Iconoclasm 1

Iconoclasm

Example of iconoclasm in the 16th century during the Reformation. Reliefstatues in St. Stevenskerk in Nijmegen, the Netherlands, were attacked and

defaced in the Beeldenstorm.

Looting of the Churches of Lyon by the Calvinists in 1562. Antoine Carot.

Iconoclasm[1] is the deliberate destruction ofreligious icons and other symbols or monuments,usually with religious or political motives. It is afrequent component of major political or religiouschanges. The term encompasses the more specificdestruction of images of a ruler after his death oroverthrow (damnatio memoriae), for example,following Akhenaten's death in Ancient Egypt.

People who engage in or support iconoclasm arecalled "iconoclasts", a term that has come to beapplied figuratively to any individual whochallenges established dogma or conventions.Conversely, people who revere or veneratereligious images are (by iconoclasts) called"iconolaters". In a Byzantine context, they areknown as "iconodules", or "iconophiles".

Iconoclasm may be carried out by people of adifferent religion, but is often the result ofsectarian disputes between factions of the samereligion. In Christianity, iconoclasm has generallybeen motivated by people who adopt a literalinterpretation of the Ten Commandments, whichforbid the making and worshipping of "gravenimages or any likeness of anything".[2] The degreeof iconoclasm among Christian sects greatlyvaries.

Major instances

• In Judaism, King Hezekiah purged Solomon'sTemple in Jerusalem and the Land of Israel of figures, including the Nehushtan, as recorded in the Second Bookof Kings. His reforms were reversed in the reign of his son Manasseh.

• A midrash included in Genesis Rabba attributes a major act of iconoclasm to Abraham. Although not attested inthe Biblical account of the Partriarch's life, it became an important aspect of Abraham's character in later Jewishtradition.

• During the process of Christianisation under Constantine, groups destroyed the images and sculptures expressiveof the Roman Empire's polytheist state religion.

• The Eastern Orthodox Church had a period of Byzantine iconoclasm during the late medieval years, in whichsome groups destroyed the church's religious imagery.

• During the rule of Girolamo Savonarola in Florence between 1494 and 1497, the Bonfire of the Vanities tookplace. Books, works of art, mirrors, cosmetics, sculptures, gaming tables, chess pieces, musical instruments, finedresses and women’s hats were burnt in public view.

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•• When Spanish and Portuguese Christians took control of Iberia, they built churches over mosques and destroyedother imagery of Islam.

• Shahjahan during his rule destroyed hundreds of Hindu temples.• Muhammad of Ghor destoyed several Hindu temples and relics and looted the temple wealth.• During the Protestant Reformation and the European wars of religion, known as the Beeldenstorm in the

Netherlands, Protestants destroyed traditional (by then considered Catholic) imagery in churches, includingpaintings, sculptures and other representations. In some instances, Protestants destroyed the imagery of otherProtestants.

• Most of the moai of Easter Island were toppled during the 18th century in the iconoclasm of civil wars.•• Most of the Polytheistic religious deities and texts of Pre-Western Americas, Oceania, and Africa, were destroyed

by Christian missionaries and their converts.• During the French Revolution, people widely destroyed religious and monarchical imagery.• During and after the Russian Revolution, widespread destruction of religious and secular imagery took place, as

well as destruction of imagery related to the Czar.• During and after the Communist overthrow of the monarchy in China, as well as during the later Cultural

Revolution, there was widespread destruction of religious and secular imagery in China, including in Tibet.• After the Second Vatican Council in the late twentieth century, some Roman Catholic parish churches discarded

much of their traditional imagery, art, and architecture.[3]

• During the 1956 Hungarian Revolution in Budapest, and through the fall of Communism in 1989, protesters oftenattacked and took down sculptures and images of Joseph Stalin, leader of the USSR.[4]

• The Taliban destroyed two ancient statues of Buddha at Bamyan in Afghanistan.[5]

•• The destruction of the sphinx nose, the white washing of rulers of Europe during the Dark Ages, the depiction ofChrist during the renaissance.

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Byzantine iconoclasm

An icon of the Seventh Ecumenical Council (17th century,Novodevichy Convent, Moscow).

In the Byzantine Empire, iconoclasm began withEmperor Leo III. The religious conflict created politicaland economic divisions in Byzantine society. It wasgenerally supported by the Eastern, poorer, non-Greekpeoples of the Empire[6] who had to deal frequentlywith raids from Arab lands. On the other hand, thewealthier Greeks of Constantinople, and also thepeoples of the Balkan and Italian provinces, stronglyopposed iconoclasm.[7]

Within the Byzantine Empire, which included bothChristians and Muslims, the government had likelybeen adopting Christian images more frequently. Onenotable change came in 695, when Justinian II'sgovernment added a full-face image of Christ on theobverse of imperial gold coins. The change caused theCaliph Abd al-Malik to stop his earlier adoption ofByzantine coin types. He started a purely Islamiccoinage with lettering only.[8] A letter by the patriarchGermanus written before 726 to two Iconoclast bishopssays that "now whole towns and multitudes of peopleare in considerable agitation over this matter" but thereis little written evidence of the debate.[9]

The first iconoclastic period: 730–787

Byzantine Iconoclasm, Chludov Psalter, 9th century.[10]

Sometime between 726 and 730, the ByzantineEmperor Leo III the Isaurian began the iconoclastcampaign.[11] He ordered the removal of an image ofJesus prominently placed over the Chalke gate, theceremonial entrance to the Great Palace ofConstantinople, and its replacement with a cross. Someof those assigned to the task were murdered by a bandof iconodules.[12]

Over the years conflict developed between those whowanted to use the images, claiming that they were"icons" to be "venerated", and the purists who claimedthey were simply idols. Pope Gregory III "convoked asynod in 730 and formally condemned iconoclasm asheretical and excommunicated its promoters. The papalletter never reached Constantinople as the messengerswere intercepted and arrested in Sicily by theByzantines".[13] The Byzantine Emperor Constantine V

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convened the Council of Hieria in 754.[14] The 338 bishops assembled concluded, "the unlawful art of painting livingcreatures blasphemed the fundamental doctrine of our salvation--namely, the Incarnation of Christ, and contradictedthe six holy synods. . . . If anyone shall endeavour to represent the forms of the Saints in lifeless pictures withmaterial colours which are of no value (for this notion is vain and introduced by the devil), and does not ratherrepresent their virtues as living images in himself, etc. . . . let him be anathema". This Council claimed to be thelegitimate "Seventh Ecumenical Council".[15]

Second Council of Nicaea 787In 780, Constantine VI ascended the throne in Constantinople, but being a minor, was managed by his motherEmpress Irene. She decided that an ecumenical council needed to be held to address the issue of iconoclasm anddirected this request to Pope Hadrian I (772–795) in Rome. He announced his agreement and called the conventionon 1 August 786 in the presence of the Emperor and Empress. The initial proceedings were interrupted by the violententry of iconoclast soldiers faithful to the memory of the prior Emperor Constantine V. This caused the council to beadjourned until a reliable army could be assembled to protect any proceedings. The council was reassembled atNicaea 24 September 787. During those proceedings the following was adopted:

... we declare that we defend free from any innovations all the written

and unwritten ecclesiastical traditions that have been entrusted to

us. One of these is the production of representational art; this is

quite in harmony with the history of the spread of the gospel, as it

provides confirmation that the becoming man of the Word of God was real

and not just imaginary, and as it brings us a similar benefit. For,

things that mutually illustrate one another undoubtedly possess one

another's message.

