the African creative genius,,which has in the past survived so¬cial change, now become unproductivein the atmosphere of contemporary

society?

Should traditional music lose its

present social context it should notbe too difficult for it to transform and

become a purely contemplative art-form. The way is already open, evenif Africans do not customarily listencontemplatively.

The music may lean very heavily

on poetry whose "real" meaningis invariably one or more stepsremoved from the literal meanings ofindividual words and sentences, a sym¬bol for something else. But even ifwe fail to grasp this "real" meaning,the music may still convey artisticfeeling.

'NE of the challenges tothe contemporary composer in Africatoday is how to carry the essentialsof this poetical sense in African music

over into musical settings of modernAfrican poetry in non-African langua¬ges.

Experiments by Senghor and othersin the use of African traditional in¬

struments to accompany recitals ofAfrican poetry in European languagesforeshadow new creative openings.Again, in Wole Soyinka's plays, textsspoken in English are juxtaposed withtexts in Yoruba, sung and accom¬panied in the traditional style ofYoruba music.

The challenge has been throwndown by the writers. It remains forthe composers to work towards a

total fusion of non-African speech withAfrican musical language. The prob¬lems are immense. African traditional

song composition is conditioned bythe nature of African tone-languages,and would seem incompatible withEuropean song.

But although speech meaning inEuropean languages is only partiallyconditional upon tonal considerations,

there are possibilities as for exam¬

ple in the sprechgesang (intonedspeech) compositions of ArnoldSchoenberg of making an artistic useof the speech tonality of Europeanlanguages. African music also utilizesspeech-song, and this might provide abasis for a co-ordination of cultural

styles setting African literature inEuropean languages to an Africanmusical idiom.

The way in which African traditionalmusic may gradually accomodate itselffor contemplative listening can be seenin African-language plays written forthe modern theatre. The music fol¬

lows traditional music styles and even

borrows from the existing repertoire.

These plays are really transposi¬tions of traditional music and drama

from their social context into the con¬

text of the modern theatre and are

thereby a direct evolution from the mu-sico-dramatic art of traditional culture.

Their success and increasing popula¬rity are sufficient to justify the viewthat traditional music can survive on

its own terms, away from the cus¬tomary social context.

The ultimate result may be a musicwhich exists in its own right, devoidof visual connotations. But if the new

African composers are to maintain

contact with local audiences, theymust approach abstract creativity instages and take advantage of theopportunities offered by the combina¬tion of music with drama in the con¬

temporary African theatre.

They can learn much by collaborat¬ing with dramatists and choreogra¬phers to produce stage versions oftypical scenes from traditional culture,

such as ceremonies pertaining tochieftaincy, marriage and birth rites.The dramatic intensity of these eventsin their real-life contexts transposesvery well to the stage, where theevents assume an artistic meaningthat is little apparent in real life.

HE components of the newmusical art will be essentially thosewhich constitute traditional music as

we know it, but re-combined in a new

way and accordingly an extension oftraditional culture. For example, re¬petition, although retained, will prob¬ably be subdued or camouflaged.

An instrument that hitherto repeat¬ed the same pattern continuously maynow share the pattern with other in¬

struments repetition certainly but withshifting timbres. And, instead of allow¬ing the leading instrument of anensemble, and it alone, to play varia¬tions, several instruments might beallowed to share this rôle, simultane¬

ously or alternatively.

Instruments found within one ethnic

group can be classified in broadgeneral families but otherwise are notshared with other ethnic groups and,.even within the same ethnic group,are commonly designated for specificfunctions (a condition which deter¬mines the patterns of orchestral

groupings).

By doing away with such reserva¬tions and developing an orchestraltechnique that freely combines in¬struments from his own and other

ethnic groups, the modern Africancomposer can create a varying textureof instrumental timbres to sustain the

new music.

Geographically, Western music iswidespread in the world today notbecause of any inherent superiority,but because the West has developedsuperior communications. Phonograph,tape-recorder, radio and televisionwere all perfected in Western coun¬tries which still largely retain a mono¬poly of their use.

Africans now have access to these

media, but even within Africa, gramo¬phone records circulated through wes¬tern channels are likely to reach awider African public than if circulatedthrough African companies.

In Nigeria, for example, most re¬cording companies are controlled fromoverseas, and the records of Nigerianmusic they produce are those that willfetch the quickest returns locally. Therecord-buying public is concentrated inthe cities who prefer neo-traditionalor westernized popular music.

If these companies ever publishrecords of classical traditional music

this will most likely be due to pressurefrom non-African musicologists whohave done research in Nigeria. Suchrecords seldom find their way back toNigeria along the normal channels(i.e. those through which westernmusic is distributed).

Admittedly, records can effectivelyconvey only the sound of the music,whereas much African music can best

be presented through audio-visualmedia. Those wanting to hear Africanmusic once had to be present at theplace of performance, but with theincreasing need for communicationacross the whole continent, new

modes must supplement and extendthose that hitherto served.

Records and radio provide excel¬lent media in cases where the visual

aspects are not so important; where

the visual elements are integrally re¬lated to the rest (a majority of cases,apparently), television and cinema arethe most effective media. At present,

neither is sufficiently utilized for tradi¬tional music.

Ministries and agencies concernedwith Africans arts must establish well-

defined projects and considerably stepup the production of films of African

music, calling in the aid of music¬ology, choreology, anthropology and

other disciplines to help the film tech¬nicians to' produce films that capturethe essential spirit of the music.Given the effort and outlay, such filmsshould be given the widest possibledistribution throughout Africa, withadequate facilities to enable sponsor¬ing organizations to exchange films.

UBLICATION of scores is

also important. The transcription of amusical art that has no tradition of

notation presents many difficulties,notably that of creating national sym¬bols to convey the peculiar nuancesof African musical sounds.

But if contemporary Africans are tobecome knowledgeable about Africanmusic they must be able to study itwithout having to hear it directly fromits exponents; hence the vital impor¬tance of the printed score, in combina¬tion with recorded sound.

Improved techniques for makingAfrican traditional music better known

should not overlook contemporarymusic. African audiences should be

familiar from the start with new dev¬

elopments in the music of their cul¬

ture, for they have a rôle to play inshaping the new tradition.

Contemporary African composerstrained in western musical institutes

are now producing music which, usingAfrican elements in a western idiom,can be classified as Africanized Wes¬

tern. This is a welcome new addi¬

tion, but does not represent a trueevolution from the African main¬

stream and should not be taken as the

main trend in African contemporarymusic.

Most African musicians are workingwith traditional means and several

new composers have been experiment¬ing with new ways of employing them.As African societies become more and

more technological, African traditio¬nal music may become less utilitarian

and increasingly contemplative. It isalso likely, however, that the newmusic will not necessarily replace themusic we now regard as traditional,and that both forms will coexist.

African music has survived previouseras of social change because it had

and has enough creative vitality to fladapt itself to changing circumstan- ^ 'ces; there is no reason to supposethat it will not continue to do so.

LET THE TRUMPETS SOUND...

