“ICT, NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT”

LIST OF ACRONYMS

“ICT, NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT”BACKGROUND PAPER PREPARED BY ENDA LEAD AFRICA FOR THE IDRC REGIONAL ICT AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT

WORKSHOP

“ICT, NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT”BACKGROUND PAPER FOR THE IDRC REGIONAL ICT AND LOCAL

DEVELOPMENT WORKSHOP

CSO Civil Society Organization

CTA Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation

DFID Department for International Development (UK)

ENDA TM Environmental Development Action in the Third World FAO United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization

GIS Geographical Information System GPS Global Positioning System

ICT Information and communications technology

ICT4D Information and communication technologies for development IDRC International Development Research Centre IT Information technology

ITU International Telecommunications Union

LADP Local Area Development Plan

LEAD Leadership for Environment and Development MDG Millennium Development Goals

NRM Natural Resource Management

NEPAD New Partnership for African Development NGO Non-governmental organization

PDA Personal Digital Assistant

PGIS Participatory Geographical Information System

PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper

SMS Short Messaging System

SSA sub-Saharan Africa

UNDP United Nations Development Program

VOIP Voice Over Internet Protocol

“ICT, NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT”BACKGROUND PAPER PREPARED BY ENDA LEAD AFRICA FOR THE IDRC REGIONAL ICT AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT WORKSHOP,

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction...........................................................................................................42 Terms of reference and objectives.......................................................................52.1 Objectives.......................................................................................................52.2 Terms of Reference........................................................................................53 Methodology.........................................................................................................54 Key concepts........................................................................................................65 ICT, NRM and local development.........................................................................95.1 Overview.........................................................................................................95.2 ICTs in NRM and local development: Past and current experiences............125.2.1 ICT Projects and initiatives.....................................................................125.2.2 Researchers and research organizations...............................................235.2.3 ACACIA - IDRC......................................................................................255.3 Lessons learnt and challenges ahead..........................................................276 Using ICTs to meet new challenges in NRM and local development.................296.1 Introduction...................................................................................................296.2 Disaster risk management............................................................................306.2.1 Climate change......................................................................................326.2.2 Food security..........................................................................................336.3 Decision making...........................................................................................357 Emerging issues for further research and action: Some suggestions for discussion..................................................................................................................397.1 Introduction...................................................................................................397.2 Using ICTs to strengthen Decision Making Processes for Local Development

397.3 Using PGIS for an enabling land reform policy and conflict prevention........407.4 ICTs and EcoHealth: Reinforcing trans-disciplinary research methods........427.5 Web 2: Changing the face of local development?.......................................438 Conclusion..........................................................................................................449 Bibliography........................................................................................................4610 Annex A: Internal consultations..........................................................................5111 Annex B: External consultations.........................................................................5112 Annex C: Internet resources...............................................................................51


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1 INTRODUCTION

The advent of information and communication technologies (ICTs) created particularly in the early 1990’s excitement and hope as the international development community argued the case for the role such technologies would play in accelerated and improved development action. Today it is possible to start seeing and measuring the initial impact ICTs has had, and begin to evaluate where and how to best take advantage and use these ICT tools for development.

In natural resource management (NRM) and local development ICTs have until now been applied in a variety of ways and for a range of purposes, and continues to have an increased impact on activities. Whether they are mobile phones to facilitate communication among communities, internet to access and diffuse information, or satellite images to support territorial management, including managing land rights, ICTs offer tremendous possibilities that are being implemented across the continent.

In sub-Saharan African (SSA) the use of ICT for development (ICT4D) is more recent than in the North. Today there have been a large number of initiatives and research, across the development field. The literature is mostly addressing these by domain, such and water, forest, and land management and not from an ICT4D perspective in general as it by its very nature a trans-disciplinary field.

Institutions such as IDRC has played a critical role in addressing this knowledge gap and ensuring more knowledge of the ICTs applied to development is available, and in pushing for further research and knowledge of the area.

This background paper will firstly attempt to give an overview over current initiatives around ICT, NRM and local development, through a review of available literature. The overview will be followed by a selection of case studies, documenting initiatives where ICT plays a prominent role and suggestions for further research and projects to inspire discussion for the future research programme. This is as part of a process to develop a pan African research programme exploring ICT innovations in, and the consequences of their possible application to NRM and local development.

ICT4D, NRM and local development are extensive fields, and it is not possible to address all aspects in this paper but only what has been found to be of greatest current importance. When applying ICT to local development and NRM, it has been found that the most important challenges that local communities are currently facing are the responsibilities that have been transferred to them through recent decentralization. In this document this aspect will thus be deliberately focused upon on along with the ICTs that are of most relevance to these communities meeting their new responsibilities.


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2 TERMS OF REFERENCE AND OBJECTIVES

2.1 Objectives

The objectives of this background paper are to: i) guide and stimulate the discussions at the regional IDRC ICT and local development workshop which will take place in May 2009 in Dakar; ii) contribute to the exploratory phase for the development and adoption of their related pan-African research programme.

The paper will not provide a complete review of the current ICT initiatives around NRM and local development in SAA, as this would involve longer term research and consultations, but it does aim to further inspire the workshop participants and the research agenda developments.

2.2 Terms of Reference

The specific terms of reference for the paper are to provide a review of current developments in the field of ICT and NRM, in Africa and around the world. Specifically the Terms of Reference are to:

identify and report on current existing capacities and initiatives of usage of ICTs in natural resources management in the context of development (ICT4D) in Sub-Saharan Africa; identify the most important applications of ICTs for natural resources management for local development in Sub-Saharan Africa; and provide an overview of emerging issues in NRM and ICTs in the region

3 METHODOLOGY

The preparation of this paper has been done in the framework of the exploratory phase for the development of the IDRC pan-African research programme and with the view to stimulate and inspire discussions at the May 09 workshop. No original research was conducted during its preparation, as the ultimate objective is to give to the participants attending the workshop an overview of current developments in the field of ICT, NRM and local development and suggestions for potential research avenues on ICT4D for NRM.

It is based on a short period desk study and draws from existing practice and thinking related to the use of ICT in NRM and local development. The methodology for preparing the paper included the following steps: i) review of the available literature and; ii) internal consultations with Enda TM and LEAD experts; and iii) consultations with members of IDRC’s ACACIA programme, and; iv) feedback from consultations with external experts in different fields such as ICT, NRM and


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gender around specific aspects. Some of the main questions and issues raised in the internal and external consultations were with regard to both current and most promising applications of ICT4D in their fields and examples of these.

4 KEY CONCEPTS

During meetings and workshops it important that all participants have a common understanding of the key concepts they are addressing. Since this document is an introductory note for a workshop, which will be attended by experts and specialists from different backgrounds and perspectives, it is useful to present and discuss some of the key concepts and references used in the document. By doing so the purpose is to delineate the scope of the concepts and put them into perspective rather than providing a strict definition accepted by all and to encourage participants at the workshop to agree on the same operational meaning for each concept.

Local development: The concept of local development refers to development efforts that are undertaken at community level (as opposed to central level). It is based on addressing community priorities and involves a plurality of actors ranging from community-based organizations to local NGOs and hometown associations. Local actors, including local leaders and organizations play a key role in the planning, implementation and monitoring of local development.Local development in general refers to development initiated and driven by local leadership and organizations which aim to address priorities for an improved well being of communities in urban and rural areas.More than a concept, local development is a learning process involving individuals, organisations and collective praxis. The notion of local refers to the concept of territory and to the scale at which the decision making process takes place. Discussions regarding the relevance of a territory are articulated to its administrative limits which do not always coincide with communities settlementsThere are several schools of thought regarding the definition of local development. Some refer to the process as a bottom-up approach with a focus on participation that uses locally-grounded planning tools and frameworks. This school of thought finds that local development is a voluntary approach focused on a limited area and which sees development as a bottom-up process giving priority to local resources. A second school of thought refers to a system approach which puts emphasis on the role of institutions and building partnership among a plurality of actors; A third school favours the sources of initiatives (who initiates and controls local development?) such as initiatives coming from the grassroots and which are solidarity-oriented.Over the last two decades, several Sub-Saharan African countries, passed decentralization laws in order to transfer more responsibilities to local communities. This consisted for central government to transfer competencies, including the


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decision-making on development planning and resources allocation to locally elected officials and bodies in a number of areas such as social sectors (health, education), natural resource management, social affairs management and cultural development as well as land planning and development.

Regarding Natural Resources Management local communities ended up having increased responsibilities such as: land distribution and management; community forest management, including hunting (hunting zones and concessions, cattle runs, water resources and control of bush fires). In the case of Senegal, the decentralization policy led to the creation of three types of local governments: regional council (at region level), municipalities (at urban district level) and rural collectives (at rural district level) called “communauté rurale”. The rural Community (“communauté rurale”) covers a set of villages which are the basic administrative entities. The bulk of natural resources are located in the territory of rural communities that are in most of the cases managed by the population, but under the guidance and responsibility of a rural council, whose function is to plan, fund and implement local development activities on behalf of and for the benefit of populations living within the community.

Natural Resources Management (NRM): There are many different definitions of natural resource management (NRM) depending on the perspective and approach. Still, most of the definitions in the literature refer more or less to the same components.

A broad definition of natural resource management is ‘the management of all activities that use, develop and/or conserve resources relating to water, land, plants, animals, even micro organisms, and the systems they form’1.

The term natural resources refer to a wide range of environmental assets, which include air, water, land, plants, animals and micro organisms. All these assets are interconnected to form complex ecosystems of varying scale such as rivers, lakes and wetlands, estuaries and coasts, forests, fields, geological systems and resources, and mountains2.Natural resource management seeks to manage resources in a sustainable manner for the long term, achieving a balance between economic and social development and the need to protect the environment. What really determine the success of natural resource management is the level of community involvement and the adoption of ecologically sustainable practices across the community. It is in reference to the significance of the role of the communities in Natural Resource management, that the research community came up with the Concept of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM).

1 Social Entrepreneurship Development Center, LUMS McGill http://sedc.org.pk/portal/general/theme_desc.php?themeid=572 Op.cit.


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CBNRM is understood as the management of natural resources under a detailed plan developed and agreed upon by all concerned stakeholders. The approach is community-based in that the communities managing the resources have the legal rights, the local institutions, and the economic incentives to take substantial responsibility for sustained use of these resources. Under the natural resource management plan, communities become the primary implementers, assisted and monitored by technical services.

From a research perspective, especially in relation to water, agriculture, forestry and fisheries, the concept of Natural Resources Management evolved towards the concept of Integrated Natural Resources Management (INRM).

INRM can be defined as the responsible and broad-based management of the land, water, forest and biological resources base - including genes - needed to sustain agricultural productivity and avert degradation of potential productivity (TAC 1997).

INRM is an approach to research that aims at improving livelihoods, agro ecosystem resilience, agricultural productivity and environmental services. It aims to increase social, physical, human, natural and financial capital. It does this by helping solve complex real-world problems affecting natural resources in agro ecosystems3.

Information and Communication Technologies for Development (ICT4D): Information and Communication Technologies for Development is a general term referring to the application of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in the field of socioeconomic development. ICT4D directly concerns overcoming the barriers of the digital divide. ICTs can be applied either in the direct sense, where their use directly benefits the disadvantaged population in some manner, or in an indirect sense, where the ICTs assist aid organizations or non-governmental organizations or governments. In many impoverished regions of the world, legislative and political measures are required to facilitate or enable application of ICTs, especially with respect to monopolistic communications structures and censorship laws.ICT4D initiatives and projects may be designed and implemented by international institutions, private companies, governments, non-governmental organizations, or virtual organizations.ICT4D projects address one or more of the following issues: i) Infrastructure: providing suitable computer hardware, operating system, software and connectivity to the Internet. These would include the affordability of software and hardware, the ability to share software and the ability to sustainably connect to the internet; ii) Capacity building and training in ICT: installing, maintaining, and developing hardware and software, ergonomics, digital literacy (technological and informational) and e.awareness; iii) Digital content and services e.services (e.learning, e.health, e.business, e.commerce) including concerns related to local-language solutions in computing, and the Open Access agenda; iv) Regulation of the ICT Sector and digital 3 CGIAR Inter-Center Working Group on INRM, 2000


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rights: Universal Access vs. monopolistic structures, Intellectual Property Rights, privacy, security, and digital identity.