... we decree with full precision and care that, like the figure of the honoured and life-giving cross, therevered and holy images, whether painted or made of mosaic or of other suitable material, are to beexposed in the holy churches of God, on sacred instruments and vestments, on walls and panels, inhouses and by public ways; these are the images of our Lord, God and saviour, Jesus Christ, and of ourLady without blemish, the holy God-bearer, and of the revered angels and of any of the saintly holymen. The more frequently they are seen in representational art, the more are those who see them drawnto remember and long for those who serve as models, and to pay these images the tribute of salutationand respectful veneration. Certainly this is not the full adoration in accordance with our faith, which isproperly paid only to the divine nature, but it resembles that given to the figure of the honoured andlife-giving cross, and also to the holy books of the gospels and to other sacred cult objects.[16]

(Note:see [16] also for the original pretranslation text of this council in Greek and Latin)

Views in Byzantine iconoclasmAccounts of iconoclast arguments are largely found in iconodule writings. To understand iconoclastic arguments,one must note the main points:1. Iconoclasm condemned the making of any lifeless image (e.g., painting or statue) that was intended to represent

Jesus or one of the saints. The "Epitome of the Definition of the Iconoclastic Conciliabulum" (Synod of Hiereia)held in 754 declared:[17]

Supported by the Holy Scriptures and the Fathers, we declare unanimously, in the name of the Holy Trinity, that there shall be rejected and removed and cursed one of the Christian Church every likeness which is made out of any material and colour whatever by the evil art of painters.... If anyone ventures to represent the divine image (χαρακτήρ, charaktēr) of the Word after the Incarnation with material

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colours, let him be anathema! .... If anyone shall endeavour to represent the forms of the Saints inlifeless pictures with material colours which are of no value (for this notion is vain and introduced bythe devil), and does not rather represent their virtues as living images in himself, let him be anathema!

2. For iconoclasts, the only real religious image must be an exact likeness of the prototype—of the samesubstance—which they considered impossible, seeing wood and paint as empty of spirit and life. Thus foriconoclasts the only true (and permitted) "icon" of Jesus was the Eucharist, which was believed to be his body andblood.

3. Any true image of Jesus must be able to represent both his divine nature (which is impossible because it cannotbe seen nor encompassed) as well his human nature. But by making an icon of Jesus, one is separating his humanand divine natures, since only the human can be depicted (separating the natures was considered nestorianism), orelse confusing the human and divine natures, considering them one (union of the human and divine natures wasconsidered monophysitism).

4.4. Icon use for religious purposes was viewed as an innovation in the Church, a Satanic misleading of Christians toreturn to pagan practice.

Satan misled men, so that they worshipped the creature instead of the Creator. The Law of Moses andthe Prophets cooperated to remove this ruin. ... But the previously mentioned demiurge ofevil...gradually brought back idolatry under the appearance of Christianity.[17]

It was also seen as a departure from ancient church tradition, of which there was a written record opposingreligious images.

The chief theological opponents of iconoclasm were the monks Mansur (John of Damascus), who, living in Muslimterritory as advisor to the Caliph of Damascus, was far enough away from the Byzantine emperor to evaderetribution, and Theodore the Studite, abbot of the Stoudios monastery in Constantinople. John declared that he didnot venerate matter, "but rather the creator of matter". However he also declared, "But I also venerate the matterthrough which salvation came to me, as if filled with divine energy and grace". He includes in this latter category theink in which the gospels were written as well as the paint of images, the wood of the Cross, and the body and bloodof Jesus.The iconodule response to iconoclasm included:1.1. Assertion that the biblical commandment forbidding images of God had been superseded by the incarnation of

Jesus, who, being the second person of the Trinity, is God incarnate in visible matter. Therefore, they were notdepicting the invisible God, but God as He appeared in the flesh. This became an attempt to shift the issue of theincarnation in their favor, whereas the iconoclasts had used the issue of the incarnation against them.

2. Further, in their view idols depicted persons without substance or reality while icons depicted real persons.Essentially the argument was "all religious images not of our faith are idols; all images of our faith are icons to bevenerated". This was considered comparable to the Old Testament practice of offering burnt sacrifices only toGod, and not to any other gods.

3. Moses had been instructed by God according to Exodus  25:18–22 to make golden statues of cherubim angels onthe lid of the Ark of the Covenant, and according to Exodus  26:31 God instructed Moses to embroider the curtainwhich separated the Holy of Holies in the Tabernacle with cherubim.

4. Regarding the written tradition opposing the making and veneration of images, they asserted that icons were partof unrecorded oral tradition (parádosis, sanctioned in Orthodoxy as authoritative in doctrine by reference toThessalonians 2 2:15, Basil the Great, etc.).

5. Arguments were drawn from the miraculous Acheiropoieta, the supposed icon of the Virgin painted with herapproval by St. Luke, and other miraculous occurrences around icons, that demonstrated divine approval ofIconodule practices.

6.6. Iconodules further argued that decisions such as whether icons ought to be venerated were properly made by thechurch assembled in council, not imposed on the church by an emperor. Thus the argument also involved the

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issue of the proper relationship between church and state. Related to this was the observation that it was foolish todeny to God the same honor that was freely given to the human emperor.

Muslim iconoclasmWithin Muslim history, the act of removing idols from the Ka'ba in Mecca is considered by all believers to be ofgreat symbolic and historical importance.In general, Muslim societies have avoided the depiction of living beings (animals and humans) within such sacredspaces as mosques and madrasahs. This opposition to figural representation is not based on the Qur'an, but rather onvarious traditions contained within the Hadith. The prohibition of figuration has not always extended to the secularsphere, and a robust tradition of figural representation exists within Muslim art.[18] However, western authors havetended to perceive "a long, culturally determined, and unchanging tradition of violent iconoclastic acts" withinIslamic society.[18]

Start of iconoclasmThe first act of Muslim iconoclasm was committed by Muslims in 630, when the various statues of Arabian deitieshoused in the Kaaba in Mecca were destroyed. There is a tradition that Muhammad spared a fresco of Mary andJesus.[19] This act was intended to bring an end to the idolatry which, in the Muslim view, characterized Jahiliyya.The destruction of the idols of Mecca did not, however, determine the treatment of other religious communitiesliving under Muslim rule after the expansion of the caliphate. Most Christians under Muslim rule, for example,continued to produce icons and to decorate their churches as they wished. A major exception to this pattern oftolerance in early Islamic history was the "Edict of Yazīd", issued by the Umayyad caliph Yazid II in 722–723.[20]

This edict ordered the destruction of crosses and Christian images within the territory of the caliphate. Researchershave discovered evidence that the order was followed, particularly in present-day Jordan, where archaeologicalevidence shows the removal of images from the mosaic floors of some, although not all, of the churches that stood atthis time. But, Yazīd's iconoclastic policies were not continued by his successors, and Christian communities of theLevant continued to make icons without significant interruption from the sixth century to the ninth.[21]

Historical acts of iconoclasmThe missing nose on the Great Sphinx of Giza is attributed to iconoclasm by a Sufi Muslim fanatic in themid-1300s.[22]

Despite a religious prohibition against destroying or converting houses of worship, certain conquering Muslimarmies have used local temples or houses of worship as mosques. An example is Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (formerlyConstantinople), which was converted into a mosque in 1453. Most icons were desecrated whilst the rest werecovered with plaster. In the 1920s, Hagia Sophia was converted to a museum, and the restoration of the mosaics wasundertaken by the American Byzantine Institute beginning in 1932.

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A view of the Babri Mosque, pre-1992

More dramatic cases of iconoclasm by Muslimsare found in parts of India where Hindu andBuddhist temples were razed and mosqueserected in their place (for example, the QutubComplex and Babri Mosque). Another notableiconoclast was Mughal ruler Aurangzeb(reigned 1658–1707), who destroyed thefamous Hindu temples at Varanasi andMathura.

