i

IBE, LEONARD O.

PG/M.SC/12/63966

Ogbonna Nkiru

Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name DN : CN = Webmaster’s name O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka OU = Innovation Centre

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMMES IN

NIGERIA: A CASE STUDY OF LOCAL

ii

TITLE PAGE

POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMMES IN NIGERIA: A CASE

STUDY OF LOCAL EMPOWERMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT PROJECCT (LEEMP) IN IMO STATE

BY

IBE, LEONARD O.

PG/M.SC/12/63966

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT STUDIES,

FACULTY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,

NSUKKA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS

OF SCIENCE (M.Sc) DEGREE IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

SUPERVISOR: DR. T.O. ONYISHI

JUNE, 2013.

iii

APPROVAL PAGE

This report topic has been approved for the Department of

Public Administration and Local Government, Faculty of Social

Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN).

BY

………………………..... ....…………………………

Dr. A. O Onyishi Dr. Mrs. S Agu (Supervisor) (Head of Department)

………………………..... ....…………………………

Prof. C.O.T. Ugwu External Examiner Dean of Faculty

iv

CERTIFICATION PAGE

We the undersigned certify that Ibe, Leonard Oguguo, a Masters student in

the Department of Public Administration and Local Government, Faculty of Social

Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka with the registration number

PG/MSC/12/63966 has satisfactorily completed the requirement for the research

report for the award of Masters (MSC) degree in Public Administration and Local

Government.

………………………..... ....…………………………

Dr. A. O Onyishi Dr. Mrs. S Agu

(Supervisor) (Head of Department)

v

DEDICATION

This research work is dedicated

To

God Almighty for His love and mercy upon me

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The successful completion of this research work is as a result of a

combination of efforts, handwork, willing and sincere moral, financial and material

support of many people. My special thanks go to my project supervisor Dr. T.O.

Onyishi whose co-operation, constructive criticisms and intellectual guidance

helped to sharpen my technical skills and for putting this research work into an

academic shape. I am also grateful to my Head of Department, Dr. (Mrs.), S.U.

Agu whose effort also contributed to my success story. I am also indebted to my

other lecturers like Prof. Fab. O. Onah, Professor (Mrs.) Chika Oguonu, Professor

C. Ofuebe, Professor F.C. Okoli (Osisi Oma I of Akpu), Professor (Mrs.) R.C.

Onah, Dr. O. Ikeanyibe, Dr. Anthony Onyishi, Dr. Godwin Okafor, Dr. U.C.

Nnadozie, Dr. C.U.Agalamanyi, Dr. (Mrs.) A. O.Uzuegbunam, Dr. (Mrs.) M.A.O.

Obi, and others whose lectures and deep spirit of thoughts became a guide for me.

I also wish to immensely appreciate the efforts of my parents Mr. and Mrs.

M.A. Ibe, for their contributions financially and also for being there for me.

I am highly indebted to Mr. Okey Chine, J.C. Akponye, Tochukwu

Ezenwajiaku, and Ibe-Onyekwere Juliet Chidinma.

I must also appreciate my friends Chioma, Onyeka, Chidinma and all my

classmates whom I could not mention their names. Sincerely I thank you people

for always being there for me, and may the Almighty continue to bless you people

for me.

Finally, I thank God, the author and finisher of my faith for His goodness

and favour upon my life. To You Father, I owe my praises.

vii

ABSTRACT

This research work assessed the poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria: Local Empowerment and Environmental Project Management (LEEMP) in Imo state as a case study. The study contends that the poverty rate has indeed become a pandemic national disease with systematic effects of high unemployment rate, poor healthcare, poor accessibility to water, food, good housing, low human development, low per capita income, among others. The data used in this study are collected from both primary and secondary sources. The primary method or sources of data collection include the use of a research instrument (the questionnaire) and oral interview. Some research questions serve as guide to the respondents in order to elicit first hand information on the subject matter. The questionnaire contained twenty one structured questions design to elicit vital information from the respondents on the issue of poverty in Imo state. In addition, the questionnaire is validated and administered accordingly. Secondary sources of data collection on the other hand, include textbooks, journals, and government documents. The study used simple percentage and chi-square in analysis method for data analysis. The data analysis reveals the following findings: poverty rate in Imo state is on the increase inspite of government’s poverty alleviation programmes in the state. Also poverty alleviation programmes serve as conduits for the embezzlement of public funds. Corruption and politicization affect effective implementation of poverty alleviation programmes in Imo state. Based on these findings, we recommend that government should tackle the problems of corruption and politicization in the implementation of poverty alleviation programmes in order to make these programmes effective in poverty reduction.