In Tibetan music, wind instru¬ments play a predominant role.Invariably played in pairs, theysymbolize the eternal links bet¬ween Knowledge and Method,between Male and Female, or

the voices of peaceful and hos¬tile divinities. The instruments

are usually made of copperand silver, sometimes embellish¬ed with precious stones. Pho¬tos show from left to right: shorttrumpets, oboes, long trumpetsresting on a support represent¬ing a supernatural being, andtelescopic horns which can beextended to enormous lengths(up to four metres).

Photos © Sangltacharya Manfred M. Junius. Venice

28

O the unaccustomed ear

the sounds are unbelievably deep andrich. Guttural voices seem endowed

with superhuman power as, withoutpausing for breath, their chanting chan¬ges from stately psalmody to elegantharmonious melody. Deep-throated

IVAN VANDOR, Hungarian-born Italian com¬poser and ethno-musicologist Is a specialiston Tibetan music and has written manyworks on the subject. He Is a member ofthe Italian delegation to the InternationalSociety for Contemporary Music and his com¬positions have earned him several internat¬ional awards including the Prize of the ItalianSociety for Contemporary Music for a pieceof chamber music and the Taormina Prize for

his orchestral work 'Dance Music". The

article presented here is based on an exhaus¬tive study entitled "Rolmo: the BuddhistMusical Tradition of Thibet", to be publishedby the International Institute for ComparativeMusic Studies (Berlin and Venice).

Cymbals and trumpetsfrom the

'roof of the world1by

Ivan Vandor

wind instruments weave a majestic

pattern of sound, punctuated and sus¬tained by the percussion, drawing thelistener on towards distant, unexploredmusical horizons.

Disconcerting though the music is,even the layman cannot fail to recog¬nize in it a strict order and discipline

which leaves nothing to chance. Whatwe are listening to is the ancientBuddhist music of Tibet, brought to

us by the magic of the gramophone.

Tibet, the region of China that isoften called "the roof of the world", is

the cradle of an astonishing civilization.It lies at altitudes varying between10,000 and 23,000 feet and its onlyrelatively hospitable region is a plateausome 13,000 feet up between the peaksof the Himalayas and the trans-Himalayas.

These geographical details throwan interesting light on some aspectsof Tibetan culture. Before the con¬

struction of roads and the modern¬

ization of Tibet carried out by theChinese during the 1950s, it tookmonths, even a year, for a caravanfrom Peking to reach Lhasa the capita!.

Yet over the centuries Tibetan cul¬

ture was enriched and influenced byother civilizations. Whilst the ethni¬

cally mixed population remained cha¬racteristically Mongol, the country hadcontacts to the west with India, Iran

and even Greece, to the north with

the Turko-Mongol peoples, to the eastwith the Han civilization of China, and

to the south, north and east with

peoples among whom the Buddhisttradition was. already established

Nepal, Khotan and Yunnan.

Buddhism reached Tibet during the

Photo Pradhan © Top-Réalltés, París

seventh and eighth centuries. It camefrom northern India and was steepedin tantrism (from the Sanskrit wordtantra, meaning warp, originally of afabric, later "doctrine" or "rule"). InTibet, it gradually replaced the oldshamanistic local religion known asPön, which, in a variety of forms, hadspread throughout Central Asia fromthe Eastern marches of Iran to China.

Pön was not unconnected with tan¬

trism, with the result that tantrism,

Pön and Buddhism mingled, and alsoabsotbed the ancient Tibetan religioncalled the "religion of men" (as againstthe "religion of the gods"), thus givingTibetan Buddhism its own particularcharacter.

This tantric Buddhism which spread

throughout the Himalayan countriesoutside Tibet itself Nepal, Bhutan,Sikkim and Kaddak (see "UnescoCourier" February 1969) as well ascertain parts of West Bengal andIndia was to produce one of themost original forms of music to emergeanywhere in the world. Today, thanksto the gramophone record, this music,or fragments of it at least, may beheard far from its land of birth.

The origins and history of TibetanBuddhist music have not yet beenexplored to the full. The facts givenhere are based on material gatheredduring eight months' research in Nepal.

Tibetan Buddhist music, extremelysubtle and complex, is indissociablefrom the ancient traditions which giveit its full significance, a music with anessentially spiritual purpose. Whether

vocal or instrumental, it demands not

only a perfect knowledge of the orally-transmitted texts but a high degree ofvirtuosity.

Being closely linked with religion, itplays a leading part in the life of themonastic community. The lamaseries,or monasteries, are thus schools ofmusic where monk-musicians receive

training of an advanced level, formvocal and instrumental groups, andpreserve an original art form with itsown carefully codified system ofexpression.

The instruments used (wind and per¬cussion alike) are of mixed local and

foreign origin. Some come from India,as for example the great white conch-shell trumpet, dung kar, which isfished in the waters off the east coast

of Hindustan. This is the instrument

which, according to the great Hindureligious classic, the Bhagavad Gita,emits "that awesome noise which

shakes heaven and earth"; its playerneeds an unfailing ear and lungs ofsteel. The handbell and the hour¬

glass drum the damaru of Shivaare also Indian.

Other instruments appear to be Tibe¬tan in origin, for instance the kangling, a trumpet made of a human shin-

bone, and the chö dar, an hour-glassdrum made of two human skulls, tothe "waist" of which are attached

thongs with strikers at the ends.

Iranian influence, direct or indirect,

via India, is present in a form of oboe,

the rgya-gling, and Chinese influencein that of cymbals. It is difficult to

say where the other instruments camefrom, but it seems likely that TibetanBuddhist music, like Tibetan Buddism

itself, picked up elements from varioussources, while retaining certain ancientcharacteristics particular to Tibetancivilization.

In a tradition so steeped in religionas is Tibetan music, it is not alwayseasy to define exactly what is meantby religious music. The great nationalepic of Tibet, recounting the exploitsof the King and magic hero, Gesar ofLing, and sometimes called the "Iliadof Central Asia", as well as the secular

drama of Lhamo, for instance, contain

numerous important religious elements,while even many folk songs aredirectly inspired by religious themes.

Here, the term religious music isused to mean what in Tibetan is

known as rolmo : the vocal or instru¬

mental music accompanying variousrituals. Performed exclusively bymonks, as already pointed out, it isdistinguishable from the other Tibetanmusical traditions by its vocal tech¬nique, the instruments used, the rules

which it obeys, and its symbolism.

It is performed both inside themonastery and outside. Inside, it

accompanies religious ceremonies,particularly in the prayer halls, andsometimes, for certain rites, in the

courtyard. It is played as a signalfor the lamas to begin their medita¬tion in their cells or to make offeringsto certain divinities, in the latter case

being played on the roof of the monas¬tery so that the sound carries far.

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

29

CYMBALS AND TRUMPETS (Continued)

Outside the monastery, it is perform¬ed in private homes for births, mar¬riages, deaths or other special occa¬sions, or because someone wishes to

gain "merit" so as to obtain a betterreincarnation. It is also played inprocessions, or to welcome eminent

visitors. Musicians practise outside themonastery, as the sound of the instru¬ments, most of which are very loud,might disturb the other monks at theirprayers or studies.

The music is also played, outside themonastery or in the courtyard, as anaccompaniment to the cham, masked

religious dances performed only bythe monks and representing, withcomic episodes, the triumph ofBuddhism over the older Tibetan

religion.