Recent events

Certain Muslim denominations continue topursue iconoclastic agendas. There has beenmuch controversy within Islam over the recentand apparently on-going destruction of historic sites by Mecca's Wahhabist authorities, prompted by the fear theycould become the subject of "idolatry".[23][24]

A recent act of iconoclasm was the 2001 destruction of the giant Buddhas of Bamyan by the then Talibangovernment of Afghanistan. The act generated world-wide protests and was not supported by other Muslimgovernments and organizations. It was widely perceived in the Western media as a result of the Muslim prohibitionagainst figural decoration. Such an account overlooks "the coexistence between the Buddhas and the Muslimpopulation that marveled at them for over a millennium" before their destruction.[18] The Buddhas had twice in thepast been attacked by Nadir Shah and Aurengzeb. According to the art historian F.B. Flood, analysis of the Taliban'sstatements regarding the Buddhas suggest that their destruction was motivated more by political than by theologicalconcerns.[18] Taliban spokespeople have given many different explanations of the motives for the destruction.In 2005, the Muhammad cartoon controversy sparked worldwide controversy and rioting. In December 2010, agroup of iconoclasts were arrested as they were about to attack the Jyllands-Posten newspaper's office.During the Tuareg rebellion of 2012, the radical Islamist militia Ansar Dine destroyed various ancient Sufi shrinesfrom the 15th and 16th century in the city of Timbuktu, Mali.[25]

Reformation iconoclasm

Destruction of icons in Zurich, 1524.

Some of the Protestant reformers, in particular AndreasKarlstadt, Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin,encouraged the removal of religious images byinvoking the Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry andthe manufacture of graven (sculpted) images of God.As a result, individuals attacked statues and images,and others were lost during unauthorised iconoclasticriots. However, in most cases, civil authorities removedimages in an orderly manner in the newly reformedProtestant cities and territories of Europe.

Significant iconoclastic riots took place in Zurich (in1523), Copenhagen (1530), Münster (1534), Geneva

(1535), Augsburg (1537), Scotland (1559), and Saintes and La Rochelle (1562).[26] The Seventeen Provinces (now the Netherlands, Belgium and parts of Northern France) were disrupted by widespread Protestant iconoclasm in the

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summer of 1566. This is called the "Beeldenstorm" and began with the destruction of the statuary of the Monasteryof Saint Lawrence in Steenvoorde after a "Hagenpreek", or field sermon, by Sebastiaan Matte.Hundreds of other attacks included the sacking of the Monastery of Saint Anthony after a sermon by Jacob deBuysere. The Beeldenstorm marked the start of the revolution against the Spanish forces and the Catholic Church.

Remains of Reformation iconoclasm, Clocher Saint-Barthélémy, LaRochelle, France.

The Iconoclast belief was causing havoc throughoutEurope, and in 1523, specifically due to the Swissreformer Huldrych Zwingli, a vast amount of hisfollowers viewed themselves as being involved in aspiritual community that in matters of faith should obeyneither the visible Church nor lay authorities.According to author R.W Scribner:[27]

"Zwingli's attack on images, at the first debate,triggered iconoclastic incidents in Zurich and thevillages under civic jurisdiction that the reformerwas unwilling to condone." And due to thisaction of protest against authority, “Zwingliresponded with a carefully reasoned treatise thatmen could not live in society without laws andconstraint.”

—Wallace,[27] pp. 95During the English Civil War, Bishop Joseph Hall of Norwich described the events of 1643 when troops andcitizens, encouraged by a Parliamentary ordinance against superstition and idolatry, behaved thus:

Lord what work was here! What clattering of glasses! What beating down of walls! What tearing up ofmonuments! What pulling down of seats! What wresting out of irons and brass from the windows! Whatdefacing of arms! What demolishing of curious stonework! What tooting and piping upon organ pipes!And what a hideous triumph in the market-place before all the country, when all the mangled organpipes, vestments, both copes and surplices, together with the leaden cross which had newly been sawndown from the Green-yard pulpit and the service-books and singing books that could be carried to thefire in the public market-place were heaped together.'

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An illustration from a 1563 edition of Foxe's Book of Martyrs depicts "The Templewell purged", "Burning of images", and "the Papists packing away their paltry."

William Dowsing was commissioned andsalaried by the government to tour the townsand villages of East Anglia to destroyimages in churches. His detailed record ofhis trail of destruction through Suffolk andCambridgeshire survives:[28]

We broke down about a hundredsuperstitious Pictures; and sevenFryars hugging a Nunn; and thePicture of God and Christ; and diversothers very superstitious; and 200 hadbeen broke down before I came. Wetook away 2 popish Inscriptions withOra pro nobis and we beat down agreat stoneing Cross on the top of theChurch.

—Dowsing,[28] p. 15, Haverhill,Suffolk, January 6, 1644

Protestant Christianity was not uniformlyhostile to the use of religious images. MartinLuther, initially hostile, came round to the view that Christians should be free to use religious images as long as theydid not worship them in place of God. Lutheran scholar Jeremiah Ohl writes:[29]

Zwingli and others for the sake of saving the Word rejected all plastic art; Luther, with an equal concern forthe Word, but far more conservative, would have all the arts to be the servants of the Gospel. “I am not of theopinion” said [Luther], “that through the Gospel all the arts should be banished and driven away, as somezealots want to make us believe; but I wish to see them all, especially music, in the service of Him Who gaveand created them.” Again he says: “I have myself heard those who oppose pictures, read from my GermanBible. … But this contains many pictures of God, of the angels, of men, and of animals, especially in theRevelation of St. John, in the books of Moses, and in the book of Joshua. We therefore kindly beg thesefanatics to permit us also to paint these pictures on the wall that they may be remembered and betterunderstood, inasmuch as they can harm as little on the walls as in books. Would to God that I could persuadethose who can afford it to paint the whole Bible on their houses, inside and outside, so that all might see; thiswould indeed be a Christian work. For I am convinced that it is God’s will that we should hear and learn whatHe has done, especially what Christ suffered. But when I hear these things and meditate upon them, I find itimpossible not to picture them in my heart. Whether I want to or not, when I hear, of Christ, a human formhanging upon a cross rises up in my heart: just as I see my natural face reflected when I look into water. Nowif it is not sinful for me to have Christ’s picture in my heart, why should it be sinful to have it before my eyes?”

—Ohl,[29] pp. 88–89

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Altarpiece fragments (late 1300 – early 1400)destroyed during the English Dissolution of the

Monasteries, mid-16th century.

Political and revolutionary iconoclasm

The Sons of Liberty pulling down the statue of George III of the United Kingdomon Bowling Green (New York City), 1776.

Revolutions and changes of regime, whetherthrough uprising of the local population,foreign invasion or a combination of both,are often accompanied by the publicdestruction of statues and monumentsidentified with the previous regime. Thismay also be known as damnatio memoriae,the modern term used to describe theAncient Roman practice of officialobliteration of the memory of a specificindividual. Stricter definitions of"iconoclasm" exclude both types of action,reserving the term for religious or morewidely cultural destruction. In many cases,such as Revolutionary Russia or AncientEgypt, this distinction can be hard to make.Examples of political destruction of imagesinclude:

• All public references to the "heretical" Pharaoh Akhenaten were destroyed soon after his death in about 1334 BC;a very laborious process with stone-carved reliefs and inscriptions.

• Several Roman emperors and other political figures were subject to decrees of damnatio memoriae, includingSejanus, Publius Septimius Geta, and Domitian.

• During the American Revolution, the Sons of Liberty pulled down and destroyed the gilt lead statue of George IIIof the United Kingdom on Bowling Green (New York City), melting it down for use as musket balls against theBritish Army. Similar acts have accompanied the independence of most ex-colonial territories. Sometimesrelatively intact monuments are moved to a collected display in a less prominent place, as in India and alsopost-Communist countries.