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page - - - - - - - - - - - i

Approval Page - - - - - - - - - - ii

Certification - - - - - - - - - - iii

Dedication - - - - - - - - - - - iv

Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - - v

Abstract - - - - - - - - - - - vi

Table of Contents - - - - - - - - - - vii

List of Tables - - - - - - - - - - ix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study - - - - - - - - 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem - - - - - - - - 4 1.3 Objectives of the Study - - - - - - - - 7 1.4 Significance of the Study - - - - - - - - 8 1.5 Scope of the Study - - - - - - - - - 9

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORITICAL

FRAMEWORK

2.1 Literature Review - - - - - - - - 10 2.1.1 Understanding Poverty in Nigeria - - - - - - 11 2.1.2 Poverty: A Multi-Dimensional Concept - - - - - 13 2.1.3 Types of Poverty in Nigeria - - - - - - - 15 2.1.4 Causes of Poverty in Nigeria - - - - - - - 20 2.1.5 Poverty Reduction in Nigeria - - - - - - - 27 2.1.6 The Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project (LEEMP) as a Poverty Alleviation Programme - - - 33 2.1.7 Institutional Structure of LEEMP - - - - - - 34 2.1.8 Gap in Literature - - - - - - - - - 34 1.2 Theoretical Framework - - - - - - - - 35 2.2.1 Application of the Theory - - - - - - - 37 2.3 Hypotheses - - - - - - - - - - 39 2.4 Operationalization of Key Concepts - - - - - - 39

ix

2.5 Method of Data Collection - - - - - - - - 40 2.5.1 Research Design - - - - - - - - - 40 2.5.2 Sources of Data Collection - - - - - - 40 2.5.3 Target Population of Study - - - - - - - 41 2.5.4 Sample Size and Sampling Technique - - - - - - 42 2.5.5 Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - - - 44 2.5.6 Reliability and Validity of Instrument (Questionnaire) - - - 45

CHAPTER THREE: ETHNOGRAPHIC SETTING OF THE CASE STUDY

(IMO STATE)

3.1 Historical Background of Imo State - - - - - - 48 3.2 Geographical Location of Imo State - - - - - - 48 3.3 Socio-Cultural Organization of Imo State People - - - - 49 3.3.1 Ethnic Composition and Culture - - - - - - 50 3.3.2 Festivals: - - - - - - - - - - 50 3.3.3 Population Distribution of Imo State - - - - - - 57 3.4 Economy of Imo State - - - - - - - - 62 3.4.1 Tourism in Imo State - - - - - - - - 63

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

4.1 Presentation and Analysis of Data - - - - - - 65 4.2 Test of Hypotheses - - - - - - - - - 89 4.2.1 Discussion of Findings - - - - - - - - 93

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary - - - - - - - - - - 96 5.2 Conclusion - - - - - - - - - - 98 5.3 Recommendations - - - - - - - - - 100 Bibliography - - - - - - - - - -102 Appendix

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 4:1 Sex Distribution of Respondents - - - - - - 65

Table 4.2: Age Distribution Respondents - - - - - - 66

Table 4.3: Academic Qualification of Respondents - - - - 66

Table 4.4: Respondents Marital Status - - - - - - 67

Table 4.5: Local Government Origin of Respondents - - - - 68

Table 4.6: Occupational Distribution of Respondents - - - - 69

Table 4.7: Respondents Assessment of Poverty Level in Imo State - - 69

Table 4.8: Respondents Opinions on whether Government Efforts in the Fight

against Poverty in Imo State are Encouraging - - - 71

Table 4.9: Respondents Awareness on Government Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Imo State - - - - - 73 Table 4.10: Respondents Evaluation of Government Poverty Alleviation

Programmes in Imo State - - - - - - 74

Table 4.11: Respondents’ Assessment on the Performances of LEEMP in

Reducing Poverty in Imo State - - - - - - 76

Table 4.12: Respondents’ Opinions on Whether LEEMP has Recorded Success

as Poverty Alleviation Programme in Imo State - - - 77

Table 4.13: Assessment of Individual and Community Benefits from LEEMP

Programmes in Imo State - - - - - - - 79

Table 4.14: Assessment of how Many Times the Respondents or their Communities have benefited from LEEMP Projects in Imo State - - - - - - - - - -80

Table 4.15: Respondents’ Opinions on Whether the Actual Beneficiaries of these Programmes are the Poor - - - - - - 81

xi

Table 4.16: Respondents’ Opinions on Whether Non- Participation of the Targeted Groups in the Programmes Contributes to the Exclusion of the Poor from Benefiting in these Programmes - - - 82

Table 4.17: Respondents’ Opinions on Whether the Implementation Processes of LEEMP are Efficient towards Achieving the Target Objectives - - - - - - - - - 83 Table 4.18: Respondents’ Opinions on Whether the Performance of LEEMP as a Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Imo State is Encouraging 84 Table 4.19: Respondents’ Opinions on Whether Government Poverty Alleviation

Programmes in Imo State have enhanced the Standard of Living of the Poor - - - - - - - - - - 85

Table 4.20: Factors Militating Against Successful Execution of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Nigeria Particularly in Imo State - 86

Table 4.21: Respondents’ Suggestions on the Identified Problems of Poverty Alleviation Programmes - - - - - - 88 Table 4.2.1: Chi-Square Value for Test of Hypothesis 1 - - - - - - 90