The orchestras consist only of windor percussion instruments. The for¬mer include, in addition to the conch

and the shin-bone trumpet alreadymentioned, copper or silver trumpets,horns of the same metals measuringup to twelve feet long, and a kind oflong, conical oboe.

The percussion instruments include

two types of cymbals, one bearing thesame name, rolmo, as the ritual reli¬

gious music, two gongs of differentsizes, a kettledrum which may be asmuch as six feet across, a smaller

upright drum played with a sickle-shaped stick, the two drums alreadyreferred to the chö dar (Tibetan)and the damaru (Indian) a handbell,and the ting sha, two metal discs ona string.

In the bigger monasteries, other,less common instruments were some¬

times used : a long, telescopic hornfitting into another giant horn whichimpressively amplified its sound,various other huge horns, a side-blownflute, gongs and an enormous bell.

30

EVERYTHING about thismusic, the instruments and the sounds

they make, is laden with symbolism.According to certain monastic trad¬itions, the sound of the trumpets

symbolizes the voices of certainaggressive divinities, whilst the oboesrepresent those of peaceable divinities.

In the Tibetan Book of the Dead, the

Bardo Thödol, the parallel is drawnbetween the sounds of the instruments

and the inner sounds which only cer¬tain lamas who have attained greatproficiency in the practice of medita¬tion can hear a spiritual exercise in

which auditory perception replaces

vision. The handbell symbolizes both

wisdom (or knowledge) and the sacredpower of the word. The shape of thebell, seen from above, recalls that of

the mándala the geometrical figurerepresenting the nature of the world.

Even the orchestration is dictated

by the symbolic relationship betweenthe instruments and the divinities.

Peaceful divinities such as Dolma and

the Buddha himself are associated

with the oboes, conchs and cymbals,and the warlike divinities, whose func¬tion is to defend truth and to extermi¬

nate hostile spirits, with the shorttrumpet and the smaller rolmo cym¬bals, while horns and drums are asso¬ciated with both.

It is usually the leader of the orches¬tra who plays the cymbals, on whichthe relationship between the partsplayed by the various instruments lar¬gely depends. It is also the leaderwho conducts the ceremony, the sing¬ing and recitation of prayers, and setsthe tempo of the performance.

The more important the occasion,the slower the tempo is, and its varia¬

bility may even effect the oboe melodyline. The oboe players must learn totry and work out, for a particulartempo, on what note they have tostop as the piece comes to an end,

and how long to hold a particular notein order to finish with the rest of the

orchestra. As a result, no two perfor¬mances are quite alike, and this mix¬

ture of strictness and flexibility, pre¬cise rules and improvization, is a cha¬racteristic feature of Tibetan music.

In the books of certain religiousorders, there are special signs to showwhere the instruments come in, signswhich incidentally change from onemonastery to another, while for someinstruments oboe, hour-glass drumand handbells there is no form of

notation.

The special type of vocal musicknown as yang also has its own nota¬tion, contained in the yang-yin (booksof special prayers) and often varyingfrom one book to the next. The nota¬

tion indicates not so much the pitchas the volume, which varies within a

very limited range, and also certaindetails of voice production. Red inkis sometimes used to indicate the

parts to be sung solo by the monkin charge of the ceremony.

Tibetan Buddhist musical notation

would in fact be virtually undeciphe¬rable if it were not for the oral tradi¬

tion, and it leaves large areas ofmusic uncovered, being intended onlyas a mnemonic device and to a lesser

degree as an aid to the learner.

In the yang style of singing acontinuous melodic line the voices

are deep and guttural, and the sylla¬bles of the text are chanted veryslowly. It is this chanting which, per¬haps even more than the orchestral

accompaniment, produces even in the

casual listener the extraordinaryimpression of entering an unfamiliarworld, transcending that of the senses ;for yang, as a Tibetan commentaryexplains, aims to communicate with

the gods, and the manner in which onecommunicates with gods is not thesame as that in which one communi¬

cates with men.

But there is nothing haphazard aboutthis singular style : everything is subor¬dinate to rules which demand of the

performer the utmost skill. From

childhood the singers practise produc¬ing sounds as low and guttural aspossible.

II N some monasteries, thismodification of the human voice is

carried to lengths which seem to vergeon the impossible. This practice isprobably connected with the tantricbelief that the deeper the sound, themore " immaterial", the closer to

silence it is. The surprising result isthat the voice thus produces harmonicsat the same time as the basic note,

so that each singer becomes, as itwere, a "one-man choir".

This technique, however, is notexclusively Tibetan ; it is to be foundalso in Mongolia and in certain partsof Siberia.

This musical phenomenon is notconstructed on a particular set of moreor less homogeneous concepts, butappears to spring direct from theactual art of musical performance,which is itself intimately bound up withreligious theory.

Tibetan Buddhist music, however,

pays little attention to aesthetic theory,but is on the other hand inseparablefrom the idea of a consummate artistrywhich obeys the established rules,demands an unfailing musical sense,and manifests itself in the quality ofvocal and instrumental sound and in

the fine balance between the two.

For the monks, the music is a means

of spiritual expression and is playedonly for the gods. The fact that themusician, though conscious of the

essentially "celestial" nature of themusic, takes a professional pride andinterest in it, does not conflict with the

nature of the music, but on the con¬

trary ensures that the tradition, thoughessentially religious in inspiration andultimate purpose, survives on earth.

A lute maker in Soviet Central Asia gives the final once-over to his latest product.

ON THE DELIGHTS

AND PLEASURES

OF MUSICReflections, of a 10th century

Islamic philosopher

1,1 00 years ago. one of Islam's greatest philosophers. Mohammed AbuNasr al-Farabi, was born in ancient Transoxiana (today the SovietTurkmen Republic in central Asia). Writer, mathematician and astrono¬mer, al-Farabi died in Damascus (Syria) in 850, having profoundlyinfluenced the cultural, artistic and scientific development of the Islamicworld. Al-Farabi, considered by many persons almost on a level withthe great Avicenna, was also a famed musical theoretician. We arepleased to present, translated into English for the first time, a passagefrom his celebrated "Treatise on Music".

byMohammed

Abu Nasr al-Farabi

HERE are three different

kinds of music. The first merely givespleasure, the second expresses andgives rise to emotions, and the thirdstimulates our imagination. Naturalmelody (music) is that which as a rulebrings about in men one of these threeeffects, whether it invariably affects allmen, or almost always most of themin this way. The most natural musicis that with the greatest universalityof effect.

Music which brings us sensations ofpleasure is best suited to moments ofrepose ; it provides restful entertain¬ment. Music which provokes emotionis played when we wish to causesomeone to act under the influence of

a particular passion or desire to instil

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

31

32

DELIGHTS AND PLEASURES

OF MUSIC (Continued)

in him a frame of mind dominated bya specific emotion. Music which stimu¬lates the imagination serves to en¬hance poetry and certain other formsof oratory, where the effect of thewords is accentuated by a musicalaccompaniment.

