Identify that metals possess a crystal lattice structure

Metals are made of atoms arranged in a regular three-dimensional pattern or lattice. The classical model describes valence electrons as the common property of all atoms in the lattice, forming an ‘electron cloud’.

The presence of an electric field causes the derandomisation of this ‘cloud’ motion

E field

The electrons ‘drift’ with a velocity vd

Much of their energy is given up through collisions with the lattice.

Describe conduction in metals as a free movement of electrons unimpeded by the lattice

Identify that resistance in metals is increased by the presence of impurities and scattering of electrons by

lattice vibrations

The thicker the wire, the more electrons & the greater the current that canflow for a given voltage. The atoms that form the lattice vibrate more as their temp. increases. As the electrons begin to move, they collide with impurities and tiny imperfections in the lattice. As a result, the resistance increases. Superconductors have different electron movement - passing through the lattice unimpeded.

The current influences a circuit at close to the speed of light. Explain the difference

between the speed at which current influences a circuit and the drift velocity of the

current.

An actual electron will move along the circuit and collide with lattice ions. Then it will

speed up and collide with another particle. Whilst it does this it undergoes a steady

drift towards the positive end of the circuit under the force of the electric field. This

drift velocity is the average velocity of the electrons and is relatively small. The speed

at which the influence of the circuit moves is very large as electrons fill holes in the

circuit very quickly.

When a current is magnetically induced in a superconducting ring, it

continues without measurable decrease for many months!

Describe the occurrence in superconductors below their

critical temperature of a population of electron pairs

unaffected by electrical resistance

The temperature at which a material becomes superconducting is called the critical temperature.

Below this temperature, once electrons are excited to energy levels (current), there is an energy gap - electrons cannot decay by collisions with ions in the lattice because the lattice has insufficient thermal energy. So they are free to move through the lattice without collisions.

Above the critical temperature, the energy gap is zero so the lattice does have enough energy to scatter the electrons

Discuss the BCS theory

As a negatively-charged electron moves through the space between two rows of positively-charged atoms (like the wires in a window screen), it’s charge pulls inward on the atoms (a bit like rolling a heavy bowling ball along a mattress) . This distortion (and local concentration of positive charge caused by phonons) attracts a second electron to move in behind it. This second electron absorbs the phonon and encounters less resistance, much like a passenger car following a truck on the freeway encounters less air resistance.

http://superconductors.org/terms.htm#cooper

In a superconductor, the electrons travel in pairs and move quickly between the atoms with less energy loss.

The two electrons form a weak attraction caused by phonon exchange, travel together in a pair (Cooper pairs) and encounter less resistance overall. In a superconductor, electron pairs are constantly forming, breaking and reforming, but the overall effect is that electrons flow with little or no resistance. The low temperature makes it easier for the electrons to pair up.

Process information to identify some of the metals, metal alloys and compounds that have been

identified as exhibiting the property of superconductivity and their critical temperatures

Type 1 Superconductors

The Type 1 category of superconductors is mainly comprised of metals and metalloids that show some conductivity at room temperature. They require incredible cold to slow down molecular vibrations sufficiently to facilitate unimpeded electron flow in accordance with what is known as BCS theory. BCS theory suggests that electrons team up in "Cooper pairs" in order to help each other overcome molecular obstacles - much like race cars on a track drafting each other in order to go faster. Scientists call this process phonon-mediated coupling.

Lead (Pb) Lanthanum (La) Tantalum (Ta) Mercury (Hg) Tin (Sn) Indium (In) Thallium (Tl) Rhenium (Re)

7.2 K 4.9 K 4.47 K 4.15 K 3.72 K 3.40 K 1.70 K 1.697 K

Protactinium (Pa) Thorium (Th) Aluminum (Al) Gallium (Ga) Gadolinium (Gd) Molybdenum (Mo) Zinc (Zn)

1.40 K 1.38 K 1.175 K 1.10 K 1.083 K 0.915 K 0.85 K

Type 1 superconductors - characterized as the "soft" superconductors - were discovered first and require the coldest temperatures to become superconductive. They exhibit a very sharp transition to a superconducting state (see above graph) and "perfect" diamagnetism - the ability to repel a magnetic field. Below is a list of known Type 1 superconductors along with the critical transition temperature - known as Tc - below which each superconducts. (www.superconductors.org)

Process information to identify some of the metals, metal alloys and compounds that have been

identified as exhibiting the property of superconductivity and their critical temperatures

They achieve higher Tc's than Type 1 superconductors by a mechanism that is still not completely understood. Conventional wisdom holds that it relates to the planar layering within the crystalline structure (see above graphic). Although, other recent research suggests the holes of hypocharged oxygen in the charge reservoirs are responsible. (Holes are positively-charged vacancies within the lattice.)

The superconducting cuprates (copper-oxides) have achieved astonishingly high Tc's when you consider that by 1985 known Tc's had only reached 23 K. To date, the highest Tc attained at ambient pressure has been 138 K. One theory predicts an upper limit of about 200 K for the layered cuprates. Others assert there is no limit. Either way, it is almost certain that other, more-synergistic compounds still await discovery among the high-temperature superconductors.

Type 2 Superconductors

Except for the elements vanadium, technetium and niobium, the Type 2 category of superconductors is comprised of metallic compounds and alloys. The recently-discovered superconducting "perovskites" (metal-oxide ceramics) belong to this Type 2 group.