Table 4.2.2: Chi-Square Value for Test of Hypothesis 2 - - - - - 91

Table 4.2.3: Chi-Square Value for Test of Hypothesis 3 - - - - - 92

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Poverty far from being a condition in which a person or people cannot afford

the basic material necessities, without which life becomes virtually unlivable, is a

multidimensional and multifaceted phenomenon. Politically, it goes back beyond

income inequality as it includes rights, power relations and access to and

distribution of resources. Socially, it involves the question of human dignity, social

relationships and opportunities. Thus poverty has become a social reality and a

global affliction which virtually seems to have defied a permanent solution. This is

why Onah (2006:314) emphasized that:

The issue of poverty has provoked concerns and debates among scholars and organizations in the world. It has become an issue of global interest. It is a socio-economic epidemic affecting majority of the people in the world, including Nigeria.

Poverty as the Central Bank of Nigeria (2004) and Word Bank (1991:1)

stressed is one of the symptoms and manifestations of underdevelopment.

Nigeria’s poverty rate over the years has continued to grow unabated. According

to the United Nations Reports (1999-2001) Nigeria’s Human Poverty Index (HPI)

was 41.6% which places the country among the 25 poorest nations in the world.

The HPI for some other African countries as indicated in the reports indicated

2

that Zimbabwe, Botswana, Kenya Burkina Faso and Niger has 17.3%, 22.9%,

26.1%, 58.3% and 66.0% respectively.

Additional data from the Federal Office of Statistics (FOS, 1999) cited in

Nwatu, (2006:295) further indicated that the life expectancy for Nigeria was 51

years, literacy rate was 51% and 70% of the rural population do not have access

to potable water, healthcare facilities and electricity. The adult illiteracy rate for

Nigeria is also increasing at a galloping rate while the infant mortality rates for

Nigeria were 82 and 191 by 1995 Soludo (2004).

Based on the data also from Federal Office of Statistics (FOS) , the state by

state poverty incidence in Nigeria between 1980 to 1996 shows clearly high

varying poverty levels among the states of the federation which simply tells us

that the issue of poverty affects every nook and cranny of Nigeria (Soludo, 2004).

In the post colonial epoch of Nigeria, poverty has intensified by the many

years of military rule and political instability and failure of civilian government

since over 50 years, of independence from the British colonial era, coupled with

poor policy and programme implementation, fiscal neglect, mismanagement, lack

of investment to create employment opportunities that trickle down economic

opportunities, corruption, and misappropriation, are the root causes of poverty in

the country. Although, poverty in Nigeria has colonial inducement but there are

still no holistic policy approach to tackle the problem in the post-colonial era.

3

Despite of the above, the Nigerian state through her government has

expressed determination and effort at uplifting the living conditions of Nigerians,

especially the poor. All of Nigeria’s National development plans since 1970,

have emphasized poverty eradication as a key area of every government in

power. Since 1970, Nigerian governments- military and civilian rules have

created virtually tantalizing array of policies, plans, programmes and projects to

eliminate poverty. These include, Operation Feed the Nation (OFN); Green

Revolution (GR), Directorate for Food Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI);

National Directorate for Employment (NDE); Family Economic Advancement

Programme (FEAP); Go Bank to Land Porgamme (GBLP); Better Life for Rural

Women Programme (BLRWP); Federal Urban Mass Transit Authority

(FUMTA), Nigerian Agricultural Corporative and Rural Development Bank

(NAPCRDB); National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP) and others

which billions of Naira and Dollars have been invested in by both governmental

and non-governmental agencies especially the donor agencies such as World

Bank, International Monetary Fund, United Nations Children’s Fund,

International Development Association, among others.

Apparently, these policies, plans, programmes and Projects initiated by the

government as its efforts to reduce poverty have explicitly failed to in their

4

objectives to reduce poverty as it is more evident that poverty is still a chronic

national problem.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Poverty has indeed become a pandemic national disease with symptomatic

effects of high unemployment rates, poor health care, poor accessibility to water,

food, housing, low human development, low per capita income, and poor

infrastructural development. This has no doubt made poverty alleviation

programme a recurring decimal in Nigeria’s public policy either in the military or

the civilian rule as no administration has come to power without initiating a

poverty alleviation package. In contrast, there are no empirical evidence or

justifications to show for the enormous resources put into these programmes, as

the rate of poverty has been progressively on the increase with each new poverty

alleviation porgramme being implemented. Many people particularly in the rural

areas are not aware of various government programmes on poverty alleviation.

Those that are aware also hardly benefit from such poverty alleviation

programmes due to some problems which one could describe as poor

implementation and evaluation of programmes. The truth is that the beneficiaries

of these poverty alleviation programmes are mainly people far above the poverty

line or the rich. This situation has always present these programmes as illusive

and deceit on the view of poor population (Nwatu, 2006).