ICT refers to a spectrum of technologies and means that are related to computing, online and virtual technologies and processes; the combination of hardware and software and the means of production that enable the exchange, processing and management of information and knowledge.

They include for instance technologies that link producers to the market (e.g. mobile phone), assist local communities to map their territory and plan for their natural resources management (PGIS for forestry and land management), allow online education and health services (internet), help coordinate social movements and campaigns etc., traditional technologies like community radio broadcasting, and newspapers that are now having a greater reach and impact due to digitalisation.

Action research: Various definitions of action research exist, such as implicit research, research for development, participatory research etc. According to Beaulieu and Orindi (2008) action research is an approach for research for knowledge, solutions or means in order to improve some conditions/situations which implies the implementation of activities in the field and the assessment of the related outcomes. So for the researcher the aim is to generate some practical/workable knowledge which is redefined by the activity itself.

5 ICT, NRM AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Overview

The following chapter attempts to give a general overview of current development in the field of ICT and NRM in sub-Saharan Africa. The existing literature addressing the field of ICT and NRM for local development has little in the way of analysis and evaluation of ICTs impact, being such a recent area of development on the continent, but also because most are focused on various disciplinary areas across NRM and local development instead of on the application and impact of the ICT tools. Thus this overview will look at certain areas of NRM and local development and attempt to show where ICTs are being used, for what purpose and to an extent with what impact.

The management of natural resources has never been an easy task and as the majority of the world and especially Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in particular is facing increasing threats to its resources, and thus development in general. As those threats are being further exacerbated by climate change, the challenge is only increasing


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Specific challenges to the availability and access of natural resources is exemplified by current studies and projections of climate change impacts, such as that by 2020 75 to 250 million people4 in Africa, out of an estimated population of 1.3 billion5, will be exposed to increased water stress, compromised agricultural production, threatened local food supplies and sea level rises affecting coastal areas. Climate change is further predicted to cause further conflicts, natural disasters and increased migration, thus threatening the development progress that have been achieved to date (World Bank, Global Monitoring Report 2009).

Initially the approach in SSA to the management of natural resources had an ecological perspective and often did not involve the social dimension integrating the needs of the local population. This has led to imbalance where the local population has been separated from the surrounding land, often loosing the rights to exploit the resources. While the approaches have now evolved considerably in the right direction, a key challenge in SSA is still to ensure that any NRM model, as to be sustainable, takes complexity of the socio-ecosystem into consideration

The advancement of ICT and the tools it brings to development are an invaluable and essential addition to addressing these challenges and an addition that deserves and is already playing a key role in the response.

When attempting to establish the challenges to natural resource management, not only the threats to natural resources caused by either human consumption or climate change needs to be examined, but also the structures on all governance levels, i.e. where the ‘management’ are happening.

In SSA in general the most recent major change to natural resources governance is the new responsibilities (management of land and forests etc.) transferred to local communities, which have resulted from the decentralization process. Local actors are obliged to develop new approaches and adopt new decision-making systems in order to meet their new responsibilities as to manage local development and thus also the NRM process. Two main concerns arise from this: i) The commitment and inclusion of all stakeholders in the NRM and local development planning process to ensure that the concerns of all including the socially disadvantaged are taken into account,ii) The harmonization of local interventions that are implemented by several types of institutional bodies intended to be complementary, but are generally competitors (government services, development projects, local communities, NGOs, social organizations, etc.). It becomes essential to promote overall coherence of activities undertaken in the field, by fostering dialogue to guide these interventions (systems of financing modalities to support local ownership use of proximity operators, etc.).

4 Fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (2007)5 http://esa.un.org/unpp/p2k0data.asp Current estimated population in Africa is just above 1 billion and 860 million in SSA. http://esa.un.org/unpp/p2k0data.asp


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Local Area Development Plans and the way they are being developed and implemented are thus of utmost importance for sustainable development of communities and regions and for the management of natural resources. These will of course also need to be guided by effective management systems on national, regional and international level. However for the purpose of this paper the main concern will be around the local aspects.

The effective management of natural resources in such challenging circumstances is of utmost importance and requires new more efficient approaches and technical innovations to be successful, and ICT is a critical part of this response.

Of course ICTs are also further assisting some of the natural resource ‘mis-management’ however for the purpose of this paper the focus will be on initiatives that further the management of natural resources and attempt to benefit local communities and their development.

During the last two decades the development of information and communications technologies (ICTs) and their application to local development have increased rapidly all over the world. ICT is creating new market opportunities, enabling new sources of finance and improving opportunities for trade across the world, at all levels and now plays an increasing role in local development.

Natural resource management in local development has the possibility to benefit from ICTs in a variety of ways, especially through removing some of the risks and uncertainties associated with NRM, such as from variable rain fall, soil erosion, pests, disease, climate change, fluctuating market prices etc, and enabling the access to timely information of which this field is so dependant. This has been the case over the last decades in the ‘developed’ parts of the world, where ICT is part of more or less all natural resource management processes.

In SSA, the application of ICT, has not reached the same level as the ‘northern’ countries, however there has been a great increase in the access and use of the internet, mobile phones and other ICTs. For example, according to ITU usage of mobile phones has gone from 16 million mobile phone subscribers in 2000, to 136 million in 2005. Consequently, local actors, such as community groups, authorities and individuals are increasingly using ICTs, for purposes such as obtaining information from the internet, communicating via mobiles and interacting with the media, which furthers their knowledge of and influence on local development matters.

Given the opportunities ICT bring the development arena in SSA, there has been great interest in ICT in SSA from NEPAD to the Africa Commission, in areas such as


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governance, early warning systems, healthcare, in commerce and international trade6. Substantial resources have been committed over the last years, both from the continent and from external sources, to support and enable countries to access and use these ICTs. Even though it has been suggested that this interest is on the decline from international parties such as the G8, the interest and commitment on the continent remains high 7. In 2007 for example more than US$50 billion of largely private sector investment was pledged to develop Africa’s ICT sector at the Connect Africa Summit which was attended by African heads of State and more than 1,000 representatives from the industry8.

The following two sections will present, in more detail, some of the research, action research and other practical initiatives that have and/or are currently underway as a result of these developments. Possible avenues for further research and discussion will then be addressed based around some of the key challenges facing local development and NRM today and in the foreseeable future.

5.2 ICTs in NRM and local development: Past and current experiences

ICTs and their application in local development, have only been really noticeable in SSA over the last two decades, and begun to have a measurable impact over the last 5-10 years. The common usage has been mainly around facilitating communication such as use of the mobile phone, and some communities (mainly urban) benefiting from access to information via the internet.

In relation to local development processes local actors still sometimes hesitate to take advantage of ICTs, considering these tools to be designed for top-down planning exercise which they consider discrepant with participatory decision-making processes that are for them critical for local development. In addition, the high cost of most of the technologies, the lack of relevant electrical sources and limited distribution networks are still keeping ICT access away from the majority and in the control of governments, private companies and international organisations.

5.2.1 ICT Projects and initiatives

A multitude of projects and initiatives utilising ICT for NRM and local development have been implemented over the last decade. Mapping for land management, GIS for surveying resources, GPS for tracking wild life as just a few of these. The application of ICT is not only used for top down initiatives, but also to ensure that local communities are able to be directly involved in decision and planning processes.

6 Heeks, R (2007) e-Africa and m-Africa, How ccan ICTs deliver, Centre for Development Informatics, IDPM, University of Manchester, UK, p 17 Op. Cit.8 http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=75122


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The intention here is not to show all the applications of ICT to development and NRM, as clarified above, but examples from the literature where local communities are being aided by ICT to manage the responsibilities transferred to them by recent decentralisation. The examples are grouped around five main areas; Community-based resource management (GIS, PGIS); accessing market and generating income (Mobile phones); monitoring carbon stocks (mobile GIS); tracking wildlife (PDA) and; multi purpose development projects.

5.2.1.1 Using GIS and PGIS for community-based resource management (forests, water, land)

A geographic information system (GIS) captures, stores, analyses, manages, and presents data that is linked to location. Participatory geographic information system (PGIS) is an added dimension to GIS that integrates the different stakeholders’ topics and perspectives to guarantee that their needs and interests are taken into consideration. The combination of GIS with participatory research and activities and their results (PGIS), enables the creation of an information system that is critical for any policy dialogue and negotiation exercise.

The following examples shows how GIS and digital imaging is fighting forest fires (South Africa); enabling large scale NRM and community participation (the Congo Basin), community based natural resource management (Namibia); land use management and harnessing ICT for land reform (Senegal); and combating crop disease and enabling agricultural forecasting (Uganda).

South Africa: Fighting forest fires: Digital imaging, GIS and Firehawk software

The Zululand Fire Protection Services (ZFPS) which is a commercial enterprise, monitors forest fire and maintains conservation area. Through the use of Firehawk, an electronic forest fire detection system with a network of cameras instead of manned lookout towers, ZFPS has the capacity to detect fires more rapidly and limit the damage to the environment and timber industry. The system covers 150.000 hectares and is based around the KwaZulu Natal coastal zone, which is central to the South African forestry industry.

Firehawk works through sending images from the digital video cameras to the Kwambonambi Operations Centre where the Firehawk software analyses the images. The software can distinguish between fire, smoke and glow and automatically raise alarm. The cameras can further be operated from the central Operations centre and be used to zoom in on the affected areas. The software is


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connected to a geographical information system (GIS), which provides further information of the area in question and provides exact coordinates9.

The enterprise has been running for over 10 years and is continually expanding its operations to deliver services to yet more areas and to upgrade the effectiveness of the Firehawk system.

Congo basin: Protecting forest resources: Landsat satellite-derived maps and geospatial databases.

The Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) is an USAID initiative involving a consortium of government and NGO partners, which works to reduce the rate of forest degradation and loss of biodiversity by supporting the increase of local, national, and regional natural resource management capacity. This is mainly done through a landscape approach to NRM using, amongst other, tropical forest zoning maps consisting of high-resolution satellite images that have been combined with geographic information system (GIS) data sets containing information on the vegetation as well as socio-economic data. This information assist the planning and monitoring for the areas such, as for example the communities and policy makers in identifying which forest areas and plant and animal species are under threat from logging, cultivation and other human activities.The Congo Basin covers a vast area and is in many areas unknown territory. Prior to the production of the maps, knowledge of the region was limited. The work of CARPE and their partners using the information gathered about the natural resources is now helping the protection of the area and the management of the natural resources, protecting wildlife, monitoring logging and efforts to combat climate change.The CARPE program was initiated in 1995 and initially proposed as a 20-year regional initiative divided three strategic phases. On completion of the second phase in 2011, the third and final phase will run until 2016, when the activities will be turned over to Central African institutions.

Congo: Community participation in Forest management: Handheld GPS

The Tropical Forest Trust provides guidance in environmentally sustainable forest management, the protection of traditional land use and human rights of indigenous people. One of their projects in the Congo sees indigenous semi nomadic Pygmy communities included in forest management, through communities using specially developed GPS mapping technology to communicate their concerns over the use of the forest. The project, working with the forest management company (Congolaise Industrielle des Bois) towards FSC certification for more forest areas, is involving the communities by developing appropriate technology applications, training of communities in using GPS hand held mapping units, the physical production of community maps, demarcation by communities of significant cultural/resource areas

9 http://www.zfps.co.za/ and http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/(issue)/19


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http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/(issue)/19

http://www.zfps.co.za/

and the incorporation of these areas into forest management plans. This then goes towards ensuring that the forest management company adheres to official company policy respecting and protecting Indigenous Peoples rights10.The project activities are currently ongoing and the project anticipates further expansion and FSC certification of forest areas, and aims to further work with the participation of indigenous populations with the use of the GPS mapping units.