The first type of music, that whichproduces a pleasant effect, can alsogive rise to emotions, and as in thecase of the music intended to produceemotion, it can also stimulate the ima¬

gination. We have shown in othertreatises the manner in which emo¬

tions sharpen the attention and whetthe imagination. And when the wordsof a poem are accompanied by pleas¬ant music, they have a greater holdover the listener's attention.

The music which most nearly attainsperfection is that which possesses atone and the same time the three qual¬ities of which we have just spoken.Its effect upon us is similar to that ofpoetry, although less complete, for itfulfils only partially the function ofpoetry.

When adapted to a poem, the musicwill have a more powerful effect andthe words will in their turn have greaterforce of expression. The most per¬fect, excellent and effective music istherefore that which possesses eachof the qualities we have named. Al¬though instrumental music can have anumber of them, only the music of thehuman voice possesses all thesequalities.

Talent in musical execution is hence

of two orders : one relates to the exe¬

cution of the perfect melodies producedby the human voice, and the other tothe playing of musical instruments.The latter order is subdivided accord¬

ing to the nature of the instrument inquestion, whether it is a lute, a lyreor another resonant instrument of the

same kind.

Sung music can also be divided intodifferent categories according to thetype of poetry to which the melodiesare applied and depending upon theresult desired. Different types oftalent are required for singing a ballad,a lamentation or an elegy, just as forthe intoned delivery of a poem or anyother form of vocal art. The hida, orcamel-drivers' song, demands anotherkind of skill.

Instrumental music provides res¬ponses to song inasmuch as it iscapable of imitating the human voice.It is used to accompany the voice, toenrich it, or to serve as a prelude oran interlude. The interlude allows the

singer to rest ; it also completes themusic by expressing whatever isbeyond vocal possibilities.

There exists another type of instru¬mental music, whose conception issuch that it is difficult to make it imi¬

tate perfect (vocal) music, and it canbe of no assistance to the latter.

This kind of music can be comparedto a decorative design whose linesdo not represent any form of realitybut are simply pleasing to the eye.

Photo © Boudot-Lamotte, from 'Musique Antique-Musique d'Orierfby Romain Goldron, Editions Rencontre, Lausanne, 1365

Examples of music of this kind are thetarayiq and rawashin of Khurasan andPersia, whose sound no human voicecan reproduce.

As we have pointed out, this type ofmusic lacks certain elements of per¬fection, and in listening to it one seeksthose which are missing. In the endit becomes wearisome and irritatingto the ear, whose demand remains

unsatisfied. Music of this style shouldonly be used to educate the ear, orfor the purpose of practising the artof playing musical instruments : it canalso serve as a prelude or interludeto a sung melody.

It is by virtue of natural, innate apti¬tudes instinctive to man that he is

capable of composing and creatingmusic. Among these aptitudes let usmention man's bent for poetry, theinstinct which drives him to producecertain sounds when he feels joyfuland other sounds when in pain orsorrow.

We must also mention the instinctwhich causes him to seek rest after

hard work, and to find a way of divert¬ing his thoughts from the fatigue ofhis labours. For music possesses thegift of absorbing our attention anddispelling the weariness caused bywork. It casts from our mind all notion

of the time spent at a task, and helpsus to endure and withstand the fati¬

gue it produces.

Indeed, the notion of time calls to

mind the fatigue engendered by move¬ment for is not time an essential

element of movement, just as, in fact,movement is an element of time ?

Since fatigue is caused by movementand time is inextricably linked to move¬ment, loss of the notion of time also

means loss of the notion of fatigue.

It is also claimed that singing hasan influence upon animals ; this isborne out by the hida, the song ofthe Arabian camel-drivers, whichaffects the behaviour of their beasts.

So much for musical inspiration.Let us now consider the way in whichthe various branches of instrumental

and vocal music came into being.Music has grown into a science, thanksto those innate aptitudes and instinctswe have mentioned.

People have sung to achieve pleas¬ant sensations or relaxation, to forgettheir weariness and to lose all notion

of time. Others have sought to height¬en or to dispel an emotion or a stateof mind, to alter or intensify it, toforget or find appeasement for it.Others yet have used singing to givegreater force of expression to theirpoetry and to stimulate still furtherthe imagination of the listener.

For all of these reasons men in

early times began to take pleasure inhumming, singing and the vocal arts,and gradually throughout the ages,

from one generation to the next, fromone people to another, musical worksincreased in abundance.

Especially gifted men acquired atalent for composing music of all thethree types we have described. Eachone sought to surpass his predeces¬sors and their determined perseve¬rance in their work led them to greatfame. Among their followers werethose who, unable to compose originalmusic, produced imitations of the worksof their precursors while perfectingcertain technical aspects ; otherspossessed a talent for composition,drawing inspiration from the works oftheir predecessors and contributing tothe enrichment of the art of music.

In this way musicians followed onfrom each other, and their art washanded from people to people fromone .generation to the next throughoutthe ages. In the process, the distinc¬tions between the three types of musiceventually became blurred until theyfinally blended and merged into eachother.

It was recognized that if the aimwas, for example, to stimulate or soothea given emotion, the most satisfactorymeans of doing so was to use musicthat would achieve the desired effect,

adding some notes to produce a

pleasant sensation and others to excitethe imagination, while at the sametime associating them with words inshort, by using vocal music.

In the same way, when the intentionwas to excite the imagination and givegreater impact to a poem, it was seenthat the most effective way was touse not only the corresponding music,but also music whose special qualityis its power to calm or provoke agiven emotion in the listener as wellas music pleasing to the ear.

This was the means of capturing hisimagination, helping him better tounderstand the poem and stampingthe desired impression more durablyupon his mind, while at the same timedriving away fatigue and boredom.The story has it that the poet "AlqamahIbn 'Abdih presented himself one dayat the court of al-Harith Ibn Shamr

king of Ghassan, to read him a poemand request a favour. The sovereignpaid not the slightest heed to him ;but when he put a melody to his poemand began to sing, the monarchimmediately granted him his request.

When musicians realized that the

accompaniment of an instrument impar¬ted to vocal music a richer sound,greater resonance and brilliance andthat the association of poetry and

rhythm made it pleasanter and moreeasy to learn by heart, they endea¬voured to make the various instruments

produce notes comparable to those ofthe sung melody.

In their minds they carried the notesthat made up the familiar, well-remem¬bered melodies of their own regionsand they tried to locate the precisepart of an instrument that reproducedeach of these notes. Once this was

determined, reference marks weremade on the instrument.

Successive musicians selected those

instruments, whether naturally occuringobjects or artificially made, whichmost perfectly reproduced these notes.In this way they gradually improvedthe various instruments. Faults were

slowly eliminated until the lute andother instruments eventually acquiredtheir final form.

Once the art of musical perfor¬mance was in this way perfected, rulesof melody were determined and itbecame possible to distinguish bet¬ween the notes and harmonies natural

to man and those which are not, and

to establish the degrees of conso¬nance and dissonance.

The perfect consonance of the notesproduced by the human voice or bysome musical Instruments has been

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

Unearthed at Ras Shamra,near Latakia (Syria) thispiece of glazed earthen¬ware (left) dates back tobetween 1600 and 1400

B.C. Twin lutes replace thenose. The lute, which ori¬ginated in the Near East,Is still widely used in Arabcountries.