5

Also in a situation, where the programme pays off, the situation is such

that while in some areas governments addresses some of their community needs,

in some other areas, there are no adequate provisions of government social

amenities to better their lives. Hence such communities resort to self- help

community development projects in addressing some of their community needs.

This has been a recurring decimal in Imo state especially in the rural

communities. Most communities in Imo state exist with virtually no good roads,

portable drinking water, security, health care clinic, electricity and good

education due to absence of primary and secondary schools in the areas. For

instance, the report of the Imo State SEEDS 2009, gave that about 40 per cent of

rural communities lack electricity, good motorable roads, standard health centres

and good water supply.

Evidence from the Imo State Economic Empowerment and Development

Strategy SEEDS (2009:1 ) put that:

“Poverty has become endemic in Nigeria with almost 70% of the population below the poverty line. Imo state suffers its own share of the problem as available figures show the incidence of poverty in the state to be almost 60%. Poverty implies all the associated problems of low incomes, poor education and health, malnutrition, as well as social and political exclusion.

The failure of previous anti-poverty programmes is partly because of lack of

involvement or participation of the people and politicization of the programmes.

6

As carefully demonstrated by some scholars like (Nwatu, 2006:295; Onah,

2005:67 and Ukwedeh, 2003:245), this is true of such national initiatives on

poverty alleviation like National Accelerated Food Production Programme

(NAFPP), Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), Nigerian Green Revolution (NGR),

Directorate for Food Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), National Directorate

Employment (NDE), Better Life for Rural Women Programme (BLRWP), Family

Support Programme (FSP), Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP),

Former Poverty Alleviation Programme and now National Poverty Eradication

Programme (NAPEP). As a matter of fact, the initiation of these programmes as

Abdullahi (2006:2) has strongly argued do not take into consideration, the

environmental impact analysis (EIA) and social impact analysis (SIA) to give the

problem a holistic approach.

Apparently, poverty alleviation progammes fail to achieve their objectives in

the face of high incidence of corruption and lack of accountability of the

implementing agencies. In most cases, at the implementing stage, the resources and

funds allocated for the poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria are diverted to

private purse leaving the objectives of the programmes totally unachievable. In

other words, programmes monitoring and evaluation are given less attention. In

this condition, it becomes difficult to clearly ascertain who actually benefits from

the programme, and the targeted population groups are not in most the true

7

beneficiaries. Poor programme monitoring and evaluation hinders the progress and

success of poverty alleviation programmes.

Therefore, it is against this background that the researcher tends to

investigate on the topic: poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria: a case study of

Local Empowerment and Environmental Project (LEEMP) in Imo state. In view of

the foregoing, the study raises the following questions:

i. Is there a correlation between the nature of poverty alleviation programmes

and the rate of poverty in Imo State?

ii. To what extent has poor participation of the people affect the

implementation of poverty alleviation programmes such as LEEMP in Imo

State?

iii. To what extent has poor accountability of LEEMP official’s affected the

government targeted goals in poverty reduction programmes in Imo State?

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of this study is to assess the relationship between

LEEMP in Imo state. The specific goals of the study are therefore to:

i. To determine the correlation between the nature of poverty alleviation

programmes and the rate of poverty in Imo State.

8

ii. To examine how poor participation of the people in programmes affect the

implementation of poverty alleviation programmes such as LEEP in Imo

State.

iii. To examine how poor accountability of LEEMP officials has hindered the

achievement of government’s targeted goals in poverty reduction

programmes in Imo State.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study has both academic and empirical significance. Academically, the

study has the potential of contributing greatly to the growth of existing literature in

social sciences particularly in public administration by helping to enrich the bank

of knowledge through its findings on the activities of the Local Empowerment and

Environment Management Project (LEEMP) in Imo state. This is to say that our

study would assist in improving the frontiers of knowledge especially in managing

public programmes in Nigeria particularly as it concerns the evaluation of the

poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria. The study will be of immense

significance in ascertaining the progress so far made by LEEMP in reducing

poverty in Imo state. On the other hand, the study will assist in unveiling the

challenges or factors militating against effective implementation of poverty

alleviation programmes in Nigeria and will make useful suggestions towards

ensuring the achievement of goals of government poverty alleviation programme.

9

Empirically, this study is considered significant because it will contribute in

providing the decision makers and other key actors in the government only the

road- maps that will help prompt, responsive and efficient policy making in

Nigerian poverty alleviation programmes. It will also suggest the panacea for

frequent failures in Nigerian poverty alleviation programmes.

1.5 Scope of the Study

Every study must have a scope and therefore must be pinpointed. This study

therefore focuses on poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria but narrowed

down to Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project (LEEMP)

in Imo state as a case study.