Namibia: Community-based resource management: PGIS mapping

“Collective management of resources” is happening with the help of ICT in Kasika, in the eastern part of the plain of the Chobe River in the northeast of Namibia. The project aid local people to use GIS to produce detailed colour maps indicating the location of wildlife and subsistence resources. Before the GIS system mapping land use, these communities used hand-drawn maps which posed serious problems to the development of tourism, but also that of new subsistence activities, as outsiders had difficulties understanding the maps. The novelty in the Namibia project is the use of this participatory approach to improve the maps drawn by hand, and matching information from handwritten data cards. Village mapping workshops and meticulous recording allows the integration of local knowledge relating to place names, the localisation of natural resources such as pastures, cropping areas and useful plant species, and locations where wildlife and their movements can be seen. The final GIS maps use as much colour as possible and icons to make them accessible to people with low literacy. A major challenge facing the continued implementation of similar initiatives will be to ensure that local people develop their new skills in GIS can create their own customized cards according to their needs11.This participatory approach continues to be used in other conservancies implemented by IRDNC in the areas.

Senegal Ross-Béthio: Land use, Council of St Louis, Mapping

In order to better control the potential for conflict between different stakeholders, the rural council of Ross-Béthio in the Saint-Louis region in Senegal, developed and implemented with partners ‘POAS’ (Plan d’Occupation et d’Affectation des Sols - land use plan). The POAS ‘tool’ was developed by and with the rural communities to "control" their land under new decentralization structures.

"The POAS is considered a framework to guide local managers for planning and development at the local level. It is also a tool for dialogue between people and institutions, which can enrich or influence the conduct of any operational planning and development in light of the constraints of land use and their impact" (d'Aquino et al., 2001).

10 http://www.tropicalforesttrust.com/index.php11 www.irdnc.org.na and http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/ICTs-in-Namibia-s-communal-area-conservancies


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http://www.irdnc.org.na/

This plan which development process was conducted jointly by research institutions and rural councils between 1997 and 1999 had on three major objectives:

The establishment, within the local communities of a mechanism for internal consultation and negotiation with external partners on issues relating to the management of resources;

Reaching a consensus extended to all institutional actors (state and local) on the rules for managing land and natural resources;

Furthering the process of decentralized development planning led by local authorities with the support of research institutions and support agencies.

From an operational point of view, the POAS has three essential elements Rules governing the management of space and natural resources in a land

where competition has been exacerbated by the transfer of frontier areas in the rural community of Ross-Béthio;

An organizational framework for decision making and monitoring / evaluation; Cartographic Materials to guide and inform decision-making processes.

The process was aided by satellite imaging and GIS enabling the operational planning process and development regulation in relation to all farming and pastoral land. The visual tools aided the discussions and involvement of the local stakeholders who were involved and continue to be involved in all aspects of the POAS framework.

The latest developments (2009) resulting from the POAS framework are; formal registration of cattle trails and water points; the formulation of a regulatory framework to improve relations between farmers and pastoralists; and local development plans for agricultural/pastoral activities. Furthermore the region of Ross Bethio has been able to further monitor desertification and are implementing projects involving all stakeholders to improve local conditions resulting from desertification.

Senegal: Harnessing ICTs for Land reform and NRM: CNCR

The Organisation for National Dialogue and Rural Cooperation (CNCR) - an umbrella organisation of farmers’ organisations in Senegal – conducted, between 2000 and 2004, a study of the farmer movement on land reform. The purpose of this study was the formulation by farmers themselves of proposals for amendments to the national lands Act, to national legislations and codes relating to land and natural resources and proposals for land policy and sustainable management of natural resources. The study was centred on family farming and the land-related conditions for its transformation, with the purpose to submit to the State, as well as economic and


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social players a set of proposals to start negotiations on the legislation concerning land and natural resources.

The proposals made by rural people have emphasized, among other things, the transformation of property rights into land titles. In the opinion of CNCR, the new legislation should recognize the rights holders’ possibility, at any time to, transform it into a lease or land title. For this option not to cause a rush for the registration of lands and not be circumvented by the holders of capital, a discouraging land tax will be fixed for those who do not have a development project sufficiently profitable to pay property taxes.

The registration of land is a real challenge. The boundary approach currently adopted by the technical services (Land and Tax department) is not satisfactory. Indeed, these services are located in the administrative centres of regions, and the mobilization of surveyors to demarcate the plots, making sketches and records is too expensive for farmers and unprofitable, in the case of lands having a low level of productivity. While the NDA allows the grantee who is developing a piece of land to have it registered, in order to obtain a land title or lease, there are very few people who have done this, due to the high costs.

Alternatives to old boundary techniques should be found, which are less cumbersome and expensive. In this perspective, the CNCR recommended the use of techniques that are more flexible, and which rely on ICTs and GPS. Interesting experiments have been conducted by the Centre de Suivi Ecologique (CSE) in assisting several rural communities for delineating land areas rural housing or crop production. .

Uganda: Combating Crop diseases and agricultural forecasting - Grameen Foundation Pilot

The Grameen Foundation is conducting a seven-month pilot project in 2009 in two Ugandan districts, whereby community workers collect and disseminate information on crop acreage and projected harvests through mobile device surveys.

The pilot has distributed mobile phones with cameras (cost US$30 to $330 – testing different models in the pilot) to community workers from farmers groups who are then collecting the data, which then gets sent on to the foundations database for agricultural forecasting.

One of the major current challenges is to find community workers that are literate and fluent in English and also finding women participants. Further challenges are the network connectivity and lack of electricity in many parts, and also ensuring that the collected data is accurate.12

12 http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=83805


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http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=83805

The above examples go some way to show how ICTs are invaluable assets to NRM. PGIS is especially showing itself as a key tool to aid the decision making process in a ‘decentralised’ setting, and aid the local community to meet their new NRM responsibilities. From large scale mapping and land reform challenges in the example from Ross Bethio in Senegal, to the smaller scale mapping exercises in Namibia, the decision making process is aided by the availability of participatory processes. This enables the involvement of all stakeholders, be they government bodies, community members or organisations, that all have a stake in the usage of natural resources and the local development plans.

5.2.1.2 Using mobile telephones for accessing market and generating income

The mobile phone is the most commonly used communication tool and no longer just a tool for making calls but increasingly a communications package, with camera, GPS and internet access among some of the possible functions. The below graph depicts the dramatic increase in mobile subscribers and penetration in Africa in the period from 2002 to where it is expected in 2012.13

The impact and usage of the mobile phone on local development, is not only through easier communication between parties that often are separated by long distances, but also to reduce poverty through increasing income.

13 International Télécommunications Union (ITU)


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The example below show how mobiles are allowing farmers and fishermen/women in Senegal to access current market information, lessening transaction costs and making the agricultural sector more effective.

Senegal: Empowering agricultural sectors: WAP enabled mobiles, data bases

The project is a virtual network providing value-added services (primarily internet-based market information) to players in the agricultural sectors. It aims to empower rural farmers (fruit and vegetable producers) and fishermen in Senegal who are often illiterate and unfamiliar with ICTs (including mobiles) by providing access to accurate real-time price information for their produce, as well as weather forecasts and other relevant information. By eliminating or reducing the influence of middlemen in transactions, fairer prices and better revenues can be obtained by the rural farmers in urban markets. WAP-enabled mobiles are used by rural farmers to access prices of foods and goods for sale in and around markets in Dakar and Kyar. This price information is collected by Manobi employees who are deployed to the various markets, and using their WAP-enabled mobiles, they relay the prices to a central database managed by Manobi where it is then analysed and made available to the public.Market prices are updated in real time, giving farmers and fishermen the opportunity to travel to specific markets where they can get the best prices for their produce.

The hugely successful project is currently being run by Manobi-Senegal, a joint venture between Manobi-France and Sonatel. Manobi-France has a 66% share of the joint venture, and Sonatel the remaining 34%. The project is therefore entirely private sector driven, and partnerships have been formed with organizations representing producers and middlemen. During the initial stages of the project several other partners were involved such as IDRC (involved in conducting research on and contributed to funding and Ceasm, a French NGO specialising in the socio-economics of the fisheries sector, and Alcatel, a manufacturer of the communications equipment contributed.

The applications of the system have been extended to include health and e-governance: e-government applications – Online land registration and management by

local authorities and GIS mapping linked to GPS.

Health applications – Electronic birth registration by midwives (UNICEF are major partners in this venture). Photos of the newborns are taken on mobiles, and additional data such as name, weight, and date of birth is transmitted to government authorities. This has now been linked to the online land registration process to improve efficiency and encourage uptake. Manobi trains and equips one


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midwife from each village participating in the programme to serve as ‘project champion’14.

These initiatives and businesses is happening across the continent, taking advantage of the widespread use of mobiles with great success and having a measurable impact on the incomes of the local population.

5.2.1.3 Using mobile GIS for monitoring carbon stocks

As mentioned above the mobile is no longer just a phone, but increasingly able to handle applications such as GPS and GIS etc. In the following example the mobile combined with GIS software is enabling communities to monitor their carbon stocks in areas of East and West Africa.

East Africa, West Africa and the Himalayas: for monitoring carbon stocks: Mobile GIS

The University of Twente (Netherlands) and ITC along with partners such as ENDA TM, started in 2003 a research project with the objective to enable community based forest management to become eligible for carbon crediting. This involved researching into the best means of gathering and managing geographic information, so as to enable communities in developing countries to monitor the carbon stocks in forests.As the communities were unlikely to have all the data required, the project aimed to show that full community participation would shorten or replace some of the procedures necessary for the formulation of climate projects, thus reducing the costs of projects. The idea was to bring communities to hold their own carbon accounting at a cost as low as possible. Until recently, the complexity of GIS technology and the absence of portable devices limited the participation of local communities in developing countries in initiatives such as these. With a mobile GIS, they can now use their knowledge to quantify and monitor the carbon stored in their forests, and strive for funding under mechanisms such as the Clean Development mechanism (CDM - Kyoto Protocol)15. The last phase of the project was approved in June 2008 and fieldwork has continued in 4 locations in Tanzania, 4 in Senegal, 5 in Guinea Bissau, 1 in Mali

This example again shows how the gathering of information in GIS, in this case carbon stocks, is enabling the community to have documented records of their natural resources. This combined with access to information on initiatives such as CDM through the project, and possibility to apply to these initiatives, is thus giving them more control of their environment.

5.2.1.4 Using PDA for tracking wildlife

14 http://www.manobi.sn/sites/sn/15 www.communitycarbonforestry.org


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http://www.manobi.sn/sites/sn/

PDA (Personal digital Assistant) or handheld computer is not only being used in its ability to store data ‘on the go’, but can now also act as a mobile phones, web browsers, or as a portable media player. In the example from Botswana it is used for tracking wildlife, by enabling trackers to record their observations.

Botswana: Tracking wildlife in the Kalahari: PDA

At Lone Tree, a village in the Kalahari Desert in Botswana, CyberTracker is working with traditional hunters and expert trackers to help them gather information about local wildlife populations. Once downloaded onto a solar-powered PC, the collected data can be displayed on screen in the form of maps, tables and graphs, and can be used to establish an index of abundance for each species hunted by the community, so that they can monitor population changes over time. At present, the Wildlife Department allocates hunting quotas to the community on a yearly basis. However, the quotas are fairly arbitrary since there is no reliable data on how many animals there are. Traditional trackers have a good idea of how plentiful or scarce animals are, even if they cannot quantify their numbers precisely. Using a personal digital assistant (PDA) with CyberTracker software and an integrated GPS receiver, trackers who cannot read or write can use the icon-based user interface to record their observations. CyberTracker version 3 also includes an ‘index of abundance’ feature that can help to quantify their observations. The software can be customized by users with no programming skills and requires minimal technical support.16

Software like ‘CyperTracker’ for devices like the PDA and mobiles, are becoming increasingly accessible, which further adds to the possibilities for the involvement of local communities in the management of their natural resources. In this case it is wildlife, but it can of course be applied to all areas of NRM and local development. It has been adapted to the local conditions (taking illiteracy and innumeracy into consideration) instead of using applications made for other purposes, increasing the chances of success of the initiatives. As with the carbon stocks project above, initiatives such as these goes towards adding to the ‘library’ and access to knowledge of natural resources on local levels thus easing management and local development.

