ijcrb.webs.com MAY 2013 I J O C R I B OL O 1 Policy Making ...

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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS

COPY RIGHT © 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research

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Policy Making and Is Impacts on Higher Education:

A Comparative Study of Iran and Pakistan in 21st Century

*Dr. Syed Mussawar Hussain Bukhari

**Muhammad Asim

*Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, Islamia University Bahawalpur, Adjunct

Research Fellow Faculty of Arts Monash University Australia

**Research Student and Lecturer Government Postgraduate College Ashgar Mall, Rawalpindi.

Abstract

Higher education policy is a core for generating professionalism in any country.

According to The Times Higher Education Supplement world ranking for 2008, there

are only two universities in Iran which got rank among top 400 universities of the

world (Acaemic Ranking of World Universities). These universities are the

University of Tehran and the Sharif University of Technology. On the other hand,

according to 2010 ranking of Quality Standard World University, there are just two

universities in Pakistan which got status of top 200 universities. There are also 11

universities of Pakistan in top 1000 universities of the world according to this

ranking. Quaid-e-Azam University, University of Karachi, National University of

Science and Technology and Institute of Space Technology are among them.

This study tries to find the answers of the questions that either higher

education policy is able to attain the international educational standards in Pakistan

and Iran or not. Similarly, it seeks the differences among Iranian And Pakistani

higher educational structure under same religious structure that how and why the

higher education system and policy of Iran is gaining its goals successfully in Iran

than the Pakistan when there is same consensus among basic believes and socio-

religious traditions, and what are the impacts of these differences on higher

education of the both societies.

National growth of a country can be obtained through generating skilled

huamn resource. Similarly, technological based growth can be obtaiend through

scientific knowledge. And for this purpose, higher education is considered to be an

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initial foot step. As higher education policy is a based for higher educaional research

and growth, every country try to achieve international standerds in this regard. As

there are only two universities in Iran which got rank among top 400 universities of

the world according to the Acaemic Ranking of World Universities 2008 and

according to 2010 ranking of Quality Standard World University, there are just two

universities in Pakistan which got status of top 200 universities, the question is, when

Pakistan go independence in 1947 and Iran got a totally changed political system after

Islamic Revolution of 1979, what are those aspects under same religious structure

which are becoming a reason of different higher education policies in both the

countries and what are their impacts.

Literature Review

N. Greston (2010), E. Anderson (2011), Keller (2008) and E. Heller (2011)

discuss the theme of policy making and higher education policy with highlighting its

essential need in any administrative. Their focus was on the questions that why and

how to design a policy with respect to the culture, traditions or the values of any

particular society.

Francis Fukuyama (1999) defines social capital in the meaning of collective

economic and democratic benefits of the society. He also describes how social capital

work in free market liberal democracy, how it measure, from where it is originated

and how social capital can be enhanced. On the other hand, Lynn Marie Mertz (2006)

presents the role of higher education in building strong social capital. Through

experimental research, she describes the facts that how low income students and

students from different races contribute in building social capital through higher

education.

Welch (2011), Riddick (2006) and Iraqi (2008) analyze an educational

environment of Asia with specific perspective of Indo-Pak sub-continent. For

highlighting British education policies, there is a work of Rao (1979), Aziz (1965),

Marriott (2006), McCully (1966) and Jayapalan (2000). Seth (2000), Pandey (2005)

and Hunter (1871) describes charactristics of British educational system while Jones

(2003) and W.Jones (1989) point out the different educational movements in British

India. Ikram (1992), Begum (1985) and Khan (2010) notify the Muslims educational

moverments in India while Hassan (2006), Muhammad (1999), Jaina (1965),

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Muhammad (2002), Ekbal (2009), Fatehpuri (1987) and Jaina (1965) talk about

Aligarh movement. Tabassum (2006) and Jaffrelot (2002) evaluate the impacts of

Deoband movement and smiliarly, Bano (2012) describes the reasons of establishing

Nava-tul-Ulama Lucknow, while Ali (1952) presented the history and objectives of

Anjuman Himayat-e-Islam Lahore.

Zajda (2007), Korsan (1974), Report of the Commission on National

Education (1959), Ministry of Education and Scientific Research (1971), The

Education Policy (1972), National Education Policy (1979), National Education

Policy and Implementation Programme (1992), National Education Policy: 1998-2010

(1998), Ministry of Education (2004), and National Education Policy: Citizen's

Recommendations & Suggestions (2008) presents the time to time educatioanl

policies in Pakistan regarding primary, middle, secondary, higher secondary and

higher education.

Abrahamian (2008), Maeterlinck (2012), Eisenstadt (2003), Harris (1994),

Ankerl (2000) and Jaffery (1981) defines the concept, meanings and characteristics of

civilization with special perspective of Persian. On the other hand, Curtis (2005)

mentions historical background of Persian civilization in different times.

Simon Blackburn (2008), Ferdinand de Saussure (1988), Jean Piaget (1968),

Michal Foucault (1966) and Alison Assiter (1995) define structure in the sense that, to

understand any system, it is must to analyze its environment. Similarly at other end,

J.G. Merquior (1987), Jacques Derrida (1966), Roland Barthes (1966), Martin

Heiddeger (2002) and Edmund Husserl (2002) define post-structuralist approach

against the structuralist approach. They argue that any system cannot be understand

just with observing its environment or culture but there is an intense need of studying

human behavior along with this.

Esposit (2002) descrbes the facts and reasons through wich Muslims adopted

two different ways under same religious structure during rule of Umayyad Caliph

Haroon Rashid. While Chehabi (1991) describes the reasons that why there is

diffrence between the institutional systems of Pakistan and Iran. And, he points out

the logical debates of Imam Jafar Sadiq and Imam Abu hanifa that drew the two

separate lines within Islam. Such separation became the reason of emerging two

major sects of Islam.