For the people of Pakistan,music figures prominentlyIn their celebrations, fes¬tivals and cultural and folk

gatherings. Photo rightwas taken at the annual

springtime National Horseand Cattle Show In Lahore,garden city and ancientcultural centre of Pakistan.

To the rhythm of drumsand the sound of traditional

Instruments, polo matches,epic feats of horsemanshipand displays by dancinghorses take place withinsight of the bazaars andcrowded streets of the city.

DELIGHTS AND PLEASURES OF MUSIC (Continued)

34

compared to the essential nutritive ele¬ments, and the other consonances,which have a lesser degree of per¬fection, to superfluous nourishment.

Very shrill or deafening sounds arenot natural, and neither are the in¬struments which produce them. Thesesounds are used only in special cir¬cumstances ; their effect can be com¬pared to that of a remedy, or perhapseven to that of a poison, in that theyare intended to benumb and stupefythe senses.

Sounds of this kind were made bythe instruments reserved for use uponthe battlefield ; a king of ancientEgypt ordered the use of rattling bells,and a king of Byzantium other stridentinstruments with the same effect.

When the kings of Persia set out onan expedition they were accompaniedby men whose function was to shriekand howl as they went along. Soundssuch as these are dissonant in them¬

selves, but when merged with othersounds and slightly modified, they canbecome consonant.

This was how the various practicalmusical arts we have enumerated were

born.

As greater interest was given tocertain instruments, it was found thatthey could create notes and melodiesof quite a different kind from thoseproduced by the human voice. How¬ever, they shared with the latter thecapacity to have a pleasing effect, andalthough they did not posess all thequalities of the sung note, they appear¬ed natural.

Far from rejecting these instruments,musicians adopted them and, withoccasional departures from the rulesof sung music, used them to the great¬est possible advantage. This was theorigin of purely instrumental music,which the voice cannot imitate.

The ancient rawashin of Khurasan

and Persia are examples of music ofthis kind. Instrumental music as an

accompaniment to sung melody streng¬thens the song and throws it into relief,and is also capable of replacing orcomplementing the voice in variouscircumstances. The two kinds of

music are therefore closely linked.

Tambourines and tabors, timbáis,hand-clapping, dancing and rhythmicmime can all be considered elements

of music.

The least perfect of these is cer¬tainly rhythmic mime ; the play ofeyebrows, shoulders, head, legs andarms is, in fact, no more than move¬

ment. Yet these movements suggestan impression of sound. Furthermore,since the movements of the bodyoccur at intervals of time identical to

those separating two beats, these inter¬vals are measurable. Hence, thoughconsisting solely of movement, mimeis regulated by rhythm and has anunderlying musical intent.

The rhythm of hand-clapping orstamping feet, the tambourine, timbáisand dancing all belong to the samecategory. These are of a higher order

Open-air music class high in theCordilleras of the Andes in South

America. The xylophone ¡s apopular musical instrument inmany Latin American countries.

These youngsters learn to playon miniature xylophones at atender age.

,>/;

than mime, in that the movements theyrequire culminate in a percussivesound. This sound cannot however

be considered as a note, for it lacksthe continuity and length of durationwhich gives to a sound the quality ofa musical note.

The lute, the lyre, the zither, therebeck and wind instruments are

superior to those mentioned above inthat they produce a sustained note.This sound has the quality of continuity,but still does not possess all the pro¬perties of the human voice, whichcomprises all the qualities of thesesounds and is the most perfect amongthem.

By comparison with the notes pro¬duced by the voice, those of all in¬struments are inferior. They can there¬fore be used only to enrich the son¬ority of sung music, to increase itseffect, add to its beauty, accompanythe voice and make the song easier tomemorize.

The instruments which produce noteswhose qualities are most akin to thoseof the human voice are the rebeck and

the wind instruments, for those arethe ones which best imitate its sound.

These are followed by the lute, thezither and other instruments of the

same family, and then the others wehave mentioned.

With regard to the lute, its soundresembles that of the human voice to

the extent that it can produce vibratoand sustained notes. Flutes, the ra-bab and other similar instruments have

a more perfect resemblance to thevoice ; their notes possess certainqualities which produce the sameimpression as some vocal sounds.

Mohammed Abu Nasr al-Farabi

THE ANGEL

Nor did it stop there ; upon hisreturn from a diplomatic mission toRio de Janeiro where he accompanied

the French poet and playwright, PaulClaudel, Darius Milhaud wrote his

Saudades do Brasil for piano. As herecounts in his Mémoires, this work

draws its inspiration from Brazilian

folklore, learned by listening to popu¬lar pianists who at that time used toplay at the entrances to cinemas onthe Avenida de Rio Branco.

On his return to France, Milhaud

wrote L'Homme et son Désir, a ballet

with a libretto written by Claudel,whose source of inspiration lay inthe power and mystery of the Ameri¬can forest. It mobilizes a tremendous

battery of percussion instrumentswhose expressive potential was reveal¬ed to him by what he heard in theNew World. He was also to use

Cuban rhythms in a symphonic "Over¬ture".

Some years later, Edgar Várese, thepower of whose prophetic genius istoday fully recognized, was to studythe graphics, the notation of certainLatin American instruments in the

works of his friend the Brazilian Heitor

Villa-Lobos, and those of the CubansCaturla and Roldan, in preparation forhis own works, such as Ionisation,which have become classics in the

realm of innovative music.

l,v;

OF THE MARACAS (Continued from page 18)

To go back a little, Latin Americancomposition based on techniques ofEuropean origin but also directly orindirectly influenced by popular musicand by the inventive imagination ofindividual singers and instrumentalistswho in towns and rural areas were

developing new forms of expressionexperienced a fundamental, deep-rooted need to find a particular styleof its own.

At the same time in the streets, in

town dances, new forms were emerg¬ing the tango, rumba, conga, etc.whose popularity, like that of Ameri¬can jazz, was to spread throughout thewhole world in the 20th century.

This began to have a certain in¬fluence upon the work of conservatory-trained musicians. Since romantic

opera, often in the style of Meyerbeer,and especially Verdi, was fashionablein Europe, operas, preferably of anational character and specificallyLatin American in content if not in

musical form, had to be written.

And written they were, in Mexico,Venezuela, Cuba, on noble themes

with a slight historical touch, evokingnational myths and legends.

Yet none was to reach the standard

of those of Carlos Gomez (1836-1896),whose Guarani remains an authentic

classic of Latin American romantic

music. No subsequent work of simi¬lar inspiration produced in our conti¬nent has ever managed to equal itsdramatic impact or the orchestral andvocal treatment of the theme.

At the beginning of the 20th cen¬tury, Latin American composers faceda problem very similar to that encoun¬tered by Russian musicians in fairlyrecent times. Arriving late on theworld music scene, with no traditions

other than liturgical or religious vocalmusic, they turned inwards towardstheir birthright of a powerful populartradition.

Within this popular tradition theyfound their own individual style, as

did Glinka and Mussorgsky in Russia,and Smetana in Czechoslovakia. Thus

in the 1920s Latin American musicians

who had emerged after 1900, and hadtherefore reached a certain degree ofmaturity, turned for inspiration to theirfolklore, which seemed to them like

a new discovery.