5.2.1.5 ICT for multi purpose development projects: towards the MDGs and social change

As seen in the above examples a combination of ICT tools are usually used in projects and initiatives, which is also the case for multi purpose development projects that aims to aid more facets of local development. Examples such as the Mogalakwena HP i-Community below show the possibilities of introducing some of the ICT tools to the grassroots, where local solutions to NRM and implementation of ICT can then be supported.

16 www.cybertracker.co.za


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South Africa: The Mogalakwena HP i-Community: Various ICT tools

The Mogalakwena project is an “i-community project”17, that aims at promoting and developing; Community engagement, Sustainable Information and communication infrastructure, Capacity building, Economic development (mainly through new and self-sustaining employment opportunities), Digital cultural preservation, E-service delivery, Healthcare/telemedicine, etc.

Mogalakwena is a municipality located in the Limpopo Province in South Africa, and generally poorly serviced in terms of water provision, waste management, transport and access to ICT solutions. Agriculture, manufacturing and mining are the main economic activities.

Technologies in the project and facilities created include: computer literacy training rooms (33 Multi-user 441 Desktop Solution personal computers18, a business resources centre, a call centre, a multimedia studio, a PC refurbishing centre, and a satellite office has also been established. The entire Mogalakwane area is networked through a series of Community Access Points (CAPs) installed at public amenities such as schools, clinics, libraries and community centres.

Ongoing training targeted at ordinary citizens, provincial and local government personnel, and local business chambers is provided by HP and the Limpopo Department of Education. An important milestone has been the development of software and training materials in local languages – English, Afrikaans and Sepedi.

The project has been able to produce a number of graduates from the training programmes, many of them women and many are now employed locally or have been recruited by national companies. It is the first place in South Africa to have a multilingual, municipal and community web site and it has developed an internet-based radio station and a web-design cultural audio-video centre helping to preserve the region’s cultural heritage. It is also the first ICDL training and testing centre for open source software.

Multi purpose projects, such as the above project example from South Africa, goes to address more community needs, such as capacity building, infrastructure and awareness, as opposed to many of the single objective projects and initiatives. It enables fuller participation from the community and is better able to respond to community needs and requirements. Raising awareness, delivering training and allowing access to ICT tools, also furthers the possibility for the communities to develop locally suitable application of the tools, as opposed to when they are simply trained to use one kind of ICT application.

In development where goals, such as the MDGs, are increasingly important, the multi purpose project approach is possibly more effective, however questions of how it can

17 An “i-community” is a community where ICT infrastructure is deployed to create sustainable social and economic development. This is measured according to tangible criteria such as literacy, skills enhancement, job creation, income, access to government services, healthcare and education, etc18 The HP441 is an Open Source computing system that allows 4 users to operate simultaneously and independently from one computer using separate keyboards and monitors.


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be made sustainable remains. Addressing an issue such as ICT in NRM in isolation is not possible, and all social aspects needs to be taken into consideration to achieve sustainability, and this is of course also the case with the choice of approach.

The examples above show many interesting developments in the application of ICT to local development and all of their experiences go towards strengthening knowledge of possibilities in the area. Whether it goes further than the specific project area and whether the lessons learnt go on to influence policies on a regional and national level is though questionable. Also the fact that the projects and initiatives are mainly initiated and funded by external parties, leads to questions of sustainability of the application of ICTs to NRM in local development. This has been a central challenge for many projects, including for IDRC’s ACACIA initiative, where similar conclusions were made after their first phase of research and piloting.

The responsibilities for NRM has been ‘decentralized’ but very often no further capacity building or strengthening of local infrastructure take place to enable the local actors to deliver on their new responsibilities. Ensuring that they have the knowledge of and access to the ICT tools that can aid the development process of local development planning should of course be a priority for central government, however the financial repercussions that this has along with administrative challenges, has so far halted these advancements. It is shown through the Ross Bethio example from Senegal that improved NRM, involving all stakeholders, can be achieved with the aid of ICT, thus it is achievable.

5.2.2 Researchers and research organizations

In Africa, research around ICT4D and NRM is done at various levels and by a plurality of organizations that are more or less in interaction. National organizations include public universities (which often host research institutes), in particular their engineering departments and research organizations. These national organisations will often team up with universities, research institutes, government agencies from developed countries (e.g. IRD, CIRAD, ITC, IIED), regional centres (e.g. AGRHYMET, OSS, I2R), UN agencies and international NGOs (e.g. IUCN, WWF, Enda) and research centres (ICRISAT, CIAT, WARDA). Often cutting edge ICT4D NRM research originates or is led by organisations from developed countries, regional and International organisations or by individuals from SSA with tight links with them. This is changing, though, as more and more technological capacity is found in African organisations. The private sector is also a crucible of NRM research (e.g. export agriculture, renewable energies, impact assessment) and often involves consulting firms from African and from developed countries. While still timid, there is also some research linked to private universities, utilities companies, etc.

There are different types of research involved in ICT4D, each type having their own priorities according to their mission. Academic research would tackle a development problem, but is not necessarily accountable for adoption of research results: the main


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goal is to produce scientific knowledge. On the other hand action-research19, which is less known in the academe20, is geared towards development and often involves national and international NGOs and centres such as CGIAR21 Some universities such as UGB (Saint-Louis) are also more integrated into local and regional development. It is good to note that some will use the term “research” to label a process that is not, in fact, a true process of investigation, but instead a process of transferring research results (in general this will not lead to scientific publications but instead is building on them). There are essentially two ways of implementing action-research: a) researcher’s led process, where researchers team with practitioners or sub-contract them; b) development led process, where practitioners will team with researchers or subcontract them.

Research in Africa is funded either by programs from the African States themselves, by research programmes from developed countries (ANR, NSF, etc..), by development programs from developed countries which are managed by specialized aid organizations (IDRC, GTZ, ODI, USAID, etc..), by foundations (Hewlett-Packard, Gates, etc..), international organizations (AUF, etc..), and development banks (World bank, BAD, etc..).

The table below show a few examples in SSA that has been successful or promising22.

Country(ies)

Lead Institution, main partner institution*

ICT4D Project(s), Year**

ICT4D tool(s)

Funding

Ethiopia (rural)

Mekelle University [N-U-LDC], n/a

Monitoring and evaluation in Begasheka watershed (Tigray) with PGIS23(~2004) [AR]

Ground maps, desktop GIS

Ireland AID

Kenya (urban)

U. North Alabama [N-U-DC], U. West Virginia [N-U-DC]

Defining peri-urban residential space (Athi river town) using PGIS24 (2001-2004) [R-T]

Mental maps, desktop GIS

n/a

Tanzania (rural)

Rufiji Disctict Council [S-LDC],

Participatory mapping for local

Village paper maps, GPS,

n/a

19 According to Beaulieu et Orindi (2008) action-research is a process to find knowledge, solutions or means to improve a situation, which implies implementing actions in the field and evaluations of the impact of these actions

20 A notable exception in West Africa is ENEA which is very much driven –and involved- in local development issues21 CGIAR is a strategic alliance of members, partners and international agricultural centres that mobilizes science to benefit the poor. www.cgiar.org22 *Type or organization: U:University or institute; S: State institution; A: State Agency; P: Private; N: National; I: International; NGO: non governmental organization; Reg: Regional; I: international ; [SSA: sub Saharan Africa; DC: developed country; R: research; Organization]**Type of research: R: academic research; AR: action research; DR: application of research results to development; I: interdisciplinary; T: thesis23 EJISDC (2006), 25, 3, 1-1024 Op.Cit. 8, 1-12


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IRD[S-RO-DC], IUCN [I-NGO),

management of natural resources in villages of the Rufiji district25 [AR]

remote sensing

Madagascar (rural)

Programme National Foncier [S-LDC/S-DC], CIRAD [S-RO-DC]

SIG et réforme foncière Malgache26 (2005-2008) [AR]

Communal paper maps, remote sensing, land tenure certificate, desktop GIS

MAE France

Sénégal (rural)

CIRAD [S-RO-DC], SAED [A-LDC], CIRAD [S-RO-DC], ISRA [S-RO-LDC], Ross Bethio rural council [LE]

Les Pland d’Occupation et d’Affectation des Sols dans la vallée du fleuve Sénégal(1996-2000)[AR]27

Paper maps, desktop GIS

CIRAD

5.2.3 ACACIA - IDRC

The ACACIA initiative is a renowned international IDRC research programme, with the mission to “support research on ICTs that improve livelihood opportunities, enhance social service delivery, and empower citizens while building the capacity of African researchers and research networks”. IDRC initiated and hosts the programme, which partners with key donors such as CIDA, Industry Canada, DFID, SIDA, OSI and the Partnership for Higher Education, and have offices and country partners across the continent.

The programme started in 1997 with Phase 1, which mission was to explore the potential of the internet on poor, rural people28. The programme supported the development of rural internet centres/telecentres and measured the impact of these initiatives. Furthermore support was given to the development of ICT policies in African countries to enable the use of ICTs for development. The lessons from this first phase were especially that of the difficulties in “creating sustainable, affordable access models for the rural poor29” and also the need for relevant content and applications.

The second phase (2001-2005) continued the work from phase 1, however more in the way of research, compared the pilot activities of phase 1. The programme focused on researching more sustainable and appropriate access models and ICT innovation for the African context, such as lower cost technologies and effective

25 EJISDC (2006), 25, 6, 1-626 Revue Internationale de Géomatique (in press)27 NSS, 2002, vol. 10, n° 4, 20-3028 http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-8455-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html29 Acacia Prospectus 2006-2001, Acacia, http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-113431-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html p 9


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http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-113431-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html

policy reform to bring down the cost of access. It furthermore sought to support African initiatives on content in response to the findings from phase 1. Acacia, now in the middle of the third phase (2006–2011), has three core research themes that serve as a framework for the programme:

“People Empowerment: Understanding the individual and social changes that Africans are experiencing that are being brought about through the use of ICTs. Social Service Delivery: Research on how ICTs can help African governments with limited resources to more effectively deliver services to their citizens.Economic Development and Opportunity: ICTs in Africa are transforming both formal and informal economies. This theme explores the broader impact of ICTs on social and economic growth in Africa”.30

The specific objectives and measurable outcomes for the third phase have been set as:

Sustained Policy Dialogue: While ICTs have the potential to enhance social and economic development, policy inevitably lags behind in this fast-changing field. Acacia is committed to fostering ongoing, robust dialogues among ICT4D researchers, policy-makers, and other key policy-related bodies.

Thriving Research Networks: With 53 countries and comparatively few strong research institutions, finding the capacity to carry out larger research programs in Africa can be a challenge. Fostering regional research networks can strengthen weak institutions through mentoring relationships. They can also serve as fora for knowledge diffusion and can create an ideal vehicle for parallel funding activities. By the end of the next five years we expect to see ten or more thriving African ICT4D research networks that Acacia has catalyzed and supported.

Enhanced Research Capacity in ICT4D: There are very few institutions anywhere in the world that specialize in ICTs for development. It is by its very nature a trans-disciplinary field. Our objective is to increase institutional strength in ICT4D research focusing on improved research methodologies and practices, increased numbers of ICT4D researchers, and research institutions with specific ICT4D focus.

More Social and Technical Innovation in ICTs: ICTs are enablers of both social and technical innovation and Africa is home to a great deal of innovation especially around the adaptation of low-cost ICTs to African needs and conditions. In the next five years, we expect to stimulate innovation in the development and use of new ICTs including mobile telephony, wireless broadband, alternative policies and intellectual property regimes31.

30 Op.Cit31 Acacia Prospectus 2006-2001, Acacia, http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-113431-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html p 2


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http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-113431-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html

Acacia have furthermore identified key areas of interest alongside the research, which are remittances, PGIS and digital human rights32

ACACIA currently has a variety of studies and projects underway that are very relevant to NRM and local development, such as a scoping study on ICTs and small scale agriculture, environment and natural resources management in Benin, Ghana, Madagascar, Malawi, Kenya and Uganda, and a scale up of electronic government in Fez in Morocco. The experiences of their studies and experiences over the last decade have had a major influence on the field and hopefully will continue to do so.