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Iqbal (1934) illustrates the phases of any religion with presenting the concept

regarding need of reconstructing religious thoughts in Islam. He also presents his

ideas about to follow the religion on rational bases than the so-called believes. But,

Pervez (1995) focuses upon the Iqbal’s theory of rationalization and explain it why

Ibal relates the concept of rationalization with sprituality and “Ijtehad”.

C.Vidler (1997) correlates the concept of higher education development with

the curiosity. He defines the relationship of curiosity with achievement, creativity and

anxiety. Then, he tests the success of any educational system with finding the answers

of question that how environment affect the ability. He also presents comparison

among cultural groups regarding success of an educational policy. On same pattern,

Krathwohl (2012) presents taxonomy of Benjamin Bloom (1956) which is actually a

classification of learning objectives within education.

Hensel (2012) describes universities environment before and after revolution

in Iran. He also highlights facts and figures that indicate literacy rate, employment

ratio and social developments. While Amini (2009) highlights the effects of Iranian

cultural revolution through which syllabus of all the higher education departments had

been islamized according to the teachings of Shia Islam. On the other hand,

Bahramitash (2012) presents the issue of gender equality in Iran. He describes views

of both the sides who are suppored Iranian revolution or not.

Higher Education Commission (2005) presents higher education scenerio in

Musharaf regime during 2001-02, 2002-03 and 2003-04. This report highlights the

achievements in this duration when at one side Higher Education Commission was

established and at other end, government was more focusing upon the developments

in higher education secotr.

Muller (2011) describes economic impacts of higher education policy in Iran

with highlighting view points of leftists and supporters of islamic revolution related to

economic opportunities, employement ratio and the process of urbanization.

Similarly, Surhone L. M. (2010) notices religious impacts of higher education in Iran.

He presents view points from both the sides, the leftists and the rightists. He

highlights the religious situation of higher education after Cultural Revolution of Iran

1980-88 throughly. On the other hand, Groot (2007) expresses the legislative process

in Iran with particular refrence to the higher education. He articulates both the view

points of social groups, those who are considering Islamized higher education is the

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best way for legislative process, and those who criticize the worth of “fatwa’s”

against the rules and regulations.

Bruce A.Thyer (2006) defines relationship among social work and social

welfare. He also describes that human behavior in any social environment is based on

the nature of relationship among social work and social welfare. Similarly, Dale

D.McConkey (2006) presents social structures with describing relationship among

social capital and personal freedom. He emphasizes on personal freedom in any

society that becomes a cause of builting a strong social capital due to having trust of

liberty. On the other hand, Dale D.McConkey (2008) highlights the relationship amon

social capital and the immagined community. He argues that a strong nationalism and

the best democatic environment can only be gotten through builting strong social

capital. While N.Basit (2012) relatees social capital with higher education and defines

the role of higher education in making social trust, solidarity, national cohesion,

patriotism and sense of responsibilities.

Introduction

Policy making is a pure administrative process that is a fundamental in each

organization; either its governmental or private. There can be difference between the

process and techniques of policy making in different organizations and societies, but

each organization and society has their own culture, traditions and values, which we

cannot exempt (Greston, 2010, P.05)(Levy, 1986, PP.222-224). Similarly, higher

education is a key to generate, develop and manage skill human resource in any

society. Policy making for higher education is also a prerequisite for utilizing

meaningful approaches in all the sectors of any nation’s development. Every country

get its skilled persons through universities and professional institutes, and design

higher education policy in such a manner that facilitate masses more and more

regarding attracting towards getting higher education (Heller, 2011, P.13).

As demand in getting higher education with the changing pattern of globalized

world, the question was going to be raised that what are the international standards for

higher education. For this purpose, UNESCO organized a world conference with five

stages regarding regional consultation in different countries. These regional

consultations were held in Havana (November 1996), Dakar (April 1997), Tokyo

(July 1997), Palermo (September 1997) and Beirut (March 1998). Finally, there were

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defined some standards for higher education that are accepted worldwide on October

09, 1998 in Paris (Brennam, 1997, P.171)(Yusuf, 2007, PP.620-622). There are as

follows:

1) Article 1 affirms that everyone have an equal opportunity regarding getting

higher education and learning within system throughout the life. Advance

knowledge with research must be provided. Cultural pluralism and diversities

must be eliminated through curriculum. Training of teachers should be

compulsory at all levels.

2) Article 2 says that ethical role of higher education must be nominated.

Cultural and social problems should be discussed and awareness should be

delivered. Analysis based study should be organized in a way that social,

political and cultural trends must be discussed and analyzed.

3) Article 3 shows equity of access for all as already defined in the Universal

Declaration of Human Rights in 1949 that states that everyone has a right to

get education and specially higher education with no any discrimination.

4) Article 4 focuses upon enhancing women’s role in higher education promotion

and participation.

5) Article 5 emphasizes on delivering scientific based knowledge in all the fields

of science, arts and humanities.

6) Article 6 defines long term benefits and orientations regarding serving the

society after getting higher education.

7) Article 7 describes the need of co-operation with the international universities

and its students regarding sharing research and modern scientific knowledge.

8) Article 8 tells us about need of flexible higher education system rather than

traditional degrees, short courses or part time studies just.

9) Article 9 illustrates the value of critical thinking and creativity in higher

education.

10) Article 10 shows major concern to the needs of students.

11) Article 11 tells that even the concept of quality is varying country by country

but the higher education must be qualitative evaluative.

Every country set up their certain strategies for designing higher education

policy that might be helpful in generating skill human resource. For analyzing the

successful higher education policies, there must be a comparison between United

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States of America (as a super power in the 21

st century) and United Kingdom (as a

colonial power of the past) in the developed world, Turkey and Egypt as the liberal

Muslim civilizations, and China and India in Asia as emerging economies.