• During the French Revolution, the statue of King Louis XV, in the Paris square which until then bore his name,was pulled down and destroyed. This was a prelude to the guillotining of his successor Louis XVI in the samesite, renamed "Place de la Révolution" (at present Place de la Concorde).

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• The statue of Napoleon on the column at Place Vendôme, Paris was the target of iconoclasm several times:destroyed after the Bourbon Restoration, restored by Louis-Philippe, destroyed during the Paris Commune andrestored by Adolphe Thiers.

• The October Revolution in 1917 was accompanied by destruction of monuments of past Tsars, as well as RussianImperial Eagles, at various locations throughout Russia. "In front of a Moscow cathedral, crowds cheered as theenormous statue of Tsar Alexander III was bound with ropes and gradually beaten to the ground. After aconsiderable amount of time, the statue was decapitated and its remaining parts were broken into rubble".[30]

• The Chinese Cultural Revolution included very widespread destruction of historic artworks in public places andprivate collections, whether religious or secular. Objects in state museums were mostly left intact.

• The fall of Communism in 1989 was followed by destruction or removal of statues of Vladimir Lenin and otherCommunist leaders in the former Soviet Union. Particularly well-known was the destruction of "Iron Felix", thestatue of Felix Dzerzhinsky outside the KGB headquarters.

Iconoclasm against Hindus

During Muslim conquest

General view of Temple and Enclosure of Marttand or the Sun, nearBhawan. . Photograph of the Surya Temple at Martand in Jammu &

Kashmir taken by John Burke in 1868.

Records from the campaign recorded in the ChachNama record temple demolitions during the early 8thcentury, when the Umayyad governor of Damascus,Hajjaj,[31] mobilized an expedition of 6,000 cavalryunder Muhammad bin-Qasim in 712 CE.

The historian, Upendra Thakur records the persecutionof Hindus and Buddhists:

... Muhammad triumphantly marched into thecountry, conquering Debal, Sehwan, Nerun,Brahmanadabad, Alor and Multan one after theother in quick succession, and in less than a yearand a half, the far-flung Hindu kingdom wascrushed ... There was a fearful outbreak ofreligious bigotry in several places and templeswere wantonly desecrated. At Debal, the Nairun and Aror temples were demolished and converted intomosques.[32]

Sultãn Sikandar Butshikan of Kashmir (AD 1389–1413) ordered the breaking of all "golden and silver images". TheTarikh-i-Firishta states: "After the emigration of the Bramins, Sikundur ordered all the temples in Kashmeer to bethrown down. Having broken all the images in Kashmeer, (Sikandar) acquired the title of ‘Destroyer of Idols’".[33]

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Somanatha Temple Prabhas Patan, Gujarat, from the ArchaeologicalSurvey of India, taken by D. H. Sykes in c. 1869.

In 725 Junayad, the Arab governor of Sind, sent hisarmies to destroy the second Somanath temple.[34] In1024 AD, the temple was once again destroyed byMahmud Ghazni[35] who raided the temple from acrossthe Thar Desert. The temple was rebuilt by the GujjarParamara King Bhoj of Malwa and the Solanki kingBhima of Gujarat (Anhilwara) or Patan between 1026and 1042. The wooden structure was replaced byKumarpal (r. 1143–72), who built the temple ofstone.[36]

In 1296 AD, the temple was once again destroyed bySultan Allauddin Khilji's army.[34][35] According toTaj-ul-Ma'sir of Hasan Nizami, Raja Karan of Gujaratwas defeated and forced to flee, "fifty thousand infidelswere dispatched to hell by the sword" and "more than twenty thousand slaves, and cattle beyond all calculation fellinto the hands of the victors".[34] The temple was rebuilt by Mahipala Deva, the Chudasama king of Saurashtra in1308 AD and the Linga was installed by his son Khengar sometime between 1326 and 1351 AD. In 1375 AD, thetemple was once again destroyed by Muzaffar Shah I, the Sultan of Gujarat.[34]

In 1451 AD, the temple was once again destroyed by Mahmud Begda, the Sultan of Gujarat.[34][35] In 1701 AD, thetemple was once again destroyed by Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.[34] Aurangzeb built a mosque on the site of theSomnath temple, using some columns from the temple, whose Hindu sculptural motifs remained visible.Mahmud of Ghazni was an Afghan Sultan who invaded the Indian subcontinent during the early 11th century. Hiscampaigns across the gangetic plains are often cited for their iconoclastic plundering and destruction of temples suchas those at Mathura and he looked upon their destruction as an act of "jihad".[37] He sacked the second SomnathTemple in 1026, and looted it of gems and precious stones and the famous Shiva lingam of the temple was destroyed.[38]

Historical records compiled by Muslim historian Maulana Hakim Saiyid Abdul Hai attest to the iconoclasm ofQutb-ud-din Aybak. The first mosque built in Delhi, the "Quwwat al-Islam" was built after the demolition of theHindu temple built previously by Prithvi Raj and certain parts of the temple were left outside the mosque proper.[39]

This pattern of iconoclasm was common during his reign, although an argument goes that such iconoclasm wasmotivated more by politics than by religion.[40]

Another ruler of the sultanate, Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, conquered and subjugated the Hindu pilgrimage site Varanasiin the 11th century and he continued the destruction of Hindu temples and idols that had begun during the first attackin 1194.[41]

No aspect of Aurangzeb's reign is more cited—or more controversial—than the numerous desecrations and even thedestruction of Hindu temples.[42] During his reign, tens of thousands of temples were desecrated: their facades andinteriors were defaced and their murtis (divine images) looted.[42] In many cases, temples were destroyed entirely; innumerous instances mosques were built on their foundations, sometimes using the same stones. Among the templesAurangzeb destroyed were two that are most sacred to Hindus, in Varanasi and Mathura.[43] In both cases, he hadlarge mosques built on the sites.[42]

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The original holy well – Gyanvapi in between temple and mosque.

The Kesava Deo temple in Mathura, marked the placethat Hindus believe was the birthplace of ShriKrishna.[43] In 1661 Aurangzeb ordered the demolitionof the temple, and constructed the Katra Masjidmosque. Traces of the ancient Hindu temple can beseen from the back of the mosque. Aurangzeb alsodestroyed what was the most famous temple inVaranasi – the Vishwanath Temple.[43]

The temple had changed its location over the years, andin 1585 Akbar had authorized its location at GyanVapi. Aurangzeb ordered its demolition in 1669 andconstructed a mosque on the site, whose minarets stand71 metres above the Ganges. Traces of the old templecan be seen behind the mosque. Centuries later, emotional debate about these wanton acts of cultural desecrationcontinues. Aurangzeb also destroyed the Somnath temple in 1706.[43]

Hindu nationalists claim that Mughals destroyed the Ram Mandir in Ayodhya, located at the birthplace of Rama, andbuilt the Babri Masjid on the holy site, which has since been a source of tension between the Hindu and Muslimcommunities.Writer Fernand Braudel wrote in A History of Civilizations (Penguin 1988/1963, pp. 232–236), Islamic rule in Indiaas a "colonial experiment" was "extremely violent", and "the Muslims could not rule the country except bysystematic terror. Cruelty was the norm – burnings, summary executions, crucifixions or impalements, inventivetortures. Hindu temples were destroyed to make way for mosques. On occasion there were forced conversions. Ifever there were an uprising, it was instantly and savagely repressed: houses were burned, the countryside was laidwaste, men were slaughtered and women were taken as slaves."C. K. Kareem also notes that Tippu Sultan issued an edict for the destruction of Hindu temples in Kerala.[44]

In a two-volume book by Sita Ram Goel, Arun Shourie, Harsh Narain, Jay Dubashi and Ram Swarup, HinduTemples – What Happened to Them, includes a list of 2000 mosques that it is claimed were built on Hindu templesin the first volume,[45] which it is asserted is based primarily on the books of Muslim historians of the period or theinscriptions of the mosques. The second volume excerpts from medieval histories and chronicles and frominscriptions concerning the destruction of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist temples.[46] The authors claim that the materialpresented in this book are only the tip of an iceberg.[47]

During Goa inquisitionsDiago de Boarda, a priest, and his advisor Vicar General, Miguel Vaz, had made a 41-point plan for torturingHindus. Under this plan Viceroy Antano de Noronha issued in 1566, an order applicable to the entire area underPortuguese rule:[48]

I hereby order that in any area owned by my master, the king, nobody should construct a Hindu templeand such temples already constructed should not be repaired without my permission. If this order istransgressed, such temples shall be, destroyed and the goods in them shall be used to meet expenses ofholy deeds, as punishment of such transgression.