Type 2 Superconductors (cont.)

The first superconducting Type 2 compound, an alloy of lead and bismuth, was fabricated in 1930 by W. de Haas and J. Voogd. But, was not recognized as such until much later, after the Meissner effect had been discovered. The first of the oxide superconductors was created in 1973 by DuPont researcher Art Sleight when Ba(Pb,Bi)O3 was found to have a Tc of 13K. The superconducting oxocuprates followed in 1986.

Hg0.8Tl0.2Ba2Ca2Cu3O8.33 138 K (record-holder) Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10 127 K Bi1.6Pb0.6Sr2Ca2Sb0.1Cu3Oy 115 K (thick film on MgO substrate)

Type 2 superconductors - also known as the "hard" superconductors - differ from Type 1 in that their transition from a normal to a superconducting state is gradual across a region of "mixed state" behavior. A Type 2 will also allow some penetration by an external magnetic field into its surface. While there are far too many to list in totality, some of the more interesting Type 2 superconductors are listed below by similarity and with descending Tc's. (www.superconductors.org)

YBCO is a material commonly used as a superconductor with a transition temperature of

92 K. Explain what happens to electrons flowing through YBCO at temperatures below

92 K and discuss the implications for this technology on electronics.

The atoms in YBCO are arranged in a crystal lattice. Below 92 K, the vibrations in a lattice

are relatively small. When an electron passes through the lattice, the lattice distorts,

which attracts another electron forming a pair of electrons. These electron pairs are able

to pass unimpeded through the lattice resulting in no resistance.

Superconductor switches are being tested in computers as they are much quicker than

semiconductor switches.

Perform an investigation todemonstrate magnetic

levitation

Analyse information to explain why a magnet is able to hover

above a superconducting material that has

reached the temperature at which it is superconducting

Levitation of a magnet above a cooled superconductor, the Meissner Effect,has been well known for many years. If a superconductor is cooled below its critical temperature while in a magnetic field, the magnetic field surrounds but does not penetrate the superconductor. The magnet induces current in the superconductor which creates a counter-magnetic force that causes the two materials to repel. This can be seen as the magnet is levitated above the superconductor. Keep in mind that this will occur if the strength of the applied magnetic field does not exceed the value of the critical magnetic field (H) of the superconductor. If the magnetic field becomes too strong, it can penetrate the interior of the material and lose its superconductivity. In addition the force of repulsion must exceed the weight of the magnet.

(www.ornl.gov)

Discuss the advantages ofusing superconductors and

identify limitations totheir use

Magnetic-levitation is an application where superconductors perform extremely well. Transport vehicles such as trains can be made to "float" on strong superconducting magnets, virtually eliminating friction between the train and its tracks.

An area where superconductors can perform a life-saving function is in the field of biomagnetism. Doctors need a non-invasive means of determining what's going on inside the human body.

By impinging a strong superconductor-derived magnetic field into the body, hydrogen atoms that exist in the body's water and fat molecules are forced to accept energy from the magnetic field. They then release this energy at a frequency that can be detected and displayed graphically by a computer.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) was actually discovered in the mid 1940's. But, has only recently become an indispensable medical tool with the development of powerful computers to quickly process the large volume of data that is generated.

Process information todiscuss possible applications of

superconductivity and the effectsof those applications on

computers, generators andmotors and transmission of

electricity through power grids

Discuss the advantages ofusing superconductors and

identify limitations totheir use

High-energy particle research hinges on being able to accelerate sub-atomic particles to nearly the speed of light. Superconductor magnets make this possible.

Electric generators made with superconducting wire are far more efficient than conventional generators wound with copper wire.

In fact, their efficiency is above 99% and their size about half that of conventional generators. Computer applications also (speed, size).

Process information todiscuss possible applications of

superconductivity and the effectsof those applications on

computers, generators andmotors and transmission of

electricity through power grids

Because no electrical energy is lost, relatively thin wires can carry huge currents, and no loss means thatelectrical energy can be stored -

Gather and process information to describe how

superconductors and the effects of magnetic fields have

been applied to develop a maglev train

The passing superconductor inducesa current in the coils, making themelectromagnets

A permanent magnet is levitating just above a superconductor as shown in the diagram

below.

Explain why the magnet is able to levitate above the superconductor and discuss how this

technology has been utilised in the maglev train.

Currents are induced in the superconductor by the magnetic field of the permanent

magnet. These currents create their own magnetic field which just balances out the

magnetic field of the permanent magnet, hence the permanent magnet will be repelled

and levitate above the superconductor.

The track of a maglev train contains conventional electromagnets. On the train are

superconductors. These are cooled by liquid nitrogen which is cooled by liquid

helium which is cooled by a refrigeration unit. Magnetic fields are created in the

superconductors as described above. These two magnets repel each other and so the

train levitates. The train propels forwards by means of another set of electromagnetic

coils located on the guideway of the train. Alternating current runs through the coil,

pulling the train along at the front whilst pushing the train at the rear. The speed of

the train can be determined by the speed of the alternating current.

The physica l properties of superconductors do change at the critical temperature - they exhibitdiamagnetism and zero resistance.

However, there is not a change in appearance

DEBATABLE!