Historically, Indo-Pak subcontinent was very weak in getting professional,

technical or higher education, especially Muslims of this region. Although Indus and

Aryan civilizations were technical minded of that time, but in recent history, before

British arrival, Muslims almost had said good bye to higher and technical education.

They had adopted a trend of getting enrollment in orthodox religious schools, while

Hindus continued their interest towards getting higher or technical education. In

result, after War of Independence 1857, Hindus at one side, had gotten government

jobs, and at second side, had also gotten favor of British government regarding their

innocence. At that time, Muslims were not able to show their soft image in front of

British government just because of educational lack. Sir Syed was the first Muslim

leader who emphasized on getting education, and advised Muslims to get education

regarding competing other nations. The schools of Ghazipur, Muradabad and Aligarh

were established just to promote education among the folds of the Muslims. His

publications, scientific society, and step towards Muhammadan Educational

Conference make the Muslims able to highlight in the society and in the mainstream

politics of British India. That was the plate form of Muhammadan Educational

Conference, which facilitated Muslims regarding playing their role into British Indian

politics under the flag of All India Muslim League, and led the Muslims movement

for attaining Pakistan in 1947 (Iraqi, 2008, PP.29-33)(Riddick, 2006, P.117-181).

During their rule, Britishers announced seven educational policies in different

terms. These terms were term of 1813-1835, term of 1835-1854, term of 1854-1884,

term of 1882-1904, term of 1904-1919, term of 1919-1929 and the term of 1929-1947

(Pandey, 2005, PP.23-73)(Rao, 1997, PP.91-103). After formation of Pakistan, there

was an educational conference, called in 1947, while there were 7 educational policies

which contain several recommendations regarding higher education. These

educational policies are announced in 1959, 1970, 1972, 1979, 1992, 1998, 2001,

2004 and 2008. University Grant commission (established in 1974) has been

converted into Higher Education Commission in 2002 that is still playing a vital role

in quality enhancement of higher education in all over the Pakistan as a central

regulatory authority (Khan, 2010, PP.32-53)(Zajda, 2007, PP.145-156).

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Contemporary Iran has its roots back to the great Persian civilization which

had been separated out on the areas of contemporary Egypt, Syria, Armenia, Pakistan

and India till Kashmir, Afghanistan and Palestine. It was one of the super powers in

the history, but its territory was altered due to the invasions of Greeks, Turks, Arabs,

Mongols, etc. Persian Empire was remained got changing time to time. It was the

journey of centuries which can be observed through studying different rules in Persia.

As literature of any civilization shows its non-formal face, educational system shows

formal face. Literature has no restrictions upon its writers, while education and

educational system is designed by the regulatory authorities. Therefore education and

educational system can be politicized while literature cannot be politicized because of

open publications.

Similarly, Persian civilization had its rich culture since pre-Islamic era. Even it

has been lost mostly but it covers two and a half millennia. Persian literature left its

impacts on those areas where Persian language had adopted like contemporary India,

Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Tajikistan and Central Asian

States (Abrahamian, 2008, P.02)(Ankerl, 2000, P.74)(Jaffery, 1981, P.08). After

conquest of Islam, there were several well-nominated Muslim scholars in Iran who

participated in the promotion of Islamic as well as modern and professional education

in the Persian society. Muhammad Bin Musa Al-Khuwarzmi (780-850, Imam Ali

Raza (765-818), Mansoor Hallaj (858-922), Firdowsi (940-1020), Nizam-ul-Mulk

Tusi (1018-1092), Umar Khayyam (1048-1131), Imam Ghazali (1058-1111), Saadi

Sherazi (1148-1283), Rumi (1207-1273) and Jami (1414-1492) were contributed

regarding delivering education and socialization of the masses.

Modern higher education was started in Iran from 1851 with the establishment

of Dar-ul-Fanoon and the Ministry of Science had been established in 1855 but after

the Islamic Revolution of 1979, a totally new system for higher education was

designed and implemented (Menashri, 1992, PP.113-140). According to critics,

Iranian Cultural Revolution and Islamization in 1980-88 worsely affected research in

the fields of science and technology, but according to 2011 survey, Iran has 40th

number in science productions and first number in scientific growth in all over the

world. In the end of Iran-Iraq war 1980-88, several new universities were established

in all over the Iran which offered several programs from graduation to doctoral, in

several fields, but there was more emphasize on medical and veterinary education.

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Now, the strength of university students was increased six times more than the Shah’s

overthrown time (Nadjmabadi, 2012, PP.174-176).

Policy Making and Its Impacts on Higher Education: A Comparative

Study of Pakistan and Iran in 21st Century

Geographically, Pakistan is located in a region which has directly influenced

by six civilizations. The people live in the territory of Pakistan has learnt different

socio-cultural and political gestures from experiencing impacts different civilizations.

For example, the weapon designing and making culture was inherited from the Greek

Civilization (Arbary, 1962, P.171). Feudalist culture is inherited from the Indus

Valley Civilization. The art of housing, dressing, jewelry and making-up is derived

from the Ganhara Civilization. The sense of superiority in society regarding caste

system is taken from the Aryan Civilization. The trend of constructing religious

places is a legacy of Central Asian Muslim Civilization. The concept of unity of

specific perspective of religion is extracted from Arab Muslim Civilization. And,

Persian Civilization is delivered huge literature and philosophy regarding almost each

aspect of social life. The current Pakistani social environment has been amalgamated

under such attribute of these six civilizations (Jansen, 1997, PP.05-49).