As though all guided by the samecompass, musicians of the period del¬ved into the rich resources of popular

tradition, rhythms and melodies inCuba, Amadeo Roldan (1900-1939),Alejandro Garcia Caturla (1906-1940);in Mexico, Silvestre Revueltas (1899-1940), Carlos Chavez (b. 1899) ; inArgentina, Juan Jose Castro (1895-1968)and in Venezuela, Juan Bautista Plaza

(1898-1965), and these are but a few

names from a long list of musicians.But it is interesting to observe thecoincidence of the dates, for they dis¬close a significant trend.

It is also important to note that thecareers of these musicians show how,

starting from a nationalist-folklore con¬cept, all of them, like Manuel de Falla

in Spain and Bartok in Hungary, tendedto move away from themes noted downon the spot during carnivals and popu¬lar celebrations, to find their own per¬sonal forms of expression. Some¬times the "national" accent was

retained, but the final inspiration camefrom an inner source.

It is appropriate here to mention thegreatest, most remarkable and univer¬sal of all Latin American composers

of this century, the Brazilian HeitorVilla-Lobos (1887-1959), whose works

are constantly played at concerts andin radio and television broadcasts

throughout Europe and America.

Perhaps sensing that the guitar wasto become an instrument of tremen¬

dous versatility in our day, Villa-Loboswrote a number of preludes and stu¬dies which are to guitarists todaywhat the preludes and fugues of Bach's"Well-tempered Clavicord" have been

to pianists of every generation abasic key text which, besides the prob¬lems of its technical execution, is a

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE

35

36

THE ANGEL

OF THE MARACAS (Continued)

highly articulate form of musical com¬munication.

The recordings of works by Villa-Lobos increase every day. Besidessome minor ones, they include a num¬ber which are already classic master¬pieces such as his "Bacchianas", No. 1(for cellos), No. 5 (for voice andorchestra) ; the wonderful Choros 7(for small chamber ensemble), theCuartetos, 5 and 6, and works for

every instrument and all conceivableorchestral combinations.

Instead of becoming buried in mustyarchives and dictionaries of musico¬

logy, they live on vigorously after thedeath of their author, imposing a

dynamic Latin American presence inthe world of music.

In 1928 or thereabouts I had occa¬

sion to meet Heitor Villa-Lobos, and

asked him what the thought of musicalfolklore. "Folklore? I am folklore",

he answered, putting in a nutshell animage of the immediate future of LatinAmerican music.

Since then, our instruments and

rhythms have been incorporated intomodern orchestration. They have tobe added to the arsenal of percussion

instruments foreseen by Berlioz andRimsky-Korsakov in their treatises oninstrumentation.

Messaien, Boulez and others among

the most qualified exponents of con¬temporary music are familiar withthem, just as were earlier composerssuch as Milhaud and Edgar Várese.The contribution made by Latin Amer¬ican instruments and rhythms are partand parcel of the grammar, syntax,phonetics and even the semiology ofevery modern composer.

Heitor Villa-Lobos' phrase "I amfolklore" reminds me of the carved

spandrel over the door of a conventin Misiones, Argentina : among thetraditional figures of the "heavenlyconcert", with the traditional lutes,

harps and theorbos, appears that ofan angel playing the maracas.

A maraca-playing angel I To me thissculpture the immortal angel andthe maracas of our earthly continent

sums up the whole spirit andcharacter of the entire history of LatinAmerican music, from the Conquest tothe research now being carried out bythe young composers of this NewWorld in fields still strewn with pitfallsbut open to new possibilities.

In the final analysis, this New Worldof ours, through its traditions, its heri¬tage and all it has received from else¬where, assimilated and transformed, is

in fact as old and mature as the other

worlds of our planet.

Alejo Carpentler

mThe Unesco collection is edited for the International Music Council bythe International Institute for Comparative Music Studies and Documen¬tation (see also page 39).

PHILIPS

Musical Sources

A universal history of traditional musicGeneral Editor: Alain Daniélou

Published by Philips Phonogram International B.V., P.O. Box 23, Baarn, Holland.Single records: Commentaries in English only.Records will be available in albums with English, French and German commentaries.

Ceremonial, Ritual and Magic Music :Tibetan Ritual : 6586 007

Religious Psalmody :Jewish Music: 6586 001

Modal Music and Improvisation :Iranian Dastgah 6586 005; Northern India. Vocal Music Dhrupad and Khyal6586 003 ; Arabian Music : Maqam 6586 006 ; Taqasim and LayaN-CairoTradition, stereo 6586 010; North India, Instrumental Music, Sitar, Flute

Sarangi : 6586 009.

Art Music from the Far-Bast:

Korean Music: 6586 011

Art Music from South-East Asia :

Bali, Court Music and Banjar Music: 6586 008Java, Historic Gamelans: 6586 004

Royal Music of Cambodia: 6586 002In preparation: Pygmies, Solomon Isles, Assyrian Mass, Traditional Music ofSouth Laos, Bali: Theatre and Dance Music.

ODEON - E.M.I.MúsicaI Atlas

A regional anthology of Folk and Traditional MusicGeneral Editor: Alain Daniélou. Published by ODEON/EMI Italiana, Via del OcéanoPacifico 46, 00144 Rome, Italy. Commentaries in English, French and Italian.Bengal: CO 6417 840; Cambodia: CO 6417 841; Ivory Coast: CO 6417 842;Portugal: CO 6417 843.In preparation: Syria, India, Bali, Middle East.

HUNGARATON

Contemporary MusicSelection of works presented at the International Rostrum of Composers organizedby Unesco and the International Music Council.Published by Hungaraton, Budapest, Hungary.First record issued: Concerto No. 3 and Concerto No. 4 by Andras Szollosy;Quartet for string orchestra Op. 9 by Attila Bozay; Hungarian Rhapsody fortwo clarinets and orchestra by Zsolt Durko: Hungaraton LPX 11525

BAREN REITER-MUSICAPHOIM

A Musical Anthology of the OrientGeneral Editor: Alain Daniélou. Published by Bärenreiter-Musicaphon, Heinrich-Schütz-Allee 35, Kassei-Wilhelmshöhe, Fed. Rep. of Germany. Commentaries in English,French and German.

Tunisia: BM 30 L 2008; Georgia I: BM 30 L 2025; Azerbaijan I: BM 30 L 2024;Turkey I - The Music of the Mevlevi: BM 30 L 2019; Turkey II - Classical andReligious Music: BM 30 L 2020; Iran I: BM 30 L 2004; Iran II: BM 30 L 2005;Afghanistan: BM 30 L 2003; India I - Vedic Recitation and Chant: BM 30L 2006; India II Music of the Dance and Theatre of South India: BM 30 L 2007;

India III - Dhrupad-s: BM 30 L 2018; India IV - Karnatic Music: BM 30 L 2021 ;Laos: BM 30 L 2001 ; Cambodia: BM 30 L 2002; Viet-Nam I - The Tradition ofHue: BM 30 L 2022; Viet-Nam II The Music of Viet-Nam: BM 30 L2023;TheMusic of Tibetan Buddhism: Tibet I: BM 30 L 2009; Tibet II: BM 30 L 2010;

Tibet III: BM 30 L 2011 ; Japan I - Sokyoku: BM 30 L 2012; Japan II - Gagaku:BM 30 L 2013; Japan III - The Music of Edo Period: BM 30 L 2014; Japan IVBuddhist Music: BM 30 L 2015; Japan V - Shinto Music: BM 30 L 2016;Japan VI - Nô-Play; Biwa and Chanting: BM30L2017; Malaysia: BM30L2026

Anthology of African MusicGeneral Editor: Paul Collaer. Published by Bärenreiter-Musicaphon, Heinrich-Schütz-Allee 35, Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe, Fed. Rep. of Germany. Commentaries in English, Frenchand German.