In 1567 the campaign of destroying temples in Bardez met with success. At the end of it 300 Hindu temples weredestroyed. In 1583 Hindu temples at Assolna and Cuncolim were destroyed through army action.[48]

"The fathers of the Church forbade the Hindus under terrible penalties the use of their own sacred books, and prevented them from all exercise of their religion. They destroyed their temples, and so harassed and interfered with the people that they abandoned the city in large numbers, refusing to remain any longer in a place where they had no

Iconoclasm 14

liberty, and were liable to imprisonment, torture and death if they worshipped after their own fashion the gods oftheir fathers". wrote Filippo Sassetti, who was in India from 1578 to 1588.[48]

An order was issued in June 1684 eliminating the Konkani language and making it compulsory to speak Portugueselanguage. Following that law all the symbols of non-Christian sects were destroyed and the books written in locallanguages were burnt.[48]

Contemporary iconoclasm against Hindus

In India

In June 2010, large-scale violence was reported in the Sangli town and also in Sangli district. In the melee, membersof the minority community are said to have thrown stones inside a Ganesh mandal.[49] The Maharashtra Police onSunday arrested Mainuddin Shamsuddin Bagwan of the Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) on charges of“committing acts for creating communal tension and encouraging destruction of peace” under Sections 143, 147, 149,295, 153, 427, 120 of the Indian Penal Code, and Section 135 of the Mumbai Police Act.[50]

The permanent Durga mandap at Chattalpalli and the makeshiftpandal in front. The passage to the area was being dug up by

Muslims to prevent the Hindus from entering the area.

The 2010 Deganga riots began on 6 September whenmobs resorted to arson and violence over a disputedstructure at Deganga, Kartikpur and Beliaghata underthe Deganga police station area. The violence beganlate in the evening and continued throughout the nightinto the next morning.[51][52][53][54] The violencefinally calmed down on 9 September after hundreds ofbusiness establishments and residences were looted,destroyed and burnt, dozens of people were severelyinjured and several places of worship desecrated andvandalized.

In June 2011 at Asansol Market area, a Hindu temple,under construction led by Bastim Bazaar SarbojaninDurga Puja Committee was and approved by ADM on12 April 2011, was attacked by an Islamic mob.[55]

In Bangladesh

In Bangladesh atrocities[56] including targeted attacks[57] against temples and open theft of Hindu property haveincreased sharply in recent years after the Jamat-e-Islami joined the coalition government led by the BangladeshNational Party.[58][59] Hindu temples in Bangladesh have also been vandalised.[60][61]

On the February 6, 2010, Sonargaon temple in Narayanganj district of Bangladesh was destroyed by Islamicfanatics.[62][63][64]

In Pakistan

Further information: Decline of Hinduism in PakistanSeveral Hindu temples have been destroyed in Pakistan. A notable incident was the destruction of the Ramna KaliMandir in former East Pakistan. The temple was bulldozed by the Pakistani Army on March 27, 1971. TheDhakeshwari Temple was severely damaged during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, and over half of the temple'sbuildings were destroyed. In a major disrespect of the religion, the main worship hall was taken over by the PakistanArmy and used as an ammunitions storage area. Several of the temple custodians were tortured and killed by theArmy though most, including the Head Priest, fled first to their ancestral villages and then to India and thereforeescaped death.

Iconoclasm 15

In 2006 the last Hindu temple in Lahore was destroyed to pave the way for construction of a multi-story commercialbuilding. The temple was demolished after officials of the Evacuee Property Trust Board concealed facts from theboard chairman about the nature of the building. When reporters from Pakistan-based newspaper Dawn tried to coverthe incident, they were accosted by the henchmen of the property developer, who denied that a Hindu temple existedat the site.[65]

Several political parties in Pakistan have objected to this move, such as the Pakistan People's party and the PakistaniMuslim League-N.[66][67] The move has also evoked strong condemnation in India from minority bodies andpolitical parties, including the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Congress Party, as well as Muslim advocacypolitical parties such as the All India Muslim Majlis-e-Mushawarat.[68] A firm of lawyers representing the Hinduminority has approached the Lahore High Court seeking a directive to the builders to stop the construction of thecommercial plaza and reconstruct the temple at the site. The petitioners maintain that the demolition violates section295 of the Pakistan Penal Code prohibiting the demolition of places of worship.[69]

On June 29, 2005, following the arrest of an illiterate Christian janitor on allegations of allegedly burning Qur'anpages, a mob of between 300 and 500 Muslims destroyed a Hindu temple and houses belonging to Christian andHindu families in Nowshera. Under the terms of a deal negotiated between Islamic religious leaders and theHindu/Christian communities, Pakistani police later released all previously arrested perpetrators without charge.[70]

In Malaysia

Between April to May 2006, several Hindu temples were demolished by city hall authorities in the country,accompanied by violence against Hindus.[71] On April 21, 2006, the Malaimel Sri Selva Kaliamman Temple inKuala Lumpur was reduced to rubble after the city hall sent in bulldozers.[72] Many Hindu advocacy groups haveprotested what they allege is a systematic plan of temple cleansing in Malaysia. The official reason given by theMalaysian government has been that the temples were built "illegally". However, several of the temples are centuriesold.[73] On May 11, 2006, armed city hall officers from Kuala Lumpur forcefully demolished part of a 60-year-oldsuburban temple that serves more than 1,000 Hindus.[73]

In Saudi Arabia

On March 24, 2005, Saudi authorities destroyed religious items found in a raid on a makeshift Hindu shrine found inan apartment in Riyadh.[74]

In Fiji

In Fiji according to official reports, attacks on Hindu institutions increased by 14% compared to 2004. Thisintolerance of Hindus has found expression in anti-Hindu speeches and destruction of temples, the two mostcommon forms of immediate and direct violence against Hindus. Between 2001 and April 2005, one hundred casesof temple attacks have been registered with the police. The alarming increase of temple destruction has spread fearand intimidation among the Hindu minorities and has hastened immigration to neighboring Australia and NewZealand. organized religious institutions, such as the Methodist Church of Fiji, have repeatedly called for thecreation of a theocratic Christian State and have propagated anti-Hindu sentiment.[75] State favoritism ofChristianity, and systematic attacks on temples, are some of the greatest threats faced by Fijian Hindus. Despite thecreation of a human rights commission, the plight of Hindus in Fiji continues to be precarious.[75]

Iconoclasm 16

Chinese iconoclasmDuring the Northern Expedition, in 1926 in Guangxi, Kuomintang Muslim General Bai Chongxi led his troops indestroying Buddhist temples and smashing idols, turning the temples into schools and Kuomintang partyheadquarters.[76] It was reported that almost all of Buddhist monasteries in Guangxi were destroyed by Bai in thismanner. The monks were removed.[77] Bai led a wave of anti-foreignism in Guangxi, attacking American, European,and other foreigners and missionaries, and generally making the province unsafe for foreigners. Westerners fled fromthe province, and some Chinese Christians were also attacked as imperialist agents.[78]