Basically Indo-Pak subcontinent had adopted Persian language as an official

language since Mughal Empire. All the official writings were presented in Persian

language. After British Raj in India, Hindi was adopted as an official language, firstly

in Sindh province in 1843 and secondly, in Punjab province in 1849 just to overcome

the influence of Persian civilization in this region. But, till today, Persian language

and culture has its deep roots within Afghanistan, India and Pakistan. It is understood

and still spoken in this region. Fine arts, music, literature and Urdu poetry like Nazms

shows great impact of it. Even (غزل) and Ghazal (قصیدہ) Qasida ,(هرثیہ) Marsia ,(نظن)

National anthem of Pakistan is also written in Persian language. Amir Khosro and

Umar Khayam of Iran and Allama Iqbal of Pakistan are considered as a bridge

between cultural and literature exchange for both the countries (Pollock, 2003, P.131).

Even, Pakistan and Iran are best neighboring countries and there historical

roots are almost same due to religion, culture, language and politics, but there is a

huge difference in educational system and development. Iran has 82% while Pakistan

has still just 58% literacy rate (Hassan, 2004, P.178). According to a survey, 3.5

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million students had enrolled in higher educational institutions in Iran, while this ratio

was 1.34 million in Pakistan (Hassan, 2004, P.179). Ministry of Science and

Technology and Ministry of health and Madical Scieces are directly supervised the

higher education in Iran, while Higher Education Commission (HEC) is over-looked

all the affairs of university education in Pakistan. The basic difference in higher

education policies is that, in Iran, after Cultural Revolution of 1980, higher

educational policy had been designed and initiated by Ayatullah Khomainai (the

founder of modern Islamic Republic of Iran), and still, this policy is same and

continue. On the other hand, Hihger Education Commission (HEC) was established in

2002 under the presidential ordinance, which replaced University Grant Commission

(UGC). HEC had responsibility to design higher education policy and system on

modern needs in Pakistan (Hassan, 2004, P.186). For this purpose, it has been

announced its two policies of 2004-05 and 2008-09 regarding development in higher

education in Pakistan (Ministry of Education and Training, 2008).

Constitutional Provisions

In the article 2 of Iranian Constitution, clause 2 emphasizes on public awareness and

socialization, clause 3, focuses upon free education for everyone at all the levels and

specially facilitation and promotion of higher education, and clause 4 encouraging

researchers with establishing new research institutes1. While, in the Pakistani

Constitution of 1973, article 22 provides safeguards for all the religious educational

institutions without any discrimination, article 24(e)(1) defines protection of

providing educational and medical aid to all the citizens, article 37(a) tells that state

will looking after economic and educational interests of backward communities in the

backward areas, article 37(b) provides free education till the secondary level, article

37(c) focuses upon the accessing towards higher education on the basis of merit,

article 37(f) emphasizes on educational training of the people regarding utilizing them

as a skilled human resource for the national interests, and article 38(d) illustrates

education in the list of basic necessities of life regarding providing to all the citizens2.

1 This information is availed from the lecture of Professor Jahan Bakhshi on the topic of “Educational

Administration” in Al-Mustafa International University in Qom city of Iran on May 05, 2012. 2 National assembly passed the constitution of 1973 on April 10, 1973. But, president approved it on

April 12, 1973.

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World Ranking of Universities

According to The Times Higher Education Supplement world ranking for

2008, there are only two universities in Iran which got rank among top 400

universities of the world (Acaemic Ranking of World Universities). There universities

are the University of Tehran and the Sharif University of Technology. On the other

hand, according to 2010 ranking of Quality Standard World University, there are just

two universities in Pakistan which got status of top 200 universities. There are also 11

universities of Pakistan in top 1000 universities of the world according to this ranking.

Quaid-e-Azam University, University of Karachi, National University of Science and

Technology and Institute of Space Technology are among them (Ilm ki dunya).

Structure of Higher Education in 21st Century

Here, we have to compare the structure of higher education in Iran and

Pakistan with the help of table.

Level of

Higher

Education

Iran Pakistan

Pre-

University

Course or

Test

This course is called Pesh-

Danishgahe. After getting upper

secondary education “Dabiristan”

, students take their one year for

getting preparation this course

and then, they are eligible for

appearing in an exam “Kankoor”

which passing is necessary for

getting admission in higher

education. This exam is called

Competitive National Entrance

Exam. Students, who pass the

Kankoor exam, get the degree

equivalent to the A-Level

(Hatami, 1996, P31).

After intermediate or A-Level,

there is an entry test for getting

higher education in universities

and medical colleges. National

Testing Service (NTS) organize

this test in after every three

months. But there are some

subjects in some universities,

which have not demanded for

passing National Aptitude Test

(NAT) (National Testing

Service in Pakistan).

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Bachelor

Degree

Bachelor degree or Karshanasai

is consisted of four years period,

in which students have to attend

the class from Saturday to

Thursday. Universities take funds

from the government. Therefore,

students have not paid any

amount for tuition and boarding

in these public universities. But,

Islamic Azad University has

taken all these dues (Hatami,

1996, P.42).

Before establishment of HEC in

2002, there was a trend of two

years graduation degree which

is still continue in degree

colleges. But, in 2003, there was

a start of four years graduation

honor degree in colleges and

universities which is

internationally recognized (IBP

USA Staff, 2008, P.114).

Master

Degree

Master degree or Karshanasai-e-

Arshad is consisted of 2 years

course work. There are three

universities, which are among

top 1000 universities of the

world according to SCImago

international ranking. There

universities are Tehran

University, Tarbiat Mudaris

University and Sharif University

(Hatami, 1996, P.47).

Master degree contains two

years. There are two universities

which are among top 200

international universities and

there are 11 other universities

which are among top 1000

international universities (IBP

USA Staff, 2008, P.117).

M.Phil M.Phil degree is affered here to

parallelize domestic two years

graduation degree according to

international standered.