5.3 Lessons learnt and challenges ahead

As seen above the ACACIA programme currently focus their research around policy dialogue, strengthening research networks, strengthening research capacity on ICT4D, and social and technical innovation in ICTs. In their 2006-2011 prospectus one of the main challenges to the research and research in general in this area is that of speed of publication. ICT is a fast moving field and for research to be relevant it will need to be able to keep pace to have an impact on developments. The ‘new’ ICT tools themselves are of course also helping the research efforts as researchers start having access to the various databases that are slowly becoming established along with improved communication tools etc.In this regard the emphasis of ACACIA to work towards strengthening the research efforts on ICT4D on the continent is commendable. Currently they are amongst only a few research institutions based in SSA that focus on the area and any expansion of this can only be of value. Research agenda’s are often driven by institutions from the ‘North’, and even though these attempt to take the agenda of the national and regional entities in question into consideration, and deliver useful research, the ability to ensure integrated and effective results, without being based in the research locations can be questioned.

Specifically for ICT in NRM and local development, ACACIAs emphasis on strengthening research efforts also apply, however the emphasis on policy dialogue possibly even more so. There is a clear need for further dialogue around the needs of local regions and communities to manage natural resources of which they now have the responsibility since decentralisation, and with regards to access to tools that can aid the management. Furthermore integration of research agenda’s with the national and regional development agenda’s, require further establishment and support of frameworks and initiatives such as ACACIA, not only to ensure the research is relevant, but also that it gets disseminated and used in development planning. Many of the projects utilising ICT for NRM and local development are very successful, but isolated from national and regional agenda’s which makes it difficult to capitalise on the lessons learnt from the projects and documenting the research.

32 Op.Cit


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Through the examination of the current initiatives it has furthermore been noticed that gender is yet to be fully integrated into the discourse around ICT and NRM. However there are interesting developments and the literature review revealed previous, current and ongoing research and initiatives around ICT and gender. The recent CGIAR Gender & Diversity Bulletin (Gender & Diversity News, No 84, April 2009) provides information of the most recent research on gender and Information and Communication Technologies.

Another interesting recent source of information, in this case around policy, gender and ICT, is GenderIT.org. Here, the inequalities occasioned by unequal access to ICTs by men and women in particular are highlighted, along with the latest research and publications from the field.

In the case of sub-Saharan Africa one of the most recent publications is “African Women and ICTs: Investigating Technology, Gender and Empowerment”. It explores how women in Africa use ICTs for empowerment and is based on an extensive research project. It discusses issues such as ICTs against gender-based violence, ICTs for empowerment and as agents of change amongst many others.33

The information society and its essential characteristics continue to change and introduce new flavors to this societal issue. The question of the direction of change is still blurred and there is no mutual understanding among the academics whether ICTs will in fact narrow or exacerbate the existing gendered divisions in the society. It does, however, remain evident that women are not as strongly associated in the development project of the information society as men are. Some individual projects do target women and women’s empowerment around ICTs, however further analysis on the gender dimension and how it affects the development, choice and implementation on ICTs around NRM and local development, is yet to be fully explored. Again the ACACIA programme is determined in its third phase to further support and develop research in this area, which can only positively contribute to the developments around ICT, NRM and local development

If sub-Saharan countries are to face the new challenges in NRM and local development, such as climate change, efficient and operational systems on all levels are required. ICT has a central role to play and the following chapter will examine how some of these new challenges can be aided with the new technologies.

6 USING ICTS TO MEET NEW CHALLENGES IN NRM AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT

33 AFRICAN WOMEN AND ICTs: Investigating Technology, Gender and Empowerment; ed. I. Buskens, A. Webb, Zed/IDRC, 2009


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6.1 Introduction

Climate change, desertification, and other environmental challenges have added a new dimension to Disaster and Risk Management (DRM). The increasing effects of climate change (floods, costal erosion, drought, migrations, etc.) have considerably amplified the risk of natural catastrophes in SSA.

The Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) has estimated that each year, close to 250 million people around the world are affected by drought, floods, cyclones, earthquakes, wildfires and others hazards34. Increasing population density, environmental degradation, global warming and poverty compound the impact of these events. Figures show that the average annual number of disasters occurring in Africa rise by 25 percent every year.35

The deep running trend connected to the increase in the risk of catastrophes calls for a new way of managing the disasters. For this reason, the concept of Disaster Risk Management (DRM) is one of the most important challenges of the new century, and the governing decisions made by and for local communities for issues related to development, have never been so critical as today.

For considered decisions to be taken in a strategically wise and appropriate manner, they should be based on adequate data collection and research coupled with a good knowledge management, and decision support systems.

The chapter will address some of the new challenges and emerging issues to the application of ICT to NRM and local development, such as disaster management in relation with climate change, food security etc. Furthermore decision making processes are addressed and how the application of ICTs, in research, data collection and storage, knowledge management, monitoring and evaluation, and decision support systems, can contribute to these processes and towards improving NRM and targeting local development challenges.

6.2 Disaster risk management

Disaster Risk Management (DRM) refers to “the systematic process of using administrative decisions, organization, operational skills and capacities to implement policies, strategies and coping capacities of the society and communities to lessen the impacts of natural hazards and related environmental and technological disasters”36.

The international community has formulated many strategies and policies aiming towards disaster risk reduction, such as the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015, 34 Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Emergency Disaster Database.35 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development36 http://www.unisdr.org/eng/library/lib-terminology-eng%20home.htm


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aimed at building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters37. The scope of this Framework for Action encompasses disasters caused by hazards of natural origin and related environmental and technological hazards and risks. It reflects a holistic and multi hazard approach to disaster risk management and the relationship, between them which can have a significant impact on social, economic, cultural and environmental systems,

In the case of SSA strategies and frameworks such as the Africa Regional Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction and New Partnership for Africa’s Development exist along with sub regional strategies. These frameworks and strategies call for the integration of disaster risk reduction in development policies; advocacy, resource mobilisation and capacity building; technological development and regional cooperation.

The implementation of these disaster risk reduction strategies are however hampered by many factors, such as deficient institutional and legal frameworks, uncontrolled urbanisation, absence of land use plans, weak land regulation, construction of infrastructure that does not take environment into the consideration amongst many others serious obstacles. The following were highlighted as key actions aimed at reducing vulnerability to disaster and reducing risks at national and community level by ENDA RUP and ProVention38 and these will be used to highlight the areas where ICT is playing and can in the future play a key role:

1. Establish disaster risk reduction as a priority in national and local development planning2. Integrate disaster risk reduction into development, particularly poverty reduction and emergency response strategies and programmes3. Step up efforts to set up national platforms for disaster risk reduction4. Strengthen community capacities by training and raising the awareness of the actors involved, allocating sufficient resources for this purpose and developing partnerships among the main actors5. Include disaster risk reduction in policies, strategies and programmes formulated at the community level

To achieve this it is recommended by ProVension that the national risk reduction mechanisms should be decentralised to the local level, involving all stakeholders and that disaster risk identification and assessment should be improved. Thus:

1. Strengthening early warning systems and observation and research systems and take advantage of GIS and space technology

37 http://unisdr.org/wcdr/intergover/official-doc/L-docs/Hyogo-framework-for-action-english.pdf38 Disaster Risk Reduction in West and Central Africa: Local perspectives, Enda Tiers Monde/ProVention, 2008 p.91


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2. Improve risk reduction information management, by widening research into the subject, compiling an inventory of good practice, including local knowledge and expertise in the area of risk reduction and disseminating it3. Raise public awareness about disaster risk reduction4. Strengthen capacities of local authorities, private sector, civil society and NGOs to promote culture of disaster risk reduction

ICTs have a key part to play in achieving these goals and implementing the above actions, from the research, data collection and storage, establishment of knowledge and management systems, decision support systems and early warning systems through ICTs. The technology is available; however the access to the tools and the knowledge and capacity to implement them is still a challenge.

Initiatives such as the ‘The Advancing ICT for disaster risk management (DRM) in Africa’ (AIDA) project, which is run by a number of partner organisations and institutions (VITO, ITC, EUMETSAT, NetQI, GEOSAT Technology, Tech sans frontiers, ARU, IER, FUTM CSIR39) aims to share knowledge about affordable ICT solutions in the support of disaster risk management in Africa. AIDA recognises that the majority of the actors are able to access ICT for DRM, thus they are working to : reduce the risk of natural disasters; improve the capacity to respond to disasters; fill the ICT information GAP; promote existing successful ICT solutions; open GEONETCast40 for alerting purposes; strengthen the European leadership in ICT solutions; and to pave the road for a long-term ICT cooperation with Africa.

One of the most impressive examples of initiatives currently being implemented is not in SSA, but in India. It is the nationwide community watershed management programme, implemented by the central government, in where satellites assist planning activities, monitor progress in the many community disaster rehabilitation schemes, and evaluate the impact of projects. This process has lead to further support from cooperation agencies, as it is transparent and accountable approach, and it has led to the replication of similar schemes in many Asian regions.

Applying this to SSA would be of great benefit, because the region is amongst the most vulnerable to disasters. Implementing these would involve solving many organisational challenges that would need to be overcome to enable this to happen and further cooperation between nations to combine resources and capacity41.

6.2.1 Climate change

Climate change and DRM are inseparable topics today, and the impact of climate change in SSA is predicted to be severe. Global warming will in fact affect Africa

39 http://aida.vgt.vito.be/partners.html40 GEONETCast is a near real time, global network of satellite-based data dissemination systems designed to distribute space-based, air-borne and in situ data, metadata and products to diverse communities.41 http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/Real-time-satellite-data-for-natural-resources-management


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most and especially West and Central Africa are predicted to experience some of the highest temperature increases anywhere in the world. The range of impacts will affect agriculture and water resources, food security, coastal zones and human health. Other key assets at risk include natural resources as well as transport infrastructure (roads, bridges, airports and ports), energy infrastructure, water and sanitation systems and coastal defences. The situation will be worsened by the interaction of various other social, economical, technological and institutional factors related to development. These include extreme poverty, the rapid growth of the population, lack of access to finance, technology and information, the degradation of the environment, and conflicts.

Any future development of strategies, involving management systems, by African governments, institutions and relevant stakeholders alike, cannot afford to not take climate change into consideration and again ICTs can play a key role in the development of sustainable solutions.

ITU (International Telecommunications Union) has found that ICT is able to contribute to the fight against climate change in various ways. Firstly through reducing the environmental impact through the creation of standard methodology for calculating carbon footprint; promotion of NGN (Next generation Networking) (reducing power consumption by up to 40%); and online vs. print publication. Furthermore they find that the power of ICTs can be harnessed through; remote collaboration; intelligent transport systems; and sensor based networks based on RFID & telemetry. In their view climate change can be further monitored by conducting and managing studies on remote sensing and through providing key climate data via radio based applications42

Thus the mitigation of climate change can be aided on many areas by ICT, however as important as mitigation is in SSA, adaptation is even more so.

The development and implementation of adaptation strategies to climate change requires much the same level of research and institutional strengthening as shown with DRM above.

6.2.2 Food security

The causes of food crises are multiple and complex and climate change has a profound and unavoidable effect on these, such as increasing temperatures and shifting rain patterns causing reduced access to food across the continent. Recently food production and food shortages, has again hit the headlines, not only due to climate change but also the financial crisis, bio-fuel production, and oil price fluctuations43.

42 ITU and CC - www.itu.int/themes/climate43 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7774167.stm


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Climate change affects African food systems in the broadest sense of the word. It impacts on the availability of, access to and utilisation of food. The increase in frequency of extreme weather events such as floods, droughts, hail and heat waves can be fatal to crops. Apart from damaging crops directly, extreme climatological events may damage infrastructure such as roads which may prevent people from buying and selling food on the markets.

Changes in precipitation are not merely about increasing or decreasing rainfall. Rainy seasons that begin later or earlier than normal, or sudden rain spells hitting a region when it is supposed to be dry, have a greater impact on crops failing than a wetter rainy season that starts on time. As a result people have less access to food, which forces them to buy food products, which then affects their financial situation. It also influences their health as people often buy cheaper food which is frequently less nutritious.

Climate change not only impinges on the cultivation of crops but also the fishing industry. Fish stocks in large lakes across Africa are declining not only because of over-fishing but because of declining water levels due to evaporation as a result of rising temperatures.