The three goals of the movement were anti-foreignism, anti-imperialism, and anti-religion. Bai led the anti-religiousmovement against superstition. Muslims do not believe in polytheism (see shirk (Islam)) and his religion may haveinfluenced Bai to take action against the images in the temples and the practices denounced as superstitious in thecampaign. Huang Shaoxiong, also a Kuomintang member of the New Guangxi clique, supported Bai's campaign.Huang was not a Muslim, and the anti-religious campaign was agreed upon by all Guangxi Kuomintangmembers.[79]

References and notes[1] Literally, "image-breaking", from Ancient Greek: εἰκών and κλάω. Iconoclasm may be also considered as a back-formation from iconoclast

(from Greek εἰκοκλάστης). The corresponding Greek word for iconoclasm is εἰκονοκλασία – eikonoklasia.[2][2] "You shall not make for yourself a carved image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is

in the water under the earth. 5 You shall not bow down to them or serve them. . . ." (Exodus 20:4-5a, ESV.)[3] (http:/ / sthughofcluny. org/ 2011/ 02/ hetzendorf-and-the-iconoclasm-in-the-second-half-of-the-20th-century. html)[4] Auyezov, Olzhas (January 5, 2011). "Ukraine says blowing up Stalin statue was terrorism" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ 2011/ 01/ 05/

us-ukraine-stalin-idUSTRE7043D920110105). Reuters. . Retrieved 9 April 2011.[5] (http:/ / www. rawa. org/ statues. htm)[6] Cyril Mango, The Oxford History of Byzantium, 2002.[7][7] Mango, 2002.[8] Robin Cormack, Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons, 1985, George Philip, London, ISBN 0-540-01085-5.[9] C Mango, "Historical Introduction", in Bryer & Herrin, eds., Iconoclasm, pp. 2-3., 1977, Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of

Birmingham, ISBN 0-7044-0226-2.[10] Byzantine iconoclasm (http:/ / www. usu. edu/ markdamen/ 1320Hist& Civ/ slides/ 14islam/ iconoclasm. JPG)[11] Cf. (ed.) F. GIOIA, The Popes – Twenty Centuries of History, Libreria Editrice Vaticana (2005), p. 40.[12] see Theophanes, Chronographia.[13] Cf. (ed.) F. GIOIA, The Popes – Twenty Centuries of History, Libreria Editrice Vaticana (2005), p. 41.[14] http:/ / www. chinstitute. org/ index. php/ chm/ eighth-century/ icons/[15] http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ source/ icono-cncl754. asp[16] Tanner, Norman P., Alberigo, G., Dossetti, J. A., Joannou, P. P., Leonardi, C., and Prodi, P., Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils Volume

OneNicaea I to Lateran V, p. 132–136, Sheed & Ward and Georgetown University Press, London and Washington, D.C., [ISBN0-87840-490-2]

[17] Epitome of the Iconoclast Council at Hieria, 754 AD (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ source/ icono-cncl754. html), Internet MedievalSourcebook (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ sbook. html), , also available from Christian Classics Ethereal Library (http:/ / www. ccel.org/ ccel/ schaff/ npnf214. xvi. x. html)

[18] Flood, Finbarr Barry (2002). "Between cult and culture: Bamiyan, Islamic iconoclasm, and the museum". The Art Bulletin 84: 641–659.doi:10.2307/3177288.

[19] Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah". (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/IbnIshaq-SiratRasulAllah-translatorA. Guillaume). Oxford University Press. p. 552. ISBN 978-0-19-636033-1. . Retrieved 2011-12-08."Quraysh had put pictures in the Ka'ba including two of Jesus son of Mary and Mary (on both of whom be peace!). ... The apostle ordered thatthe pictures should be erased except those of Jesus and Mary."

[20] A. Grabar, L'iconoclasme byzantin: le dossier archéologique (Paris, 1984), 155–56.[21] G. R. D. King, "Islam, iconoclasm, and the declaration of doctrine", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 48 (1985), 276–7.[22] al-Maqrīzī, writing in the 15th century, attributes the damage to Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr, a Sufi Muslim fanatic from the khanqah of Sa'id

al-Su'ada, in 1378.[23] Independent Newspaper on-line, London, Jan 19, 2007 (http:/ / news. independent. co. uk/ world/ middle_east/ article304029. ece)[24] Islamica Magazine (http:/ / www. islamicamagazine. com/ content/ view/ 161/ 59/ )[25] Tharoor, Ishaan. "Timbuktu’s Destruction: Why Islamists Are Wrecking Mali’s Cultural Heritage" (http:/ / world. time. com/ 2012/ 07/ 02/

timbuktus-destruction-why-islamists-are-wrecking-malis-cultural-heritage/ ). TIME. . Retrieved 10 July 2012.

Iconoclasm 17

[26] Neil Kamil, Fortress of the soul: violence, metaphysics, and material life, p. 148 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ekSkZXXjVWUC&pg=RA1-PA148)

[27][27] Wallace, Peter George. "Evangelical Movements and Confessions". The Long European Reformation: Religion, Political Conflict, and theSearch for Conformity, 1350-1750. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. 95. Print

[28] White, C.H. Evelyn (1885). The journal of William Dowsing of Stratford, parliamentary visitor, appointed under a warrant from the Earl ofManchester, for demolishing the superstitious pictures and ornaments of churches &c., within the county of Suffolk, in the years 1643–1644(http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ journalofdowsing00whituoft). p. 15. .

[29] Ohl, Jeremiah F. (1906). "Art in Worship" (http:/ / www. blc. edu/ comm/ gargy/ gargy1/ Memoirs. Volume2. html). Memoirs of theLutheran Liturgical Association. 2. Pittsburgh: Lutheran Liturgical Association. pp. 83–99. .

[30] Christopher Wharton, "The Hammer and Sickle: The Role of Symbolism and Rituals in the Russian Revolution" (http:/ / www.westminstercollege. edu/ myriad/ index. cfm?parent=2514& detail=4475& content=4797)

[31] Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg: The Chachnamah, An Ancient History of Sind, Giving the Hindu period down to the Arab Conquest. (http:/ /persian. packhum. org/ persian/ pf?file=12701030& ct=18)

[32][32] Sindhi Culture by U. T. Thakkur, Univ. of Bombay Publications, 1959.[33] Firishta, Muhammad Qãsim Hindû Shãh; John Briggs (translator) (1829–1981 Reprint). Tãrîkh-i-Firishta (History of the Rise of the

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thesymbolofNtionalpride_m. htm). .[35] http:/ / www. gujaratindia. com/ about-gujarat/ somnath. htm[36] Somnath Temple (http:/ / www. bl. uk/ onlinegallery/ onlineex/ apac/ photocoll/ t/ 019pho0001000s7u00790000. html), British Library.[37] Saunders, Kenneth. A Pageant of India. H. Milford, Oxford University Press pg. 162.[38] Kakar, Sudhir. The Colors of Violence: Cultural Identities, Religion, and Conflict. University of Chicago Press P 50. ISBN 0-226-42284-4.[39][39] Maulana Hakim Saiyid Abdul Hai "Hindustan Islami Ahad Mein" (Hindustan under Islamic rule), Eng Trans by Maulana Abdul Hasan

Nadwi.[40] Index_1200-1299 (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ itc/ mealac/ pritchett/ 00routes/ 1200_1299/ index_1200_1299. html),Columbia.edu.[41] Elliot, Henry Miers (1953). The History of India: as told by its own historians; the Muhammadan period (Excerpt from Jamiu'l-Hikayat).