Students, who have been earned

two years bechalor degree, got a

degree of M.Phil after their

master. On the other hand,

students who have earned four

years graduation degree, get

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admission in M.Phil after

complete their graduation honor

degree. For getting admission in

M.Phil, National Testing

Service (NTS) organizes an

exam, called General Aptitude

Test (GAT). Candidates who

pass it, are eligible for getting

an admission in M.Phil (IBP

USA Staff, 2008, P.119).

PhD Doctorate, Karshanasai-e-Arshad

Napayvastah or Doctra is the

highest research degree which

has 3 years duration. Its

admission can be gotten through

passing an entry test. There were

120,000 PhD degree holders in

2012 (Soofi, 2012, P.211-212).

Doctorate degree is consisted of

minimum 3 years in all the

universities (IBP USA Staff,

2008, P.119).

Higher Education Policy in 21st Century

Although, Iran is following same higher education policy in 21st century which

was announced during Iran’s Cultural Revolution by Imam Khumaini. Same

theocratic ideology and philosophy is reflecting till now. But on the other hand,

Pakistan has announced its educational policies in 1947, 1959, 1970, 1972, 1979,

1992 and 1998 in 20th

century. But, in 21st century, Pakistan has announced three

educational policies in 2001-02, 2004-05 and in 2008-09. The educational policies of

2001-02 and 2004-05 have been designed without considering any higher educational

regulatory authority at federal level like HEC. On the other hand, the policy of 2008-

09 was a first policy which considered the value and role of HEC. The basic

objectives of educational policies of 2001-02 and 2004-05 are same regarding higher

education and given as followed:

There will be universalization in education and literature.

Job opportunities will be created for graduates from mainstream affiliated

Madaris.

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There will be an improvement in education quality, curriculum and

competency based examination system.

There will be innovative approaches for students counseling.

There will be an enhancement of Public-Private partnership in higher

education sector (Ministry of Education, March 2004).

As recent educational policy introduced in 2008-09, so we have to compare

suggestions regarding higher education with higher educational policy of Iran which

has already been described in Iran’s Cultural Revolution 1980-88.

Higher Educational Policy of

Pakistan in 21st Century

(According to the National Educational Policy

2008)

Higher Educational Policy of

Iran in 21st Century

(According to Iran’s Cultural Revolution 1980-

88)

There should be an accomplishment of

dream regarding achieving education

based economy into reality (Minstry of

Finance).

There will acquired self based economy

into reality with adopting Islamic

teachings and principles (Seggie, 2009,

P.21).

Facilitations will be provided in the

universities for crafting new knowledge

through research (Ministry of Finance).

Research facilitations will be delivered to

all over the universities for exploring new

horizons of knowledge with respecting

Islamic and Persian culture (Seggie,

2009, P.22).

Highly qualified staff will hire in the

universities (Ministry of Finance).

Highly qualified staff with purified from

foreign influence, has been and will be

hired in the universities (Seggie, 2009,

P.22).

Local and domestic issues will also

discuss in the newly designed syllabus of

the universities (Ministry of Finance).

Under the light of Quran and Sunnah,

local and domestic issues will be

discussed in all the subjects, taught in the

universities (Seggie, 2009, P.24).

Higher educational institutes will play

their role as “think tanks” for presenting

With respecting Iranian interests,

Universities and research institutes will

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new ideas on current problems and issues

(Ministry of Finance).

play their role as “think tanks” for

presenting new ideas on current problems

and issues (Seggie, 2009, P.26).

As higher education is a source of

innovation, universities and colleges must

participate at local, national and

international level regarding sharing

expertise and experts opinions (Ministry

of Finance).

Universities will be seminars, workshops

and debate based source of exploring

knowledge and it will have preferably

sharing and co-operation of expertise

with the Muslim world (Seggie, 2009,

P.26).

Opportunities regarding sharing new

ideas and research with international

communities and universities will be

provided (Ministry of Finance).

International conferences will be held

regarding sharing new research with

international community with

highlighting Iranian perspective in that

specific field (Seggie, 2009, P.26).

To analysis Pakistani and Iranian higher education policies, we have to use

structuralist and post-structuralist approach along with using educational

psychological tests.

Under the paradigm of structuralist approach, we have to construct Pakistani

and Iranian society on religious bases. The religion is an only source in these

countries regarding designing environment and culture. Both the countries have

banded in mutual historical religious relations. People are the follower of Islam. Even

sects are somewhat different but the basics of religion are same. Pakistan has a

majority of Sunni sect followers while Shia sect also exists here with an

overwhelming majority that cannot be ignore. Similarly, even Shia sect has

dominance in an Iranian society but the followers of Sunni sect are also in a large

number. Religion was the only base of Pakistan’s formation in 1947 and Iranian

revolution in 1979 (BlackBurn, 2008, P.978)(Harris, 1988, P.34)(Piaget, 1968,

P.06)(Foucalt, 1966, P.12). But, to analyze the existence of differences in both the

societies under same religious structure, we have to understand Post-Structuralist

approach.

With considering this approach, we can easily differentiate among the

functioning and gestures of Pakistani and Iranian societies. Although the religious

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structure is the same but the behavior of the masses is going towards major change

under the rule of Umayyad Caliph Haroon Rashid. At the concept of “Ijtehad”, the

Muslim Ummah had been divided into two major sects with open eye. Ones were

followed Imam Jafar Sadiq who belongs from the holy family of Prophet Muhammad

PBUH. Imam Abu Hanifa was his pupil but due to some sort of different

interpretations upon the teaching of Islam according the modern needs, a vast

majority was following him. There were lots of debates among Imam Jafar Sadiq and

Imam Abu Hanifa on religious issues. Sometimes agreement was finalized and

sometimes there was difference in opinion but people had been observed two ways

within religion regarding some specific issue. Now, there was an open choice for

following any way where a person was satisfied. Such debates and different opinions

on same religious issues diversify Muslims regarding adopting two different

behaviors. And these behaviors were declared as two major sects of Islam. The

followers of Imam Jafar Sadiq are called Ahl-e-Tashie while the followers of Imam

Abu Hanifa are called Ahl-e-Sunnat (Esposit, 2000, PP.122-125).