Another scenario where the effects of climate change on the vulnerability of food systems become visible is where arable land is lost. This happens as a result of declining ground-water levels and rising sea levels. It can lead to aridity of the soil or increasing levels of saline. It reduces the suitability of land for cultivation of crops.

Such changes require farmers to alter their agricultural practices. Sorghum, for instance, is more heat resistant and therefore does better than maize in places where rainfall decreases. However, the question is whether communities that are used to and have a preference for maize will switch to sorghum or another more suitable staple crop. Further adaptation and awareness of alternatives would then be required and this is just one of the areas where ICTs can contribute in local development and food production.

As ICT is able to aid the ‘management’ of disasters, and climate change, it is able to further ‘work’ for food security in SS and the adequate management of natural resources relating to food production. ICT is now making it possible to have monitoring systems such as the Famine Early Warning System (FEWS) and the Global Information and Early Warning System (GIEWS) on a global level which monitors nutrition status and large scale threats, with the help of vulnerability information and mapping systems (FIVIMS). These are available on national and international levels, however on local level ICT is not yet having the full impact on strengthening efforts on food security.

ICT could have a greater impact through:


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shortening the distance and reducing transaction costs between stakeholders (Such as the Manobi example in section 5.2) aiding local decision makers require, generate, and provide relevant information about agricultural production. Enable relevant intermediate agencies (NGO, producers associations etc) to not only disseminate latest research and developments in food production, but also to assessing and brokering relevant information Capacity building through distance learning GID and database application for efficient land surveys and registration

Through specific projects and initiatives this is slowly reaching communities however often the technology and awareness of the possibilities does not reach those that most need it. Enrica Porcari from the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) expressed that ‘the information is often used by a select group of project farmers yet many such projects do not last beyond project funding," and ‘that it is not in the mandate of research institutions to disseminate the information to the farmers’.

The key recommendation from organisations such as IFPRI is that much investment, capacity building and development of suitable technologies is required, however crucially to ensure further food stability in regions the involvement of regional and local intermediate organisations is integral, as the link between the populations and ICT tools44.

6.3 Decision making

Decision making is a complex and long process at all levels of interventions. The need for support to decision-making processes is becoming more and more crucial due to new environmental challenges.

This is particularly true of primary-sector activities which are conducted in an environment given to instability and unsettled because of climate change effects. The use of ICT can provide systems to facilitate and secure appropriate information and data for appropriate decisions. Those systems include what is known as Decision Support Systems (DSS) and / or Knowledge Management Systems (KM).

Decision Support Systems (DSS) is a specific class of computerised information systems that supports organisational decision-making activities. A properly-designed DSS is an interactive software-based system intended to help decision makers compile useful information from raw data, documents and personal knowledge, to identify and solve problems and make decisions.

Knowledge Management (KM) refers to a range of practices used in organisations to identify, create, represent, distribute and enable adoption of insights and experiences. Such insights and experiences comprise knowledge, either embodied in individuals or embedded in organisational processes or practice.44 IFPRI, International Food Policy Research Institute, ‘Making Information and Communications Technologies Work for Food Security in Africa, 2004


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These mechanisms and systems are important to decision making processes, but the quality of the information and data (raw data, traditional knowledge, research, etc) and the involvement of stakeholders are also critical. Lack of involvement of the people most affected is a consistent failing in development programming where the major decision-makers are often geographically, economically and socially remote from these people.

There are three decision-making traps that must be avoided if the value of ICTs to the overall development process is to be optimized. The first is where decisions about the technologies themselves, in isolation from the development context, guide decision-making; this places the ICT experts at the centre of the decision-making. The second is where the ICTs are viewed from an efficiency model point of view; the first ‘line of sight’ for development organizations related to ICTs is to view them as helpful in doing their business quicker and better and this places the development organization staff at the centre of the decision-making. The third trap is set by the argument that development issues are complex and difficult and therefore require guidance from the best formally educated and most well-read people in order to reach the most astute and well informed decisions.

The added value of ICTs for enhancing the engagement of the people most affected in decision-making about action on the issues that most concern them is reflected in the ICT literature at two levels: decision-making about the priority use and development of the ICTs themselves; and using the ICTs to engage more people centrally affected by development issues in overall decision making processes.

The technology for such involvement exists. Meetings can be held virtually or in a combination of face-to-face and virtual. Simple technologies including instant messaging and instant quick polls and surveys, allied with direct submission facilities, provide easy ways to both gain input and discuss options. Through such mechanisms, the technology serves the essential requirements for effective development – in this case, the people most affected by development issues being involved in making the decisions that affect their circumstances and prospects.

Specifically PGIS45 which is aimed at community engagement and empowerment that if used in the prescribed manner, can ensure participation, innovation and social change in communities, with the full involvement of communities ensuring ownership of spatial data and ensuring control of their environment.

45 PGIS combines a range of geo-spatial information management tools and methods such as sketch maps, participatory 3D models, community-based air photo and satellite imagery interpretation, GPS transect walks and GIS-based cognitive mapping. Participatory GIS implies making GIT&S available to disadvantaged groups in society in order to enhance their capacity in generating, managing, analysing and communicating spatial information.


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But, if we consider local development and Natural Resources Management, how can ICTs be tools for decision making? There are different levels to be considered: individual producer, local council, Farmers Organizations and State.

Decision-making regarding individual producers

The lack of mechanisms for accessing information is the root cause of the vulnerability of family-owned farms, which suffer from the effects of the liberalisation of the economy, coupled with the disappearance of State mechanisms for support to production and prices. Small-scale fishermen and farmers are finding it extremely difficult to keep pace with an economy ruled by market laws alone. Agricultural producers’ income has considerably decreased, since they are in no position to set market prices before selling their produce or catches to middlemen who, generally, offer prices lower than those of the market.

In Senegal, an experiment based on the use of ICT has helped provide, in real time, for fruit and vegetable producers in the Niayes area (a market- gardening region in the Western part of the country) information on prices offered on the major urban markets, through mobile phones and the Internet. Thanks to this, each producer can check supply and demand concerning various urban markets, and locate the place where they can get the best prices. Consequently, producers in this area have been able to boost their prices by more than 50% thanks to the system developed by Manobi (See 5.2 for Manobi example).

In addition to the increase in the income of small- scale rural producers, the experiment has shown the economic and technical viability of the use of the mobile phone in the rural, ill-equipped areas in order to create services that help producers to increase their income.

Decision-making at community level (to be edited)

On achieving independence, most States in Sub-Saharan Africa changed their land- tenure systems in order to promote agriculture. One of the major aspects of the new systems rests on the principle of land development as a pre-condition for access to lands, and for the reinforcement of land rights granted by the Government. However, cattle-breeding has not been considered as a way of developing rural lands. Instead, this activity has been marginalised and, at best, tolerated in certain areas. Under such circumstances, the increase in the pressure exercised by man on resources, together with the dominance of agriculture, including in the traditional cattle-breeding areas, lead to unprecedented conflicts, with feelings running particularly high as such conflicts involve various antagonistic communities.

To remedy this situation, several projects have embarked on a process of creation of plans to manage cattle runs, using GPS, GIS and mapping. Such plans aim to be tools to regulate NRM and, in operational terms, are changed into a code of conduct


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agreed by all the actors concerned. The operationalisation of such plans is a major challenge connected to the issue of the legitimacy and political powers of the bodies responsible for their implementation.

Such a challenge is of considerable importance regarding the Sahel’s pastoral areas where individual strategies are increasingly taking precedence over common approaches to NRM. The experiments which have been conducted show that cattle breeders can engage in negotiations on ways to access resources and reach compromises acceptable to all users of pastures and standpipes. It is when the initially agreed rules are to be applied that problems arise. Indeed, everyone seeks to get round the rules or to evade the constraints attached to the observance of such rules. This point to the need for a particular body with the legitimacy and powers required for the application of the rules and to mediate between individual and collective interests.

Decision-making in relation to socio-professional associations

In Sub-Saharan Africa, the issues related to equitable access to the land are due to the fact that land is one of the major assets for productive activities in rural areas. It seems crucial to secure equitable access to lands in the areas where poverty is increasing. This need is all the stronger since the main strategies to eliminate poverty take agricultural recovery as the main path to economic growth. Access to land is a must for farmers to get credit, make use of scientific and technical innovations, and improve their livelihoods thanks to the modernisation of agricultural activities and the increased profitability of crop systems.

To meet such a need, Senegalese farmers’ associations gathered within the CNCR have been insisting on the transformation of land property rights held by rural producers- which are just rights of use- into land titles. If one is to do justice to such a claim, a new legislation should be adopted, which gives to the holders of those rights of use the opportunity, at any time, to change such a right into a lease or land title. For this not to give rise to a rush to get the lands registered, or to be eluded by capital holders, a land tax could be created. This will act as a mechanism to discourage those who have not got plans to develop lands in a profitable way, to apply.

Land registration is quite a challenge. The approach which has been adopted by the technical services concerned (Land and Tax departments) to demarcate land plots is often not satisfactory. It is expensive and counterproductive for farmers to mobilise land surveyors to work out plots of land, if it is low-yield lands. While the current land legislation makes it possible for the land holder to register the land and get a lease or land title, very few have done so as, as it is too costly.

Some alternative solutions will have to be found to the traditional methods of land plotting that are cumbersome and costly. For that purpose; farmers’ associations are


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advocating the use of more flexible techniques that rely on the use ICT and GPS. Some interesting experiments have been carried out by the Centre for Ecological Monitoring in relation to mapmaking, and by several rural communities that have conducted land plotting operations for housing or agriculture.

Decision-making at national level

In order to find a structured answer to repeated food crises affecting countries in sub-Saharan Africa, most Governments have set up an institutional framework and tools to prevent and manage crises. Those mechanisms have, as their main duties, to contribute to the lessening of the food vulnerability of the populations, thanks to an improved coordination and management of interventions, though, among others: (a) the development of strategies to prevent food crises; (b) the building of the capacities of the populations for protection against crises and the reconstruction of their economies; and (c) the improvement of the consistency and efficiency of the public response to food crises.

In keeping with the above, many countries in the region have now got environmental- alert systems based on the lessons learnt from the past agricultural season. Thanks to the help from some specialised regional institutions like AGRHYMET, many counties have created models to identify risk areas regarding rain-fed crops, by using first NDVI data. Early in the rainy season, the results allow to identify those areas where abnormal conditions in the space and/ or time-related distribution of rainfalls announce a deficit in agricultural production.

Such data can alert government authorities and development partners, so that they may take anticipatory measures on, among other things, the planning of cereal flows between the regions with excess production and those with a deficit; the rebuilding of the national safety stock; the mobilisation of external aid etc. If factors beside drought can seriously impact the outcomes of the agricultural season, then data on the monitoring of rain fall pauses are a vital tool to prevent food crises.

7 EMERGING ISSUES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH AND ACTION: SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

7.1 Introduction

The choice made to identify emerging issues for further research is dictated by the need to find out the most promising areas of application of ICTs in relation to local development. This, within the framework of the preparation of a Pan African research project on ICTs, Natural Resources Management and local development.


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In order to meet the many challenges of local development, those applications should be imagined in relation to the need for local communities to meet their new responsibilities.

There are many promising applications areas as far as local development is concerned (ICTs for NRM, linking informal sector to the world market, climate change adaptation, democratic governance, mainstreaming gender into local development, capacity building, health, internet for youth and Diaspora in local development etc). However, the aim here is not to provide an exhaustive list of all possible and appropriate applications of ICTs to local development, but rather to give a few examples of promising applications in relation to NRM and local development in order to introduce discussions around the issue during the workshop.

The examples given below are related to decision making processes for local development, land reform and related conflict prevention, EcoHealth, and internet for social change, which have been found to be relevant for local development in the current context.

7.2 Using ICTs to strengthen Decision Making Processes for Local Development

In order to better comprehend the challenges in local development, decision makers are progressively inclined to gather the maximum amount of integrated data relating to social and economic objectives (Millennium Development Goals) and concerning natural resources management (soils, agriculture, forestry, hydrology, etc.). Such data include traditional knowledge, scientific data gathered by researchers and public institutions, and other elements from basic data on land assets, health, women and children’s living conditions, policies and programmes in progress etc.