10

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Literature Review

This chapter has attempted to review relevant literature. The essence of

literature review is to ascertain the relevance of major contributions in an area of

study and also provide indications about existing gaps that need to be filled. In this

regard, the study shall review some relevant literature that relate to the subject

matter of this research work and for simplicity and understanding, the literature

review is organized under sub-headings as follow:

• Understanding Poverty in Nigeria

• Poverty: A Multi-Dimensional Concept

• Types of Poverty in Nigeria

• Causes of Poverty in Nigeria

• Poverty Reduction in Nigeria

• The Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project (LEEMP)

as a Poverty Alleviation Programme

• Institutional Structure of LEEMP

• Gap in Literature

11

2.1.1 Understanding Poverty in Nigeria

In recent times, ideas about poverty conception increasingly broadened

beyond the original conception in terms of incomes. There are essentially two

reasons for this broader conception of poverty. In the first place, it has been

increasingly recognized that the experience of poverty is a multi dimensional one.

To be poor is often to suffer ill-health, to be socially excluded and to be vulnerable.

Also, as understanding of the causes of poverty have developed, there is now a

greater perception of how economic, social, cultural, political and geographical

factors tend to reinforce, one another to keep the poor entangled in a vicious cycle

of poverty.

Definitions of poverty based on a minimum income levels however continue

to be essential to poverty measurement, partly because they are quantitative, and so

can be compared over time and between groups, and be subject to the vigour of

statistical testing. Measuring poverty in this way requires the definition of poverty

line that is a standard of living that separates the poor from the non-poor. There are

a number of ways of setting this line for example as a minimum income or as a

certain level of consumption or expenditure. In most surveys carried out on

Nigeria, the approach taken has typically been to fix two lines relatives to the

standard of living, a moderate poverty line equivalent to two thirds of mean per

12

capital expenditure, and a core, or extreme poor, moderately poor, and non-poor

Imo State Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (SEEDS, 2004:52).

Health and Education (human capital in economic terms) are as essential to

wellbeing as incomes. In a significant step towards broader definitions of poverty,

UNDP in 1990 introduced the Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI

combines as single index gross domestic product (a measure of average income)

measures reflecting three basic components of human development: longevity (life

expectancy, knowledge) adult literacy mean years of schooling and standard of

living, purchasing power, based on purchasing power parity (UNDP, 1994:20).

Well-being has thus increasingly become recognized as a broad

phenomenon, encompassing the whole range of factors which influence human

capabilities the capacities, the person to be, and to do. These include the social and

institutional environment within which people live: levels of social autonomy,

empowerment, political representation, access to justice and physical security.

Thus, poverty, or the lack of well-being, may take the form of physical isolation,

vulnerability and powerlessness as well as lack of income and assets. Some of

these attributes may be measured and are the emendable to quantitative analysis.

Other aspects of poverty, such as its institutional or cultural dimensions, or its lived

experience, are more subjective analysis thus best captured by the participatory

method of research in which the opinions of the poor are sought about their own

13

conditions and experiences. This method is now generally accepted as the best way

of lessening about the subjective experience of poverty, and of acquiring local

insights into its causes and remedies.

2.1.2 Poverty: A Multi-Dimensional Concept

Any study of poverty must begin with a conceptualization of poverty. A

search of the relevant literature shows that there is no general consensus on any

meaningful definition of poverty, because poverty affects many aspects of the

human condition, including physical, moral and psychological. According to

Anyanwu (1997) a concise and universally accepted definition of poverty is

elusive. Different criteria have been used to conceptualize poverty. As Anyanwu

rightly observed, most analyses follow the conventional view of poverty as a result

of insufficient income for securing basic goods and services. The concern here is

with the individual stability to subsist and to reproduce himself as well as the

individual stability to command resources to achieve this (Sen, 1981; Amis and

Rakodi 1994). Many other experts have conceptualized the poor as that portion of

the population that is unable to meet basic nutritional needs (Ojha, 1970,

Reutlinger and Selowsky, 1976). Others view poverty, in part, as a function of

education, health, life expectancy, child mortality, etc. However, Tamuno and

Alapila (1995:1) hold that despite the complex nature of poverty, social scientists

14

have been able to identify, describe and analyze poverty, as well proffer solutions

to alleviate poverty.

According to Fields (1994:69) poverty “is the inability of an individual or

family to command sufficient resources to satisfy their basic needs”. Ekong (1991)

says that poverty is one’s general inability to attain or enjoy given social, cultural

or economic benefits. The significant issues in the views of Fields and Ekong are

inability, basic needs and individuals or groups, which states clearly, the

incapability state of the poor. No wonder, Ekpe (2000:121) states that the central

theme of poverty is the state of inadequacy of essential needs of life. In a similar

view, Sen (1987:12) stated that poverty is “the lack of certain capabilities such as

being able to participate with dignity in society”. Demonstrating the dynamism of

the concept further, Engelama and Bamidele (1997) see poverty as a state of

individual not being able to cater adequately for his/her basic needs of food,

clothing and shelter,… meeting social and economic objectives, lack of gainful

employment, skills, assets and self esteem, education, health, portable water and

sanitation, which reduces the opportunity of advancing his/her well being to the

limit of his/her capability. The above definition of poverty explicitly poverty is not

only the inability of individual to afford the basic needs of life, but reduces the

strength and prestige of such individual to participate in any given activity in the

society. In a strict economic sense, Ekpo (2000:49) states that poverty is a situation

15

whereby income and consumption are low. Obandan (1997:61) explains that the

poor are those whose standard of living are measured in terms of income or

consumption and is below the poverty line, which separates the poor form the rich.