As both the societies of Pakistan and Iran cannot leave this religious structure,

they cannot design their institutions and policies with exempting such structure. So,

higher education policy will also affect with such structural paradigm. But, the

behavior of the policies’ designing depends upon the behavior and gestures of the

masses. Such behavior is also constructed the culture as well as institutional

functioning. And this is the basic theme of post-structuralist approach. According to

post-structuralists perspective, without analyzing the different behaviors of the masses

regarding their institutionalization under the same religious structure, we cannot

compare any policy of Pakistan and Iran. As we know that the basic difference in the

behaviors regarding following and practicing religion was highly started from the age

of Imam Jafar Sadiq ( and Imam Abu Hanifa (اهام جعفر صادق ( The .(اهام ابو حنیفہ

behaviors development with following one of the Imam can be observed openly in all

over the social attitudes even with practicing same religion. Majority of the

population in Iran following Imam Jafar Sadiq school of thought while there are also

the followers of Imam Abu Hanifa in the provinces of Kurdistan (کردستان) and

Seestan-o-Balochistan (سیستان و بلوچستان) with overwhelming majority. Similarly, there

is a vast majority of the followers of Imam Abu Hanifa but the followers of Imam

Jafar Sadiq are also in a big number (Chehabi, 1991, PP.69-72).

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As political, economic, social and legal policies have been designed under the

religious structure in both the countries, similarly the higher education policy also

designed according to the will and behavior of the masses under the religious

structure. Now the question is that when both the policies are developed under the

same religious structure then why Iranian higher education policy is looked pragmatic

while there is lack of Pakistanism in the higher education of Pakistan. The answer of

this question is the concept of rationalization which is given by Allama Iqbal in his

book “The Reconstruction of Religious Thoughts in Islam” (Iqbal, 1934, P.104). This

concept is actually a challenge to dogma. Because, he urges for the following of

religion in a true sense. For this purpose, he quotes the Quranic versus of Surah

Rehman which is explained by Muhmmad Asad that:

“Oo groups of giants and human beings, walk out if you can from the banks of lands

and the skies. And, without power, you cannot walk out” (Asad)

Now at one the side, there is a concept of rationalization with post-

structuralists perspective, while at the other end, there are the educational

psychological tests of Benjamin Bloom and Derek C.Vidler which judge the trends of

society. Benjamin Bloom presented its taxonomy in 1956 which is actually a

classification of learning objectives within education. The taxonomy of Bloom

divides into three domains. These are cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Every

domain has its certain level of skills and these domains create more holistic form of

education (Krathwohi). Similalry, Derek C.Vidler correlates the concept of higher

education development with the curiosity. He defines the relationship of curiosity

with achievement, creativity and anxiety. Then, he tests the success of any

educational system with finding the answers of question that how environment affect

the ability. He also presents comparison among cultural groups regarding success of

an educational policy (Vidler, 1997, P.129).

Now, with the help of Iqbal’s theory of reconstruction and educational

psychological tests through Bloom’s taxonomy and Derek C.Vidler’s concept of

curiosity, when we compare Iranian and Pakistani higher education policy in 21st

century, we find some results in both the societies with personal observation as well.

As religion have dominant role in the policy making process regarding higher

education in both the countries, the success of the higher education policy can be

measured through the practically implementation of Iqbal’s philosophy regarding

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reconstruction of religious thoughts. To analysis Iranian and Pakistani higher

education policies, we appreciate Iranian higher education policy that is designed

according to the behaviors and the needs of the masses. While Pakistani higher

education policy is still trying to follow higher education system of the western world

besides the designing of its own. That’s why, the National Educational Policies are

still based on “Will” and “Should”.

As Bloom’s Taxonomy presents level of learning and these are acquiring and

recalling, comprehending, applying, analyzing and synthesizing. The common

practicing of Pakistani higher education policy is just basing on the acquiring and

recalling skill, and comprehending skill even in 21st century. There is a huge lack of

applying skill, analyzing skill and synthesizing skill. On the other hand, Iranian higher

education policy fulfills all the five skills regarding character building of the students.

And, we can conclude that the concept of social welfare is only availed through the

skills of applying, analyzing and synthesizing. Iranian students, even there are male or

female, have totally free education from the government that facilitate them to utilize

their skills for the better of their country with full potential. There higher education

policy does not differentiate among male and female and this is an awesome example

of gender equality in socio-economic setup as well as in higher education sector. If

there is 85% employment ratio and more than 70% educated women are associated

with the profession of teaching, then we can easily estimated that the Persian society

is going towards gaining status of applying, analyzing and synthesizing higher

education for the social welfare of the masses. Educated women are doing jobs in

public and private sectors without any discrimination. Even there is no any social

hurdle regarding establishing their own way of earning. Several educated women are

taxi driver and facilitate international tourists and “Zaireen” with usually English

conversation (Fathi, 1985, P.166).

Similarly, during analyzing the concept of curiosity, given by Derek C.Viler,

we can observe that the social level of curiosity regarding gaining higher education in

Pakistan is usually blanked. Higher education policy does not facilitate regarding

promoting relationship between curiosity and achievement, curiosity and creativity,

and curiosity and anxiety. So, the Pakistani higher education policy is not able to

socialize Pakistani society regarding gaining ideal social status for their masses. As

higher education policy of Pakistan does not generate the sense of curiosity due to

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having an irrational attribute of copying foreign educational systems, Derek’s

question regarding how environment affect ability, is attained negative marking

(Liaqat, 2012, PP.118-131). Because, according to Simon BlackBurn, environment is

created with the mutual combination of culture and behavior (BlackBurn, 2008, P.03).