Music of the Dan: BM 30 L 2301 ; Music from Rwanda: BM 30 L 2302; Ba-

Benzélé Pygmies: BM 30 L 2303; Ethiopia I - Music of the Ethiopian CopticChurch: BM 30 L 2304; Ethiopia II - Music of the Cushitic Peoples of South¬west Ethiopia: BM 30 L2305; Nigeria-Hausa Music I: BM 30 L 2306 Nigeria-Hausa Music II: BM 30 L 2307; Music of the Senufo: BM 30 L 2308; Chad

Kanem: BM 30 L2309; Central African Republic: BM 30 L 2310.

DO NOT SEND ORDERS TO UNESCO. Order through your local record dealer

MUSIC OF THE CENTURIES Continued from page 5

apparent chiefly in those cultureswhere the systematic teaching of musicis an indigenous tradition, for exam¬ple in the civilizations of Asia.

During the first half of the centuryethnomusicology was in search of the"authentic", that is to say, musicalsystems uninfluenced by the West, inmuch the same manner as many ethno¬graphers sought in more conventionalbranches of anthropological investiga¬tion, and in the same period, to

abstract or ignore the Western forcesimpinging upon institutions and ideas.But in recent work musical change andacculturation are elevated to the rank

of a chief problem; and the adoptionof an historical approach for its treat¬ment forms a link with the historians

of Western music.

HE newer view of non-

European music has carried over to the

study of the musical culture of minoritygroups, above all in the United States.We have witnessed a revived interest

in the study of Afro-American musicin the Americas as a whole, in that

of the American Indians as a minorityculture (rather than as an isolatedgroup of remnant cultures), and inthe music of bilingual communities.

An extension of this interest has

led to the study of the musical cultureof certain definable groups (for exam¬ple, adolescents) within general popu¬lations, and to an emphasis beingput upon the music of urban life.

Ethnomusicology now becomes rele¬vant to a very wide range of socialinterests, and its practitioners, by asort of applied anthropology, play arole in establishing the cultural iden¬tity of societies and groups withinsocieties.

WANT

AN ISSUE

POP MUSIC?

Ethnomusicology in the traditionalfields has, increasingly since about1960, become specialized and (in thesocial scientist's jargon) problem-oriented. The older style of researchwas aimed at characterizing the totalmusical culture of a unit (society or

tribe) ; the newer style seeks typicallyto investigate a particular techniqueor problem. A recent issue of thejournal Ethnomusicology, for example,includes a survey of oboes in India,an investigation from various pointsof view of a single Hausa song inAfrica, and a study of music and thestructure of town life in northern

Afghanistan.

New techniques of analysis haveappeared. Computers, even thoughnot greatly used (although experimentshave been going on for the last twentyyears or so), have made an impacton ethnomusicology. A particularlyimportant development in the use of

machines has been the attempt objecti¬vely to reduce musical sound to visualform; the machines, usually called"melographs", have been developedin, among other places, the Universityof California at Los Angeles, theHebrew University, Jerusalem, and theUniversity of Oslo.

Efforts have been made to devise

descriptive and analytical proceduresand techniques for coping with aspectsof music not traditionally studied, suchas the manner of the use of the human

voice, tone colour in singing and in¬strumental music, and the relationshipsbetween singers and performers inensembles.

Further along this line of develop¬ment, exercises have been mounted

to correlate types of performance withtypes and configurations of culture.From a study by Lomax and his col¬leagues entitled "Folk Song Style andCulture" (1968) there have emerged

The Editors of the " Unesco

Courier " are considering the

publication of a future issue

on " Pop " and other forms

of modern music. If youwould like us to deal with

this subject in a special issue,

please let us know.

hypotheses on, among other matters,the relation between work groups andcomplex choruses, and that betweenthe élite supervision of work and solosinging. In this study it was foundthat "a culture's favourite song stylereinforces the kind of behaviour essen¬

tial to its main subsistence effort and

to its central and controlling socialinstitutions."

In earlier ethnomusicological re¬search the musicians of non-Western

cultures tended to be treated anony¬mously, and it was implied that allmembers of a culture were more or

less equal in their musical competenceand participation. There is now muchmore readiness to treat musicians as

individuals and to accord them some¬

thing of the treatment given to theircounterparts in the West.

The studies of individual musicians,of their biographies and their contribu¬tions to musical culture, parallel thetrend in other fields of anthropologyby which individual creativity ceasesto be concealed behind the over-

generalized formulas of cultural styleand social homogeneity.

I|T will be seen, therefore,that ethnomusicology shows somemarked trends of development, but itis clearly hampered in moving towardsa true anthropology of music by thepreponderance within it of narrower

musicological concerns.

Most ethnomusicological research isstill centered upon the description andcomparison of music. It cannot reachinto music as culture until, as in the

case of visual art, literature, and tech¬

nology, music ceases to be treatedonly as a special subject and becomesa part of more rounded attempts totreat thought, feeling, and behaviour.And much the same can be said about

an even more neglected branch ofstudy, that of dance.

Of course, there are difficult techni¬

cal problems in the way of achievinga satisfactory anthropology of musicand dance; but that there are such

problems follows from the specializedskills of the cultures from which most

anthropologists come; they limit theethnographer's vision and lead him tobe insensitive to or uncomprehendingof major aspects of the cultural lifeof the peoples he undertakes to ob¬serve. The "total" suffers from the

musicologist's specialization and from rt"lthe anthropologist's lack of technical Jfcompetence.

Maurice Freedman

Letters to the Editor

FOR CHILDREN 8 TO 80

Sir,

Thank you for publishing the children'ssupplement on Copernicus in yourspecial Issue on the great scientist(April 1972). But may I point out thatthere are many adults whose educationand culture are no more advanced than

those of a primary school child. Indeedthis is true of my own parents. Al¬though they are not, strictly speaking,illiterate, they might be considered assuch on the basis of say a Unescodefinition of illiteracy. Many otherpeople are in the same position.

The wonderful thing is that at last,and thanks to the "Unesco Courier",

my parents now know about Coper¬nicus, his achievements and his contem¬

poraries. May I suggest that greatfigures and events that lend themselvesto this kind of popularization shouldbe presented in the same way in futurenumbers. Though intended for children,such features would benefit many adultsin the situation I have described.

Rosendo Solé Sainz

Madrid, Spain

SCIENTISTS WHO TOY

WITH THEOLOGY

Sir,

In "Copernicus as told to children"Jean-Claude Pecker writes: "Science

still hasn't found the answers to manyquestions and there are many legendswhich masquerade as scientific factabout the origin of life to mention onlyone example. But one day sciencewill come up with the right answersjust as Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo andNewton did. And then we'll have to

admit that the old legends were lovelystories and perhaps nothing more."