In a broader term, Chambers (1995:71) sees poverty as the lack of physical

necessities, assets and income. It is a general condition of deprivation, which

comprises poverty itself, social inferiority, isolation, physical weakness,

vulnerability powerlessness and humiliation. The poor earn below the international

measurement of one US Dollar per day (World Bank, 1996), which affects their

purchasing power to acquire their basic needs. It is on that note that Achor

(2001:35) states that the poor lack cash income that is sufficient to cover their

minimum standard of living. On the other hand, the literature explains that poverty

is not only a situation of poor standard of living, but also a state of severe

deprivation in the society.

2.1.3 Types of Poverty in Nigeria

Poverty as we know exist in different types and poverty is geographically

relative. This is why Onah (2006:72) carefully stated that “different types of

poverty exist at different times and stages in different parts of Nigeria, based on the

socio-cultural, economic and political environment”. However, the dividing line

between types of poverty is thin because of overlapping factors and sometimes it is

the pre-fixing adjective that makes the difference, but the need to classify poverty

16

for whatever value is still founded. The common types of poverty in Nigeria are:

Absolute Poverty: This is a kind of poverty in which the poor a severely

deprived of basic needs of life. Haralambos and Heald (2001:140) view it as the

situation where the poor live below the poverty line. It is a state of not having

enough resources for basic needs of life, such as good health, cloths, shelter, good

water and food etc. This is one of the most prominent types of poverty in Nigeria.

The poor are unable to afford the required resources to acquire the elements

necessary to sustain life and health. The World Bank Report (1996) states that

greater percent of Nigerians are living below the universal poverty line of US one

Dollar per day, which makes life meaningless to the poor. Majority of Nigerians

are unable to afford the required resources to acquire elements necessary to sustain

life. They find it difficult to afford at least one balanced meal out of the required

three per day. Today, many Nigerians struggle for shelters that are not even worthy

of accommodating domestic animals. They have turned under the bridges and

watersides better alternative shelters in absence of any. Good health care is now a

strange issue to majority of Nigerians, due to their inability to afford the resources

for it. The high unemployment rate has worsened the matter even those who are

working, due to the higher inflationary trend, suffer a lot of inadequacies. Indeed

this type of poverty has eroded the dignity of Nigerians and increased dependency

unabated.

17

Relative Poverty: Poverty in this case is measured based on conventional

standard of living in the society. According to Townsend (1974) in Haralambose

and Heald (2001:124) “individuals, families and groups in the populations can be

said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the type of diets,

participate in the activities and have the living conditions and amenities which are

customary, or at least widely encouraged and approved in the society to which they

belong. Their resources are below those commanded by the average individual or

family that they are, in effect, excluded from ordinary living patterns, customs and

activities”. It is a kind of poverty experienced by different people at different

stages.

The standard of living of individuals differs and they experience the poverty

whenever there is a fall below the standard. In Nigeria, the socio-economic

inequality has induced relative poverty, resulting to creation of different classes of

people (the rich, middle and poor) in the country. The standard of living of various

classes varies, as what may be seen as convenient and accommodating by one

class, might not be by the other class. Therefore, the deficiency or inconvenience

in the standard of living of any class makes that class poor in such a giving period.

For example, the acceptable standard of living of successful Nigerian politicians

may be different from that of civil servants. What could be seen as luxury by one

class could be seen as necessity by others.

18

Subjective Poverty: This type of poverty is experienced due to some

circumstances. People graduate into it based on the available circumstance and

perception of the individual. It arises due to shift or reduction in income and status

from a particular level to the other. For example, a retired civil servant that lives on

pensions sees himself or herself as a poor individual due to retirement. He/ she

earns income, but in a reduced capacity compared to what he/she was earning

before. At that point, the perception and status of the individual change Amuguo

(2003). The individual is subjected to poverty due to the circumstance.

Direct Poverty: This poverty is common among Nigerians and seriously

increasing. It involves inability to afford good portable water for drinking,

inadequate food and shelter due to the activities of the rich who have taken over

the control of the state resources. In the Niger Delta Region of the country, access

to portable water had become difficult as virtually all the natural sources of

portable water have been polluted by the activities of multinational and oil

exploration companies, who are also reluctant to provide alternative water sources

Onah (2006:75). He further explained that in the North, the source of water supply

is very low, due to their desert environment. Some part of the South-West and

virtually all the South-East suffer same. The government has not taken adequate

measure to correct the problem. Accommodation is a basic problem in many cities

and rural villages of the federation. Basic amenities generally are scarce in our

19

communities and towns, thereby causing high rate of urban migration to the few

cities where they are found. At the end, it results to overpopulation of the few

urban towns and severe hardship on the citizenry.