But, due to irrationality among assessment of culture and behavior, the correct

construction of environment is not possible. And, in this stage, abilities of the masses

cannot be affected and this is the actual fact for higher education sector of Pakistan

regarding un-availing successful status (Liaqat, 2012, PP.130-131).

For analyzing economic impacts of higher education, we use the concept of

curiosity by the Derek C.Vedler, We find that Iran has self based economy but its

higher education is playing a vital role in its economic development. Iran is

generating skill talented human resource each year from its universities due to

curiostic behavior regarding achievement and creativity which at one side, has a

modern knowledge and at another side, has realization about religious as well as

Persian norms and values. So, when they have inserted such students into the

economic infrastructure of the country, they pay their full intention with patriotism for

their country. And, this is a big drawback of Pakistani higher education system where

our domestic and religious norms are usually neglected during delivering higher

education in universities. This is usually in private sector in Pakistan. But, in iran,

even Islamic Azad is a private university where anyone can get admission with paying

fee, have strict checks over its syllabus. In 2011, Supreme leader (Rehbar-e-

Muazzam) of Iran, Khamnai warned administration of Islamic Azad University

regarding westernization of its syllabus in different subjects. He ordered for change it

within limited time otherwise its affiliation will be canceled. This type of restriction

cannot find in the higher education structure of Pakistan. There is just a case of Al-

Khair University in Azad Jammu and Kashmir which initiated several illegal

affiliations of colleges in all over the Pakistan regarding delivering higher education.

The situation became worse when these campuses and colleges were not recognized

by HEC and when students were gone for getting job, they were refused. On huge

protest, HEC cancelled recognition of Al-Khair University, but now after a strict

agreement, it has been re-recognize by HEC (Muller, 2011, PP.18-21)(Higher

Education Commission, 2005)(Aminpoor).

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During analyzing religious impacts of higher education in both countries, we

observe that, in comparing with Pakistan, Iranian higher education leaves lot of

religious impacts on students. Here, they have learnt a lot about their religious values

during completion of degrees. Iranian youth is more theocratic as their parents who

fought for Islamic Republic. On the other hand, Pakistani higher education has no

such rigidity in its course work regarding promotion of Islamic values. Even there are

some specific subjects in degrees in which we compare some topics with Islamic

norms but they are general. Its impacts cannot be affected society. After graduation,

Islamiat is not compulsory. Even the syllabus of graduation is not contained such

topics which would be a cause of proper religious socialization of students. While,

Iranian higher education is purely Islamized and there is a strict orders by the

government and the supreme leader that either there is public or private university but

there will not be any compromise on westernization and communism against the

teachings of Islam. So, according to the educational psychological test of Derek

C.Vidler, such environment fully affects abilities of the masses. People act in their

daily routine life whatever they learn or get. Their educational system forces them to

behave in a way which is according to the religion along with the national as well as

their cultural interest (Surhone, 2010, P.32)(Liaqat, 2012, P.130)(Vidler, 1997, P.12).

Similarly, during legally and politically analyzing higher education policies of

Pakistan and Iran, we find that there must be a check of central government over

higher education system and higher education policy as in Iran where all the

universities have checked by Ministry of Science and Technology. On the other hand,

there are two types of universities in Pakistan. Some are regulated by the HEC and

some are by the higher education department of the provinces. For example, if Islamia

University Bahawalpur or Sargodha University is regulated by the HEC then the

Lahore Leads University or University of Central Punjab is regulated by the Higher

Education Department of Punjab. So, there is difference in higher education policy as

well as difference in infrastructure over regulations and checks. Iran has no such

differences where all the universities and research institutes have same policy,

announced by the central government. And, their policy is still same as announced

during Iranian Cultural Revolution 1980-88 (Groot, 2007, P.113).

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Higher Education and Its Impacts on Social Capital in Pakistan and

Iran

As Francis Fukuyama (1999) presents his view about social capital as collective

economic and democratic benefits of any society (Fukuyama, 1999, P.03). While

Lynda Judson Hanifan (1960) describes it as a good will, generating after starting

discussions at rural school community centers (Field, 2003, P.02). Similarly, Jane

Jacobs (1961) defines it in a relationship nature among urbanized people with their

neighbors (Field, 2003, P.02), and James S.Coleman (1988) finds it in the social

discussions which moved the ideas towards the level of academic debates (Field,

2003, P.02).

It is universal principle in each and every society that it interacts socially,

economically, religiously, legally, politically, institutionally and culturally, social

capital builds only when interaction among societal fellows get trust and trustworthy

among each other. According to James S.Coleman, education is a foremost source of

building strong social capital because every social issue and discussion becomes a

part of academic debate through education. This procedure promotes the symbols pf

social solidarity and solutions of mutual problems through education that further

enhances the productivity of social capital (Field, 2003, P.05).

On the other hand, Michael Woolcock, with the co-ordination of World Bank

(2001) presents his report that what are the three levels of social capital in any society.

These levels are bonding, bridging and linking.

1) Bonding social capital means the relationship among close people, like close

friends, family and neighbors. Such relations have strong ties (Putnam, 2002,

P.59).

2) Bridging social capital means to develop the relationship among like-minded

people. There can be loose friends or workmates where your relationship

nature is consisted off according to needs or duties (Putnam, 2002, P.60).

3) Linking social capital means to develop relationship outside the community.

There are those people who are unlike, out of family or community, or belong

from other professions or interests (Putnam, 2002, PP.60-61).

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During analyzing Pakistani and Iranian Society, when we observe these three

levels of social capital, we get the results that:

1) Iranian people have strong binding in their relationship at national level. There

is only 6% population of Kurdistan and Seestan-o-Balochistan. But, due to

some strict religious laws about creating harmony among followers of Sunni

and Shia sect of Islam, such differences are going to be eliminated time to

time (Crane, 2008, P.110).