The methodology used for the collection of the data should be based on a participatory approach taking into account the needs of local communities. Participatory activities should be held in order to bring people to list priorities relevant to their development. The formatting and presentation of data calls for lessons learnt in information sharing and exchange between local communities and government officials; this on the base of a smooth integration of the various categories of knowledge, ranging from traditional to peripheral and academic.

The integration of the data should be designed as a process of continuous learning for all participants and serve as a base for equitable planning, negotiation and decision making. So the data should be communicated in an effective way to all stakeholders, and knowledge should be share equitably in order to enhance transparency in the decision making process. From such a point of view, three major dimensions should be considered, regarding the implementation of a Participatory


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Geographical Information System (PGIS) within a local community: i) local councilors’ commitment to use PGIS as a tool to strengthen social policies and the decision making process; ii) cross-sector consultation and coordination in data collection, storage and updating; iii) the participation of the community in the global process of collecting and processing of data.

Using PGIS as a tool in Decision Making Processes is a great opportunity in achieving the Millennium development Goals at the level of local communities in the perspective of poverty reduction. PGIS can assist local councilors to fill in gaps in policies and to identify the needs and priorities of local communities.

The rationale for using PGIS to achieve MDG can be explained by different factors: i) new responsibilities transferred to local councilors concerning the management and funding of health services and others sectors including education, sanitation and access to clean water; ii) the opportunity to articulate MDGs with the social policies initiated at local level; iii) the councilors’ capacity to make the MDGs more operational, thanks to new responsibilities transferred to them in the framework of the decentralization process.

7.3 Using PGIS for an enabling land reform policy and conflict prevention

According to statistics provided by FAO, the price index of food was in March 2008, 57% higher than a year earlier. By comparing this index to the average price of the years 1998-2000, FAO estimates the inflation at 220%. Among the factors underlying the surge in prices are: (i) the world production of major commodities and the level of global stocks: (ii) the increase in food demand in the long term supported by the population growth, (iii) the increasing demand for agricultural products for bio-fuels sectors, and (iv) the increase in oil prices which induced an increase in the cost of processing and transport of products food.

This inflation of commodity prices between 2007 and 2008, as was the case during the 1970s, has prompted many investors to invest in land. As indicated by Grain, in a report published in October 2008: “Because of the current financial debacle, investors (pension and hedge funds, etc.) have redirected their investments towards the land at the expense of financial markets, knowing that agricultural lands have become a new strategic asset.’’ Private investors are not the only ones who are involved in the rush for lands. Many State governments seek to develop agricultural enclaves outside their national borders to deal with their national increasing demand for food products46.

46 In a region like the Middle East where arable land is increasingly scarce, the oil monarchies are investing in creating extra annexes. Qatar has the land in Indonesia, Bahrain has enclaves in the Philippines and Kuwait, in Burma, etc.. According to estimates made by Carfantan five countries differ in the importance of their land acquisitions abroad: China, South Korea, United Arab Emirates, Japan and Saudi Arabia. Together, they now have over 7.6 million hectares to grow outside national territory.


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Sub-Saharan Africa has not been spared by this new dynamic of acquisition of land on a large scale by foreign countries. In 2006, China signed agreements with several African States (Zambia, Zimbabwe, Uganda, Tanzania, etc.) for experimental farming. According to Carfantan47, by 2010, one million Chinese farmers could be installed on these lands.

Examples of Mali and Senegal:The process of acquisition of agricultural land is well underway in countries like Mali, where the agricultural projects run by investors claim 360,000 hectares. In the development area of the Office du Niger, Malibya, a Libyan company connected to the family of the Libyan leader, has been granted 100,000 hectares of land. These allocations of land rights to foreign investors are all the more resented since they happen to the detriment of local farmers.Purchase of land rights to promote agricultural business also concerns Senegal, where ethanol production has been elevated to a priority by the national government. According to official forecast, the development of Jatropha should extend to over 320,000 ha in 2012. In order to achieve this objective, the Senegalese Government is encouraging foreign investors to create large agricultural enterprises in the country. In response to this invitation, many investors have developed plans to develop agricultural businesses. For example, the Norwegian company Agro-Africa is seeking to develop the production of ethanol in the area of Vélingara (200,000 ha, Province of Casamance). In the province of Thies and around the Senegal River Delta, there is a significant gap between the acquisition of land and the actually developed. This situation stems from a strategy of land ‘’freezing’’, adopted by land owners who aim to sell their legal property later. Other private investors who have been granted lands have already sold them, after faking a collapse of their agricultural businesses. Consequently, this leads to land insecurity for the small farmers whose land rights are not formally recognized.

If these trends are maintained, they will lead directly to large social conflicts. To remedy this situation, farmers' organizations, as in Senegal, are demanding the transformation of land rights held by rural producers – which in fact are just rights to use the land - into land titles. But, the registration of land is a real challenge due to the fact that small farmers can not afford meet requirement to get their lands registered. Given such formidable challenges, ICTs (GPS, PGIS, etc) could play a major role in mapping land and others natural resources and in allowing local communities to identify and get their lands registered. The role of ICTs in meeting those challenges and in preventing social conflicts has been widely acknowledged by farmer’s organizations.

47 Carfantan, J-Y., 2009 Choc alimentaire mondial, ce qui nous attend demain. Albin Michel


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7.4 ICTs and EcoHealth: Reinforcing trans-disciplinary research methods

ICTs are already used in the field of health in many countries today. The “telemedicine project” supported by IDRC in several African countries (Burkina Faso, Rep. of Guinea, Mali, Senegal, Tunisia, etc.), is an interesting experiment providing virtual health-related services which may not be available locally. The objective of the project is to set up in each targeted country the required facilities and mechanism to allow consultations amongst stakeholders. There are many other cases around the world, but the use of ICTs has not been extended far enough to improve research in EcoHealth.

Unlike the usual approach to health, Ecohealth gives as much importance to an appropriate management of the environment and resource management, as to economic and social factors and health proper. The complex interactions between those factors make it necessary for researchers to adopt a “trans-disciplinary” approach in other to meet the methodological requirement of Ecohealth.

Using PGIS could help researchers from various backgrounds, local communities, decision makers, etc. to build a shared vision. PGIS can be particularly helpful in the collection juxtaposition of data (interrelation between land use, water resources, cattle breeding and the prevalence of some diseases).

7.5 Web 2: Changing the face of local development?

Over the last decade the Internet has developed rapidly, and is now not only used for emailing and stand-alone websites disseminating information, but it is now also providing space for multiple party engagement and networking. This is especially through web-based communities and services such as social networking sites (Face Book, My Space etc.) wiki’s, blogs etc. that aim to facilitate creativity, collaboration and sharing amongst users.

Developments such as these have enabled new links between individuals and communities, and distance has become less of an obstacle for people to engage in ‘real time’.

Local development can be seen as having been ‘steered’ by two systematic/organised channels.Firstly the direct links with central and local government departments that determine the direction and central areas of focus local development should be concerned around. Secondly communities also have similar organised links with communities and municipalities outside the national boundaries (decentralised cooperation), inspiring and guiding development efforts.


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Now it is possible to see a third channel guiding and mobilising local development, through migrants and Diaspora relations with local communities, which has been and continues to develop with the aid of especially the internet and phone. Diaspora and migrants may physically leave their communities, but in most cases they still remain very much a part of the community and contribute to the local development. By eliminating the barrier of physical distance, ITC allow migrants all over the world to keep close relationships with their communities and country of origin. Both the phone and the internet enable the Diaspora to regularly exchange information with parents and relatives, monitor and participate in the management of local affairs. ICT have proven to be appropriate tools to raise Diaspora awareness about local development challenges, and give migrants incentives to transfer resources through remittances.

One example of the direct involvement the Diaspora have can be seen in Touba, Senegal, where contributions from ‘community members’, individuals and hometown associations, residing in South Africa, Europe and the States are funding and coordinating the building and equipping of one of the biggest hospitals for the city and surrounding region.

The population of SSA is young and it is mainly the youth that are steering and using these new ‘community ‘spaces’ that the recent developments of the internet have allowed the creation of. It is expected that over the next 10-15 years this is going to be the basis of even further social change and a change to the social realities in many communities across the continent.

Rethinking local development, and thus also NRM, in this new perspective means conducting further research in three possible directions. The first direction is to assess the impact of ICT in building and strengthening social capital, including networks and kinship relationship, and capacity building critical for the survival of communities particularly in rural areas. Efforts in this direction could be geared towards case studies focusing on specific communities. The second track could be to document the role of ICT and Diaspora involvement on improving local governance. The attention could be paid to how citizens use web-based forums and discussions to contribute ideas, ask questions and challenge local leadership regarding the management of local governments. The third direction could deal with the role of ICT in sensitizing and mobilizing citizens, including the Diaspora, to build and rehabilitate social infrastructures such as health and education infrastructures in the local communities.

Research in all three directions should in effect strive to analyse social changes introduced by the use of ICT technologies and their effects on the future of communities.


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8 CONCLUSION

This paper has attempted to give an overview of current developments and challenges around ICT, NRM and development, and is meant as an introductory note to the regional ICT4D workshop that IDRC has convened in Dakar in May 2009. This workshop will address not only NRM, but ICT4D in sub-Saharan Africa in general. The paper is furthermore part of the preparations of a Pan African research programme on the effects of and possibilities around ICT4D.

The ultimate objective of the paper is to inspire discussions of the most promising usages of ICT for NRM and local development and the possible areas of research proposed throughout the document are only a few of the numerous areas that the workshop will address. ICT4D is a field that goes across all disciplines and there is still huge scope for application of ICTs to NRM and local development that can and should be explored, and this workshop will be able to further contribute to the subject and research agenda developments

Challenges and opportunities around the application of ICT in the field of NRM and local development are vast. The technologies exist, however hurdles such as infrastructure, cartels controlling access, cost and development of appropriate versions of the technologies for sub-Saharan specificities are still outstanding in the majority of SSA regions.

The ‘new’ challenges to NRM and local development reveal areas where ICT is and will have an even greater potential influence. Mitigation and adaptation in relation to climate change is one area where the application of ICTs is integral and is set to play an even greater role over the coming years. As shown especially around disaster risk management ICT is enabling the reduction of risk and improving capacity to respond to disasters amongst others.

Specifically relating to local development and local resources it was here found that especially local decision making processes, be they by the individual, local organisations or authorities, using ICTs can substantially increase the involvement of local stakeholders and improve sustainability of any development efforts. This is not only in relation to managing NRM, but also to decide on the technologies themselves as to ensure local ‘buy-in’, to ensure that the technologies are appropriate for the local conditions, and applicable to relevant challenges facing the population. This is in all aspects of the effort, not only around research, but also the related knowledge management, decision support systems, and monitoring and evaluation. It appears that Web 2 and the next evolution of internet will especially open new avenues for local development and further reductions in cost and portable technologies even more so.


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15. CRDI. 2006. ACACIA prospectus 2006-2011

16. CRDI. « ACACIA : collectivités et société de l’information en Afrique » in www.idrc.ca/acacia

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18. DECOSTER, D-P. 1998. Processus et acteurs du Développement local, ULB

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20. EVENO, E. 1993. « Communication et Territoire », Toulouse, PUM, p 294

21. GRANIE A-M, GUETAT-Bernard H. 2006. Empreintes et inventivités des femmes dans le monde rural, Toulouse, PUM, p 323

22. GREFFE, X. 2002. « Le développement local » Editions de l’aube, DATAR, La tour d’aigues, p 199

23. HOLMBERG J. may 2007. “Natural resources in sub-Saharan Africa: assets and vulnerabilities”, A contribution to the Swedish Government White Paper on Africa commissioned by the Nordic Africa Institute, Brussels.

24. HOUENINVO-DOSSU, A. « Dossier documentaire sur la question Genre et Développement », ROAD (Réseau ouest africain de documentation, d’information et de communication).

25. La Commission pour l’Afrique, 2005. « Notre intérêt commun : Rapport de la commission pour l’Afrique », Rapport de la Commission pour l’Afrique.