Subsistence Poverty: This poverty is common among the villagers.

Sometimes they could have access to safe water, adequate food, good shelter,

based on their level, but poor because they lack resources to maintain other sectors

such as good health, access to good education, social amenities etc. The

consequences are constant rural-urban migration in search of resources to maintain

other sectors.

Socio- Cultural Poverty: According to Obadan (1997), poverty at this level

is influenced by the activities of the culture of the people. In the traditional,

Hausa/Fulani communities, women are not given equal opportunities like their

male counterparts when it comes to formal education. They are deprived due to the

ethics of their culture. This results to a good number of the women being poor at

the end of the day. He also explained that before now, first sons in Ibibio and

Ikwere tribes of Akwa Ibom and Rivers states respectively were not given equal

opportunities like other children in terms of formal education. They are rather

preferred to be farmers to enable them be good custodian of their father’s farm

lands. These men are deprived of formal education on account of cultural practices

(Obadan, 1997). Culturally, driven discrimination of various dimensions against

20

women observable all over Nigeria also leads to this variant of poverty (Ozigboh,

1998).

Urban Poverty: From the view point of Umoh (2001) and Onah (2006), the

poverty at this level is common and associated with the urban areas. Poverty exists

due to absence or inadequate presence of the required basic needs of life in the

urban area. In this case, there could be shelter, portable water, good food etc. but

these are inadequate due to the level of demands, the high demand after the few

supply results to high cost of living in the area, thereby making the low income

earners to suffer miserably in the urban areas. This results in forcing people to seek

for accommodation in urban slum, ghettos and under flyovers, eating unbalanced

diet etc. Urban poverty is usually caused by high rural-urban migration.

Endemic Poverty: This is a type of poverty caused be low productivity and

income, and poor nutrition and health Onah (2006). Many Nigerians today suffer

from endemic poverty. The productivity and income of many individuals are low.

Since their income is low, they lack sufficient resources to afford adequate food,

good health and shelter.

2.1.4 Causes of Poverty in Nigeria

Literatures on the causes of poverty in Nigeria are indeed enormous as there

are authors. Many different factors have been attributed to be responsible for the

21

national poverty rate. These factors or causes will be holistically examined before

proceeding to poverty reduction programmes in Nigeria.

2. Macro- Economic Distortions: Poor macro-economic and monetary policies

resulting in low economic growth rate and continuous slide in the value of the

Naira which depreciated from N 1.0 to N138.0 to $1.0 between June 1986 and

January 2002 in the parallel markets Nwatu (2006:304). In this respect, for any

poverty eradication/reduction to succeed, government must ensure low inflation

rate, low interest rate, stable national currency, and high GDP Growth rate

coupled with balanced income distribution. These are usually difficult to

achieve.

3. Effect of Globalization: The process of globalization which started about a

decade and half ago, caught Nigeria in the throes of political instability (Nwatu,

2006:305). The main features of globalization process include liberation of

trade, free movement of capital and accelerated development in information

technology. Globalization provides windows of opportunity if the indices of

development (interest and exchange rates, terms of trade, tariffs, etc) are on the

positive and favourable scale. In Nigeria, however, by the middle of the

eighties, public infrastructure and utility had gone into serious dilapidation. The

road networks were in bad shape, schools and hospitals deteriorated seriously to

increase poverty among Nigerians. Telecommunication and power supply

22

became very erratic. According to Anyanwu (1997) and Nwatu (2006) “as a

result of petroleum related activities, agriculture was relegated to the

background and those that remained in it, were operating at subsistence level”

and characterized by the following:

(i) Collapsing and uncompetitive industrial sector activities (30% surviving in

the last 10 years).

(ii) Rapid growth in unemployment, under-employment and poverty (about

60% among the youths aged 14-25 years) translating into 3 million jobless

persons entering the labour market annually;

(iii) Social instability and intolerance (ethnic nationalists and religious friction);

(iv) Hyper inflation (averaging 50% between 1985-1995).

(v) Unstable interest and exchange rate (from $ 1 = N1.0 in 1985 to $ 1 to N

100 in 1990 interest rate of 35% per annum as the September 2000);

(vi) Low productivity of Nigerian economic sectors; and

(vii) Endemic corruption, greed and avarice among Nigerian leaders.

Given the Nigeria’s political and socio-economic disposition, globalization

presented more challenges to the country as it lacks what it takes to be relevant or

event adapt and/or cope with it. Until the country can achieve certain level of good

governance and revamped industrial base to enhance modest economic growth and,

23

fairly efficient public infrastructure and utilities, Nigeria shall remain at the

receiving end of globalization (Nwata, 2006:306).

3. Governance: Bad governance over the years had deprived Nigerians of the

ideals and dividends of democracy. It is objective of the government of Nigeria to

tap through democratic process, the energy and creative talents of the people and

harness the nation’s resources to enhance the welfare of the citizenry. This is with

a mission to create a dynamic economy and establish a free, democratic and just

society through the pursuit of people centred programmes. The process will

facilitate and consistently cultivate a style of governance that places premium on

openness, transparency and accountability, probity and effective leadership.