2) Pakistani society is widely divied into linguistic communities. According to

UNESCO Report (2006), People have no strong sense of unity as a Pakistani

nation in Pakistan, but they trust usually on their linguistic community

fellows. There are just 5% educated communities who do not feel any kind of

hesitation in developing relationship with other linguistic communities in

Pakistan (Principles and General Objectives of Education).

Now the question is, why social capital is declining in Pakistan but strong in

Iran. There are two studies on measuring social capital in Pakistan and Iran. In

Pakistani study (2010), the sample was those highly educated people who live in

Dubai for their own business or jobs and far, from their homes. And, their 90%

income is also returned back to their home. And, the 2nd

study was based on the

sample of Sardasht 1 young adult students (2011) who were students as well as had

participated in social networks (Touski). There are 5 testing terms which were asked.

Social trust means what is the trust level of a person towards its nation fellows.

“Strengthen the Sense of Responsibility as a Nation” means what is their feeling

regarding contributing their services for the nation. “Social Cohesion and Solidarity

Promotion means to find out the level of mutual understand among citizens as a

nation. “Participation in Decision Making” means how they feel that they can

participate in decision making process. And, “Common Tendency towards getting

education” means general orientations regarding getting education in the nation.

1 Sardasht is a city of Kurdistan Province of Iran which is Consisted of Sunni Population.

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We have some results regarding measuring social capital in both the societies. These

results are as follows:

Indicators Pakistan Iran

Social Trust 22% 75%

Strengthen the Sense of

Responsibility as a Nation

16% 80%

Social Cohesion and

Solidarity Promotion

12% 87%

Participation in Decision

Making

7% 61%

Common Tendency

towards getting Education

19% 83%

As these survey reports showing 19% and 83% tendency towards getting

education in Pakistan and Iran respectively, Tehmina N.Basit (2012) and Sally

Omlinson (2012) define that there is only an higher education on equal basis that

increase social trust among the citizens of any country. There is only an higher

education which can become a cause of converting ethnicity into nationalism that

further enhance social cohesion and solidarity. Through higher education, citizens

polish their selves as a skilled human resource as well as become able to participate in

decision making process (Basit, 2012, PP.36-37).

Now we have to analyze these points according to the nature of Pakistani and

Iranian society. Robert Putnam defines three major reasons of declining social capital

in any society. These are political and civic engagement, informed social ties, and,

tolerance and trust (Putnam, 2002, PP.15-20).

1) Political and Civic Engagement

With reference to Pakistani society, we observe that voting turnout,

political awareness and grass root political activities are all down and having

some sort of anomic nature. There was 44% turnout in elections 2008 (The

Express Tribune). On the other hand, during personally visit by-elections 2012

of Isfahan and Mashad, we observed that Iranian people have lot of trust on

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their political system and they participate actively. Turnout ratio in by-

elections 2012 was 64% in Iran (The Christian Science Monitor).

2) Informed Social Ties

In 1975, Pakistani people entertained their friends at home 15 times

almost every year, but in 21st century, this ratio reduced very much, and now

people entertain their friends 5 times usually every year at home

(Development 2.0). On the other hand, Iranian culture is covering with mutual

discussion and parties usually at home or public places. During our research

visit to Iran, it is generally analyzed such situations at homes, public offices or

places of recreation. And, according to Shia sect believes, informal social ties

for preaching religion was also an attribute of Aimma-Karaam and several

Mujtahideens (prominent religious scholars) (Crane, 2008, P.111).

3) Tolerance and Trust

Although, we observe tolerance and trust among Iranian people very

much, but according to Robert Putnam, tolerance and trust are just an

indicators of economic prosperity of any society. Dishonesty and distrust are

only the indicators of economic backwardness of any society (Putnam, 2003,

P.22). So, we observe tolerance and trust among Iranian people because there

is 85% employment rate and 99% literacy rate (Crane, 2008, P.111). And,

Pakistani people have lack of trust and tolerance in their relations due because

of economic backwardness and unemployment ratio and 51% literacy rate that

is very low (Development 2.0).

Iranian political system has been re-designed after Islamic revolution of 1979

where all the previous structures had been winded-up. Since then, there are just 30

years which are consisted of an actual story of development in Iran. On the other

hand, Pakistan has more than 60 years of its birth but there is still lack of strong

higher education policy. Recent policy of 2008-09 is just consisted off the words

“must” and “will” also. But, Iranian higher education policy is same as announced

during the Cultural Revolution of Iran 1980-88. Iran is molding itself with modern

needs of times but beautifully attached with its socio-religious structure with

respecting behavior and the psychology of the masses. This attachment is facilitating

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it regarding attaining the status of achievement and creativity with reconstructing

ideals. And, higher education policy is pre-requisite for it.

If there will be a domestic or international threat regarding generating ethnic conflict

within the folds of country, then scholars always argue to control the education on

parallel bases by the government. Because, there is only a tool of education which can

generate patriotism and solidarity in the nation. Iran, after Islamic Revolution, is

following same policy where higher educational structure is same for all over the

country without any local or gender discrimination. But, on the other hand, in

Pakistan, firstly there are social barriers regarding gender discrimination, and

secondly there are still differences among the syllabus of provincial or federal

universities. Due to HEC recognized universities and provinces recognized

universities, even there is so much similar but the policy of the university is created

influences upon the myth of higher education. The value of degree is usually

considered with the location and the name of university, not by the talent. And, this is

the wrong psychological trend in Pakistan. So, there is must be a state-controlled

parallel higher education policy as in Iran with equal funding at every place. This is

the only way, when Pakistan can be able to compete with the international standards

of higher education policy.

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