I find this declaration of rationalist

faith, which sees science as the onlypath of knowledge, with all the answers(if not today ,then at least tomorrow)and which classifies the Bible stories

as "old legends" or "lovely stories",most revealing. If the earth is nolonger' at the centre of the universe,human reason still is.

The theologians of the Middle-Agesplayed at being scientists. Misguidedly,they abused their authority. But therewere the inquisition and the stake.Yet these theologians like those oftoday always placed God at the centreof the universe and affirmed with vigourthat God alone is the source of all

life, of all knowledge, etc.

Nowadays scientists have an unfor¬tunate tendency to toy with theologyor with atheology which comes to thesame thing. They may not haveinquisitorial courts, but they have provi¬ded us with a powerful ABC (atomic,bacteriological, chemical) of weapons.For them, man is no longer at thecentre of the universe, but I am inclinedto think that they place science atthe centre of the world, and whynot? at the centre of the universe.

They are the priests of a new religion!

But after all, whether the sun turnsround the earth or the earth turns

round the sun, there are innumerable

people who hunger for justice and towhom this question is of little interest.

With Its "old legends" and "lovelystories", the Bible at least has the

merit of speaking to people such asthese. But having said this, may I addthat I have nothing against science orindeed against scientists, especiallywhen they make the distinction betweenthe realm of the "how" (which is theirdomain) and that of the "why" (whichis that of the theologian).

Pasteur Claude Guiraud

Rouen, France

MAN'S PLACE

IN THE UNIVERSE

Sir,

Jean-Claude Pecker's "Copernicus astold to children" made fascinating read¬ing.

This is indeed how the lives of greatmen should be recounted to young peo¬ple, combining that gift of youth asense of wonder and admiration with

the objectivity of the scientist.But it strikes me that on the last

page the author abandons his scientificobjectivity and airs his own philoso¬phical views when he declares withan air of triumph that Copernicus'discovery "helped us to get rid of theidea that man, too, was the centre ofthe universe". Does it embarrass him

that man, by his intelligence, dominateshis environment, and perhaps even theuniverse?

If the earth were in fact at the centre

of the universe, it would not mean that

man would occupy the central positionin that universe. The one does not

necessarily follow from the other.

Where a man lives is not of material

consequence. Living in the centre of atown or on its outskirts does not

make me more or less important. Thereare many other more significant quali¬fications in the life of a human being

level of intelligence, education, a per¬son's sex (and here I imply no disrespectfor one sex or the other) and so on.

Thus whether man inhabits a small

or a large planet, whether the planetbe central or not, alters nothing in thehuman condition nor deprives man ofany of his prerogatives.

Jean Oger O.P.Dominican Friary

Liège, Belgium

FOUNTAIN OF YOUTH

Sir,

What a great idea you had in publish¬ing the children's supplement on Coper¬nicus. You can be sure it is just aspopular with your adult readers a realfountain of rejuvenation, spontaneity andsunshine. Thank you for making theidea a striking reality.

Jacques MuhlethalerWorld Association for

the School as an Instrument

of Peace, Geneva, Switzerland

BRAVO - ENCORE

Sir,

Accept an appreciative reader'sthanks for the children's supplement

on Copernicus. I hope you will giveus many more features of this kind.

G. Séméria

history teacherNice, France

GALAXY OF WRITERS

Sir,

What a pleasure to read your finenumber, "The Emergence of Man"(August-September 1972).

In an issue which featured a galaxyof international authorities, readerswere able to familiarise themselves

with views on many a problem.

One feature I particularly appreciateis the chronological account of man'sevolution, "The Road to Homo Sapiens",and also the account of the geologicalperiods of the "cradle of mankind".

Full credit for assembling this impos¬ing "symposium" of anthropologists aswell as for the wonderful illustrations

chosen for the articles should be givento the Editorial Board of the "UnescoCourier". I am sure that most other

readers share my opinion and aregrateful for this issue.

The latest archaeological discoveriesconcerning the civilizations of prehis¬toric man as interpreted by notablefigures in world science deserve futurecoverage.

A. Aurenius

Chimkent

Kazakstán, U.S.S.R.

OUR FACES ARE RED 1

Sir,

May we point out an error in yourissue on "Three Faces of Art Today"(March 1973). The reproduction of thepainting by Botticelli (page 21) is notthe artist's "Primavera", as the captionstates, but his equally famous "Birthof Venus".

Second Form

G. Pastore School

Varallo Sesia, Italy

STUDENT SUPPORT FOR U. N.

Sir,

Your letters' page of February 1973carries one from Martin Fairbairn a

university student at Bangor (NorthWales) who wants to help publicize thework of the U.N.

I would like to suggest one way inwhich he can assist the enormous task

of stimulating interest at the "grassroots level" in the United Nations, its

ideals and programmes and those ofAgencies such as Unesco. That is thathe should work with our Association,

of which at least his College in Bangorregretfully is not yet aware.

Jon Alexander

General SecretaryUnited Nations Youth and Student

Association, London

UNESCO RECORDSMusical Anthologies, Musical Sources andMusical Atlas three outstanding Unescorecord series prepared for the Interna¬tional Music Council by the InternationalInstitute for Comparative Music Studies,Berlin and Venice. 33 rpm 30 cm.

gäre"MUSICAL

ANTHOLOGIES

Issued by Bärenreiter - Musicaphon,Kassel. Fed. Rep. of Germany

Two superb anthologies presenting therich musical heritage of the peoples of Africaand of the Near and Far East. Records are

supplied with lavishly illustrated comment¬aries in English, French and German.

PhilipjàèJÎL MUSICAL* SOURCES

Issued by Philips Phonogram Inter¬national, Baarn, Netherlands

Some of the most unusual and excitingsounds ever recorded are featured in this

series of records of the world's most ancient

civilizations. The series comprises 40 record¬ings and explanatory commentaries. Elevenrecords already released.

mm Oâe°ZH MUSICAL

ATLAS

0UH

Issued by Odeon-E.M.I. Italiana,Rome, Italy

"The music presented in 'Musical Atlas',which encompasses the living folk music ofall continents, is in the vanguard of theavant-garde", writes Yehudi Menuhin. TheAtlas provides a guided tour of world musicalcultures.

CONTEMPORARY MUSICIssued by Hungaraton, Budapest,Hungary

This new Unesco series was launched with a record featuring the works of composers AndrasSzollosy, of Romania, and Attila Bozay and Zsolt Durko, of Hungary. Most of the workshave been presented at the International Forum of Composers, organized each year byUnesco and the International Music Council.

DO NOT SEND ORDERS TO UNESCO. Order through your local record dealer.

For further details of these records see page 36

Where to renew your subscriptionand order other Unesco publications

Order from any bookseller or write direct tothe National Distributor in your country. (See listbelow ; names of distributors in countries notlisted will be supplied on request.) Payment iimade in the national currency ; the rates quotedare for an annual subscription to THE UNESCOCOURIER in any one language.

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