University of Michigan.[42] The South Asian (http:/ / www. the-south-asian. com/ Dec2000/ Aurangzeb. htm) Aurangzeb profile.[43] Rajiv Varma (http:/ / www. hindunet. org/ hindu_history/ modern/ temple_aurangzeb. html) Destruction of Hindu Temples by Aurangzeb.[44] Kareem, C. K. (1973) [1973]. Kerala Under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan P187. Kerala History Association : distributors, Paico Pub. House.

p. 322.[45] http:/ / voi. org/ books/ htemples1/[46] http:/ / www. bharatvani. org/ books/ htemples2/ index. htm[47] http:/ / voiceofdharma. com/ books/ foe/ ch15. htm[48] The Goa Inquisition by Christian Historian Dr. T. R. de Souza (http:/ / www. vgweb. org/ unethicalconversion/ GoaInquisition. htm)[49] Sangli rages with riots (http:/ / www. mid-day. com/ news/ 2009/ sep/

060909-Miraj-Sangli-Ganesh-Immersion-Riots-Communal-Violence-News. htm), MiD DAY Infomedia, Date: 2009-09-06.[50] NCP leader arrested for Miraj riots (http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ news/ ncp-leader-arrested-for-miraj-riots/ 633444/ 0), Express news

service, Mon Jun 14 2010, 03:15 hrs.[51] "Communal clash near Bangla border, Army deployed" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ india/

Communal-clash-near-Bangla-border-Army-deployed/ articleshow/ 6516123. cms). Kolkata: The Times of India. September 8, 2010. .Retrieved September 11, 2010.

[52] "Army out after Deganga rioting" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ city/ kolkata-/ Army-out-after-Deganga-rioting/ articleshow/6516493. cms). Kolkata: The Times of India. September 8, 2010. . Retrieved September 11, 2010.

[53] "Curfew in Bengal district, Army called in" (http:/ / www. indianexpress. com/ news/ Curfew-in-Bengal-district--Army-called-in/ 678774).Kolkata: Indian Express. September 8, 2010. . Retrieved September 11, 2010.

[54] Bose, Raktima (September 8, 2010). "Youth killed in group clash" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2010/ 09/ 08/ stories/ 2010090859680100.htm). Chennai, India: The Hindu. . Retrieved September 11, 2010.

[55] Samhati, Hindu. "Frenzied Muslims make brutal attacks on Hindus in Asansol to stop temple construction" (http:/ / southbengalherald.blogspot. com/ 2011/ 06/ frenzied-muslims-make-brutal-attacks-on. html). Hindu Samhati. South Bengal Herald. . Retrieved 10 June 2011.

[56] http:/ / www. bhbcuc-usa. org/[57] http:/ / hrcbm. org/[58] Mujtaba, Syed Ali (2005). Soundings on South Asia (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=AFDVcx-7BCMC& pg=PA100). Sterling Publishers

Pvt. Ltd. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-932705-40-9. .[59] Gupta, Jyoti Bhushan Das (2007). Science, technology, imperialism, and war - History of science, philosophy, and culture in Indian

civilization. Volume XV. Science, technology, and philosophy ; pt. 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=EJuM4FylchwC& pg=PA733). PearsonEducation India. p. 733. ISBN 978-81-317-0851-4. .

[60] "Hindu temples" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060701021512/ http:/ / www. hinduhumanrights. org/ temples/ temples. html). Archivedfrom the original (http:/ / www. hinduhumanrights. org/ temples/ temples. html) on 2006-07-01. . Retrieved 2006-08-26.

Iconoclasm 18

[61] Frank Pallone (2004-05-17). Persecution Of Hindus In Bangladesh (article mirrored from the US Library of Congress) (http:/ / www. hvk.org/ articles/ 0504/ 110. html). . Retrieved 2006-08-26.

[62] "Hindu temple attacked, idols destroyed in B'desh: Official" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ world/ south-asia/Hindu-temple-attacked-idols-destroyed-in-Bdesh-Official-/ articleshow/ 5543091. cms). The Times Of India. February 6, 2010. .

[63] http:/ / www. mayerdak. com/ root/ destruction89. htm[64] http:/ / voi. org/ books/ htemples1/ app. htm[65] Another temple is no more (http:/ / www. dawn. com/ 2006/ 05/ 28/ nat23. htm), Dawn.[66] Hindu temple in Lahore demolished (http:/ / us. rediff. com/ news/ 2006/ jun/ 13temple. htm),Rediff.com.[67] Only Hindu Temple in Lahore demolished (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 1643844. cms),Times of India.[68] India protests demolition of Hindu temple in Pak (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 1651762. cms), Times of India.[69] Order for temple's reconstruction sought (http:/ / archive. gulfnews. com/ articles/ 06/ 06/ 16/ 10047337. html),Gulf News.[70] US Department of State International Religious Freedom Report 2006 (http:/ / www. state. gov/ g/ drl/ rls/ irf/ 2006/ 71443. htm)[71] Temple row – a dab of sensibility please (http:/ / www. malaysiakini. com/ opinionsfeatures/ 52600), malaysiakini.com.[72] Muslims Destroy Century-Old Hindu Temple,gatago.com (http:/ / www. gatago. com/ talk/ politics/ mideast/ 12428067. html)[73] Hindu group protests "temple cleansing" in Malaysia (http:/ / www. financialexpress. com/ latest_full_story. php?content_id=128069),

Financial Express.[74] Marshall, Paul. Saudi Arabia's Religious Police Crack Down (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060522223359/ http:/ / www.

freedomhouse. org/ religion/ news/ bn2005/ bn-2005-00-16. htm). Freedom House.[75] Hindus in South Asia and the Diaspora: A Survey of Human Rights 2005 (http:/ / www. hafsite. org/ pdf/ hhr_2005_html/ fijiislands. htm)[76] Diana Lary (1974). Region and nation: the Kwangsi clique in Chinese politics, 1925-1937 (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=tCA9AAAAIAAJ& dq=accused+ chiang+ feudal& q=muslim#v=onepage& q=pai smashing idols decapitating statues& f=false).Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN 0-521-20204-3. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.

[77] Don Alvin Pittman (2001). Toward a modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu's reforms (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=LxDUeWdMubkC& pg=PA146& dq=bai+ chongxi+ buddhist+ temples#v=onepage& q=bai chongxi buddhist temples& f=false).University of Hawaii Press. p. 146. ISBN 0-8248-2231-5. . Retrieved 2010-06-28.

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Further reading• Barasch, Moshe (1992). Icon: Studies in the History of an Idea. University of New York Press.

ISBN 0-8147-1172-3.• Besançon, Alain (2009). The Forbidden Image: An Intellectual History of Iconoclasm. University of Chicago

Press. ISBN 978-0-226-04414-9.• Bevan, Robert (2006). The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War. Reaktion Books.

ISBN 978-1-86189-319-2.• Freedberg, David (1977). The Structure of Byzantine and European Iconoclasm (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ cu/

arthistory/ faculty/ Freedberg/ Structure-byzantine-european-iconoclasm. pdf). University of Birmingham, Centrefor Byzantine Studies. pp. 165–177. ISBN 978-0-7044-0226-3.

• Freedberg, David (1985; reprinted in Public, Toronto, 1993). Iconoclasts and their Motives (Second Horst GersonMemorial Lecture, University of Groningen) (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ cu/ arthistory/ faculty/ Freedberg/iconoclasts-and-their-motives. pdf). Maarssen: Gary Schwartz. ISBN 978-90-6179-056-3.

• Gamboni, Dario (1997). The Destruction of Art: Iconoclasm and Vandalism since the French Revolution.Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-316-1.