26. Legros O., 2008. « Participation citadines et action publique : Dakar, Rabat, Cotonou, Tunis, Jérusalem, Sanaa », Adels/Yves michel.

27. Lo M. et Touré O., 2005. « Les Synergies entre le NEPAD et les Accords Multilatéraux sur l’Environnement », Etudes et Recherche, n°245, enda editions.

28. Molo Thioune R., 2003. « Technologies de l’information et de la communication pour le développement en Afrique » Volume 1 Potentialités et défis pour le développement communautaire, CRDI, CODESRIA.

29. Mottin-Sylla M.H, Sèye Sylla F., Ly S.K., 2004. « Citoyennes africaines de la société de l’information », Etudes et recherches n°231, enda, Dakar,

30. Mottin-Sylla M.H, 2005. « Fracture numérique de genre en Afrique francophone : une inquiétante réalité », Etudes et Recherches, n°244, enda éditions, Dakar,


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31. Narathius Asingwire, Makerere University. 2001. « ACACIA ICTs and community-based development Projects : an evaluation study of economic through ICTs and AHI-ACACIA Projects in UGANDA »

32. PECQUEUR, B. 2000. « Le développement local », Paris, Syros, Alternatives économiques, 132p.

33. PECQUEUR, B. 1994, «le développement local : mode ou modèle ? », Paris, Syros Alternatives,

34. RIST G.1996. Le développement, histoire d’une croyance occidentale, Paris, Presse de la FNSP,

35. Smith M., Engler N.J, Gideon C., Diga K., Rashid A. et K., Flynn-Dapah, 2008. “Des TIC-D ouvertes” Document de travail du CRDI

36. SOW, F, AYESHA M, MAMA A. (2004), Sexe, Genre et Société : engendre les sciences sociales africaines, Karthala & Codesria,

37. THERIAULT, M, PRELAZ-DOUX R. 2002. « SIG et Développement du territoire » Vol 1, pp 300-474.

38. TYLER, S. R., 2006. « La cogestion des ressources naturelles : réduire la pauvreté par l’apprentissage local », Focus, CRDI.

39. Unwin T., 2005. “Partnerships in Development Practice: Evidence from multi-stakeholder ICT4D partnership practice in Africa.” UNESCO Publications for the World Summit on the Information Society.

Articles and Web sites

40. Adda J.F., 2004. « Ghana : Les femmes de Naga, les TIC et la gestion des ressources naturelles », ICT Update, CTA, n°21.http://ictupdate.cta.int/fr/Dossiers/Ghana-Les-femmes-de-Naga-les-TIC-et-la-gestion-des-ressources-naturelles

41. Association of American Geographers, 2009, Annual Meeting, www.aag.org/annualmeetings/2009/tracks/africa.htm

42. BANKS, K; BURGE, R. « Mobile phones: An appropriate Tool for conservation and development? In http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/feature-artcles/extending-x-ray-vision/(issue)/48

43. Barisano E., Genillon P., Gilliams S., 2008. “L’Outil Spatial au Service de la Gestion des Catastrophes et des situations d’Urgence en Afrique-Aspects Techniques, Organisationnels et Juridiques“ AÏDA: Advancing ICT for DRM in Africa, Rabat.


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http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/feature-artcles/extending-x-ray-vision/(issue)/48

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http://www.aag.org/annualmeetings/2009/tracks/africa.htm

http://ictupdate.cta.int/fr/Dossiers/Ghana-Les-femmes-de-Naga-les-TIC-et-la-gestion-des-ressources-naturelles

http://ictupdate.cta.int/fr/Dossiers/Ghana-Les-femmes-de-Naga-les-TIC-et-la-gestion-des-ressources-naturelles

44. Conference news Understanding “Informational Developments : Mapping future research Agenda” UNRISD Workshop, 26-27th September 2003, 29 pages

45. CGIAR Inter-Center Working Group on INRM, 2000

46. CTA, Septembre 2005, « SIG Participatifs », ICT Update, Un bulletin d’alerte pour l’agriculture ACP, n°27.http://icupdate.cta.int/fr/(issue)/27

47. CTA, July 2004. « Forest management », ICT Update, Un bulletin d’alerte pour l’agriculture ACP, n°19.

48. CRDI, 2006. « Le CRDI au Zimbabwe » Une science pour l’humanité. http://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/12045661291Zimbabwe_fr_web.pdf

49. CRDI, 1997. « Rôle des TICs dans la mise en oeuvre de la politique de décentralisation au Sénégal », ICT4D, Acacia.

50. Enda Tiers Monde/ProVention, 2008. « Disaster Risk Reduction in West and Central Africa: Local perspectives », p.91

51. ESA portail – satellites help locate water in Niger 2 pages www.esa.int

52. FAO, 2009. “Virtual change: Indicators for assessing the impact of ICTs in development”,

53. FRAO-WARF, 2002. « Introduction des technologies de l’information et de la communication dans un cadre programmatique de gestion et de réhabilitation des terroirs villageois : ACACIA/GRTV », Rapport technique final,.

54. Gata T., Handja G.T, Long C. et Lutonde E., 2008. « La cartographie participative et la planification de l’utilisation des terres : expériences en république démocratique du Congo », Rainforest foundation Royaume Uni et Norvège et du Centre pour l’environnement et le développement du Cameroun », p.26 www.iapad.org/publications/ppgis/cartopart.pdf

55. G&D News No 84, 29 April 2009

56. Heeks Richard, 2007. “e-Africa and m-Africa How can ICTs deliver?”

57. HEEKS R. (2009) ICTs and the Worlds Bottom Billion, Centre for Development Informatics, IDPM, University of Manchester, UK, p2

58. Heeks, R. et JAGUN A., may 2007. « m-Development : Current Issues and Research Priorities », e-Development Briefing, n°12, Development Informatics Group, University of Manchester.

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http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?page=imprimersans&id_article=424

http://www.iapad.org/publications/ppgis/cartopart.pdf

http://www.esa.int/

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http://icupdate.cta.int/fr/(issue)/27

60. IFPRI, International Food Policy Research Institute, 2004. ‘Making Information and Communications Technologies Work for Food Security in Africa”.

61. International Telecommunication Union, 2009 “World telecommunication standardisation assembly Johannesbourg, 21-30 october 2008: Resolution 73 – Information and communication technologies and climate change”

62. Kolosy, K.2006. « Le développement local : réflexion pour une définition théorique du concept », in http://www.globenet.org/archives/web/2006 consultée le 24 Avril 2009

63. LEAD Africa, 2009. « African Leadership on climate change: challenges and solutions for African Regional Institutions », Paper for Workshop.

64. Murphy C., Slater Jones S., 2005. « NTIC et gestion communautaire des ressources en Namibie », ICT Update, CTA, n°27. http://ictupdate.cta.int/fr/Dossiers/NTIC-et-gestion-communautaire-des-ressources-en-Namibie

65. Okpaku J. Dr, Sr, 2002. « Regional Workshop on Building e-Governance Capacity in African Countries », Background Paper on ICT-for-Development in Africa For the United Nation ICT Task Force.

66. Powell M., march 2004. “Informational Developments and social change-draft outline v4”, UNRISD

67. Program and Partnership Branch International Development, 2005. “Urban Poverty and Environment Prospectus 2005-2010”, , Research Centre, Ottawa Canada, , 29 pages

68. Saunby, M ; Buontempo C. 2007. « Un « mashup » consacré au climat » in http://ictupdate.cta.int.fr/dossiers/un-mashup-consacré-au-climat/(issue)/39

69. Simon Batchelor M., Gamos, Hafkin Nancy, Chéneau-Loquay Annie, Oct 2005. “Résumé du rapport de l’examen externe de l’initiative de programme ACACIA II Rapport au conseil des gouverneurs du CRDI”, CRDI,

70. Sommer R., Wenger R., Wymann von Dach S., 2007. « Technologies d’information géographique pour la gestion des ressources naturelles » inforessources focus n°3. www.info resources .ch/pdf/focus07_3_f.pdf

71. STEHENSON J., WILLIAMS J., 2004. “Real-time satellite data for natural resources management”, IDRC, issue 20 Agrometeorology.

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http://www.inforesources.ch/pdf/focus07_3_f.pdf

http://ictupdate.cta.int.fr/dossiers/un-mashup-consacr%C3%A9-au-climat/(issue)/39

http://ictupdate.cta.int/fr/Dossiers/NTIC-et-gestion-communautaire-des-ressources-en-Namibie

http://ictupdate.cta.int/fr/Dossiers/NTIC-et-gestion-communautaire-des-ressources-en-Namibie

http://www.globenet.org/archives/web/2006

10 ANNEX A: INTERNAL CONSULTATIONS

Fatou Sow, Coordinatrice projet Dimitra « Genre et Développement » et du Réseau National des femmes rurales du Sénégal, ENDA Pronat

Cheikh Gueye, Chercheur géographe conseiller du secrétariat exécutif, ENDA Siège

Bachir Kanouté, Directeur des programmes, ENDA Ecopop

Malick Gay, Directeur des programmes, ENDA RUP

11 ANNEX B: EXTERNAL CONSULTATIONS

Déthié Soumaré Ndiaye, Forestier, CSE

Grégoire Leclerc, Chercheur, CIRAD

Olivier Sagna, Secrétaire général d’Osiris

Giacomo Rambaldini, Senior programme manager, CTA

Ousseynou Ly, Bureau international du travail, CTA

12 ANNEX C: INTERNET RESOURCES

Advancing ICT for Disaster risk management in Africahttp://aida.vgt.vito.be

International Institute for Communication and Development (IICD)http://www.iicd.org/

Research ICT Africa!http://www.researchictafrica.net/

Global Knowledge Partnership (GKP)http://www.globalknowledge.org

FAO - Virtual change - Indicators for assessing the impact of ICTs in developmenthttp://www.fao.org/docrep/011/i0494e/i0494e00.HTM

International Telecommunication Unionhttp://www.itu.int

InfoDevhttp://www.infodev.org


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http://www.infodev.org/

http://www.itu.int/

http://www.fao.org/docrep/011/i0494e/i0494e00.HTM

http://www.globalknowledge.org/

http://www.researchictafrica.net/

http://www.iicd.org/

http://aida.vgt.vito.be/

IDRC ACACIAhttp://www.idrc.ca/acacia/

IDPMhttp://www.sed.manchester.ac.uk/idpm/research/

ESA Tiger Initiativehttp://www.tiger.esa.int/home.asp

Research Into Use (DFID)http://www.researchintouse.com

Iconnect online (IICD)http://www.iconnect-online.org/home/

dgCommunitieshttp://ict.developmentgateway.org/

The African Centre for Women, Information and Communications Technologyhttp://www.acwict.org/

European Space Agencyhttp://www.esa.int

EIS-Africahttp://www.eis-africa.org/EIS-Africa/

Link Centrehttp://link.wits.ac.za/

Osirishttp://www.osiris.sn/

UNRISDhttp://www.unrisd.org/

CGIARhttp://www.cgiar.org/

CTAhttp://www.cta.int/

CIRADhttp://www.cirad.fr/

IRDhttp://www.ird.fr/

UNEP


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http://www.ird.fr/

http://www.cirad.fr/

http://www.cta.int/

http://www.cgiar.org/

http://www.unrisd.org/

http://www.osiris.sn/

http://link.wits.ac.za/

http://www.eis-africa.org/EIS-Africa/

http://www.esa.int/

http://www.acwict.org/

http://ict.developmentgateway.org/

http://www.iconnect-online.org/home/

http://www.researchintouse.com/

http://www.tiger.esa.int/home.asp

http://www.sed.manchester.ac.uk/idpm/research/

http://www.idrc.ca/acacia/

http://www.unep.org/

IDShttp://www.ids.ac.uk/

EJISDCwww. ejisdc .org/

Web 2.0 http://www.takingitglobal.org

GenderIThttp://www.GenderIT.org


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http://www.GenderIT.org/

http://www.takingitglobal.org/

http://www.ejisdc.org/

http://www.ids.ac.uk/

http://www.unep.org/

“ICT, NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND LOCAL DEVELOPMENT”

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