• Gwynn, David M. From Iconoclasm to Arianism: The Construction of Christian Tradition in the IconoclastControversy [Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 47 (2007) 225–251. (http:/ / www. duke. edu/ web/ classics/grbs/ FTexts/ 47/ Gwynn. pdf)

• Ivanovic, Filip (2010). Symbol and Icon: Dionysius the Areopagite and the Iconoclastic Crisis. Pickwick.ISBN 978-1-60899-335-2.

Iconoclasm 19

• Lambourne, Nicola (2001). War Damage in Western Europe: The Destruction of Historic Monuments During theSecond World War. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-7486-1285-8.

External links• Iconclasm in England, Holy Cross College (http:/ / www. holycross. edu/ departments/ visarts/ projects/ kempe/

devotion/ iconoclasm. html)• Design as Social Agent at the ICA (http:/ / bostonist. com/ 2009/ 04/ 05/ design_as_social_agent_at_the_ica_t.

php) by Kerry Skemp, April 5, 2009

Article Sources and Contributors 20

Article Sources and ContributorsIconoclasm  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=523782859  Contributors: 205.232.67.xxx, A suyash, AMC0712, Abjad, Adam Bishop, Aeee2008, Aethralis, Agent007bond,Agio3456, Ahoerstemeier, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Amarkov, Andre Engels, Andreas Kaganov, Andreas84, Andycjp, AngBent, Angr, Angusmclellan, Anonymous Dissident, AstarothCY,Astrowob, Autoshade, Avraamrii, BD2412, BRUTE, Barrett Pashak, Bernburgerin, Bill37212, Bless sins, Boffob, Brando130, BrekekekexKoaxKoax, BrettAllen, Bucephalus, Burnedthru, Caltas,Chancereagan, Charles Matthews, Chris the speller, ChristianD35, Cisum.ili.dilm, Colonel Cow, Colonies Chris, ComCat, CompliantDrone, Conversion script, Cplakidas, Dahn, Daniel J.Leivick, DaughterofSun, Davidiad, Dbachmann, Deltabeignet, Demi, Discospinster, Dishcmds, DiverDave, Doc Tropics, Dodo78, Dogface, Donnerment, Doobie61, Doremítzwr, DoubleBlue,Duke Ganote, Dysepsion, Ed Poor, Elian, Elizium23, Ellywa, EmausPriester, Erianna, Esowteric, Europeanhist, Fahaam, Favonian, Filippusson, Flamarande, Fnielsen, Frotz, Fvdham,Ghirlandajo, Gladfelteri, Golbez, Golf Bravo, GorgeCustersSabre, Gpvos, Graham87, Gregcaletta, Ground Zero, Guusbosman, Haeinous, Hairy Dude, Hammersoft, HandsomeFella, Haymouse,Hephaestos, Hornplease, HorsePunchKid, Icon Defender, Ihcoyc, Ilmari Karonen, JCOwens, Javits2000, Jdp1230, Jeff Silvers, Jeltz, Jet Kit, Jethwarp, Johnbod, Jokes Free4Me, Jorge Stolfi,Joshbrown44, Jpetersen46321, Kefalonia, Kerowyn, Kevin Hanse, Kevinusmartinus, Kpearce, Labnoor, Lacrimosus, Ladwiki, Leandrod, Librarygeekadam, Ligar, Lightmouse, Ligulem,LilHelpa, Lord Hawk, Lou Sander, Lycanthrope, M.boli, MadGeographer, Mamalujo, Mandarax, Markeilz, MartinCollin, MasahiroHayamoto, Matilda, Matt Deres, Mattissa, Maximosconf,MeltBanana, Mervyn, Mhenriday, Michael Hardy, MichaelTinkler, Michalis Famelis, MikailMoolla, Mild Bill Hiccup, MinorFixes, Mirv, MishaPan, Misty MH, Mkmcconn, Mladifilozof,Mlbenoit, Mogism, Molly-in-md, Mother Jebobo, Msoos, Myopic Bookworm, Naddy, Nbarth, Neveos, Nightscream, Nishkid64, Noobeditor, Norwikian, Noveltyghost, Nowcause, Nuno Tavares,OAC, Oct13, Omnipaedista, Pacific PanDeist, Parikhjigish, Parkwells, Pechmerle, Per Ardua, Per Honor et Gloria, Philopedia, Phlebas, PhnomPencil, Pigman, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pkiler,Poi45iop, Portillo, Prari, Pseudo-Richard, Ptolemy Caesarion, Quicumque, R'n'B, RK, Radagast83, Raguks, Ralphedel, Redthoreau, Reedy, RekishiEJ, Richwales, Rjwilmsi, Rl, Roadrunner,Robindch, Rosiestep, Ross Burgess, Rursus, SPQRobin, Saint91, SamuelTheGhost, Sansvoix, Scotstarvit, Scriberius, Seaoneil, Secretlondon, Sfdan, Sharif Abdul, Sharp Image, ShelfSkewed,Shoreranger, Shrigley, Sinanozel, Skinsmoke, Skymasterson, SlackerMom, Smalljim, Sole Soul, Squiddy, Sreekanthv, Sriharsha.kr, Stbalbach, Street Scholar, Stuhacking, Tamfang, Taulapapa,Terrasidius, Testus, That Guy, From That Show!, Thisthat2011, Tobias Conradi, Treanna, Uncle G, Underpants, UninvitedCompany, Usedbook, ValdemarLedin, Valley2city, Varlaam, Victor12,Viscious81, Von B, WereSpielChequers, Wesley, Whitejay251, Wiki Raja, Will Beback, Woohookitty, WpZurp, Yeoberry, Zoicon5, Zundark, Милан Јелисавчић, Шизомби, 245 anonymousedits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:2008-09 Nijmegen st stevens beeldenstorm.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2008-09_Nijmegen_st_stevens_beeldenstorm.JPG  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: ZikoFile:Looting of the Churches of Lyon by the Calvinists 1562.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Looting_of_the_Churches_of_Lyon_by_the_Calvinists_1562.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: Antoine Caron (1521-1599)File:Seventh ecumenical council (Icon).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seventh_ecumenical_council_(Icon).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: СимонУшаков (?)File:Clasm Chludov detail 9th century.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Clasm_Chludov_detail_9th_century.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Chludov 9thcenturyImage:babri rearview.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Babri_rearview.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Shaid Khan Original uploaderwas Lalitshastri at en.wikipediaFile:Destruction of icons in Zurich 1524.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Destruction_of_icons_in_Zurich_1524.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:AnonymousFile:Iconoclasm Clocher Saint Barthelemy south side La Rochelle.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iconoclasm_Clocher_Saint_Barthelemy_south_side_La_Rochelle.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: WorldImaging (talk)File:Foxe-martyrs-iconoclasm-1563.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Foxe-martyrs-iconoclasm-1563.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fb78, JohnbodFile:Alterpiece fragments late 1300 early 1400 destroyed during the English Dissolution mid 16th century.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alterpiece_fragments_late_1300_early_1400_destroyed_during_the_English_Dissolution_mid_16th_century.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: PHGCOMFile:Johannes Adam Simon Oertel Pulling Down the Statue of King George III, N.Y.C. ca. 1859.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Johannes_Adam_Simon_Oertel_Pulling_Down_the_Statue_of_King_George_III,_N.Y.C._ca._1859.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Johannes Adam Simon Oertel (original uploader was Shoreranger at en.wikipedia)Image:Sun temple martand indogreek.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: John Burke (died1900)File:Somnath temple ruins (1869).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Somnath_temple_ruins_(1869).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anhilwara, Magog theOgre, P199, RosarinoImage:Benares well.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benares_well.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Idleguy, RedtigerxyzImage:Chattalpalli Durga mandap at Deganga.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chattalpalli_Durga_mandap_at_Deganga.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:BengaliHindu

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