Without any fear of contradiction, we can rightly say that governance with

aggressive instinct towards poverty had not been achieved in Nigeria. The

assessment of different regimes in Nigeria, right from the epoch of colonialism and

post colonial period of military and civilian administrations, there are no pragmatic

policy commitment to tackle poverty from its root causes (absence of basic needs

to the people). Ake (1987) and Nnoli (1986) noted that in the colonial

administration, efforts were only made to build and construct facilities that would

aid the exploitation and exportation of natural resources for the British

development. No infrastructural development was initiated for the economic

24

survival of Nigeria. This undoubtedly left Nigeria’s on economic dependency and

widened the gap of poverty unabated.

4. Corruption: Corruption comes in different forms and differs from country to

country. Corruption has been variously approached by scholars, Lipset and Lenz

(2000:112) defined it as “effort to secure wealth or power through illegal means,

and it is usually for private gains at public expenses; or a misuse of public power

for private benefit”. In Nigeria, illegal takeover of government, through military

coup, embezzlement, nepotism, looting, bribery, vote buying abuse of office

powers, etc. are very common. The manifestation of corruption in Nigeria

progressed among individuals, and there after assumed an institutional and later

national dimension. In Nigeria, corruption has contributed immensely to poverty

and misery of a large segment of the population (Onah, 2006:78). He further

observed that corruption exacerbates poverty and disproportionately affects those

of lower income because it pulls resources from the national treasures, placing the

money into the accounts of few individuals, who are politically powerful. This has

devastating effect on developing economy that needs the money for poverty

alleviation and development.

5. Debt Burden: Debt burden has been one of the drawbacks to Nigeria’s

developmental efforts. The debt portfolio which was slightly above 14.28 billion

US dollars in 1980 rose to about 30 billion US dollars in the year 2000 (Nwatu,

25

2006). In a similar note, Business Times (1993:14) noted that the serving of the

debt has encroached on the volume or resources needed for socio-economic

development; as it is estimated that around 40 per cent of Nigeria’s national

incomes goes to debt payments. The high debt service ratio translate into resources

constant needed for such public infrastructure and utilities as: hospitals schools,

roads (urban and rural); and supply and portable water.

6. Low Productivity: Productivity sectors of the economy like agriculture,

industry, manufacturing etc. are equally constrained leading to low productivity,

low capacity utilization, underemployment and low purchasing power thereby

throwing majority of Nigerians into object poverty.

7. Unemployment: Unemployment in Nigeria assumed crisis level in the late 80s

and early 90s especially among school leavers and graduates in tertiary institutions.

A survey carried out by the centre for Investment Sustainable Development,

Management and Environment in 1998 gave the features as follows:

(i) Over 70% of the unemployed are relatively unskilled primary and secondary

school between age 13-25 years;

(ii) Graduates unemployment which hitherto was un-noticed, started to emerge in

the 1980s, the following influences the rising graduate unemployment;

a. Nigeria had a total enrolment of about 600,000 students in 149 tertiary

institutions 1996/97 academic year,

26

b. There were 123,000 graduates in the 1995/96 session and about 130,000

graduates in 1996/97;

c. Commutatively, Nigeria produced a total of 1,110,000 graduates form

tertiary; and

d. About 10 per cent i.e. 100,000 got formal jobs over one million might be

openly unemployed or under-employed.

The unemployment situation was further worsened by the primary schools,

secondary schools and college dropouts and retrenched workers due to the closure

of many industries. Although there are no reliable data for all these unemployed, it

has roughly been estimated to be over 5.0 million Soludo (2004) cited in Nwatu

(2006). All these unemployment worsened the high level of poverty recorded by

Federal Office of Statistics (FOS) in 1999.

8. High Population Growth Rate: Statistics show that in 1980, Nigeria’s

population was about 65 million, it rose to 88 million in 1991 and further increased

to 102.3 million in 1996. It is estimated that the Nigeria’s population is currently

about 140 million (National Population Commission Census 2006). This increase

in population has over stretched the basic social and infrastructural facilities as

well as public goods in the face of dwindling national resources. A situation in

which population growth average of 2.83 against GDP growth rate of 2.7% meant

27

that resources meant for investment are consumed with little left for development

thereby reinforcing the vicious cycle of poverty.

2.1.5 Poverty Reduction in Nigeria

Poverty reduction is the most difficult challenge facing Nigeria and its

people and the greatest obstacle to pursuit of sustainable socio-economic growth

(NEEDS, 2005:28). Poverty reduction or eradication has appeared as most priority

of every regime in power in Nigeria and its emphasis as the top most priority or

objective of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGS) “to eradicate extreme

poverty” makes news approach in the government programmes on poverty.

Poverty reduction is a global and national task. Globally organizations like

United Nations International Children’s Emergency/Fund (UNICEF) United

Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Industrial

Development Organization (UNIDO), and United Kingdom Department for

International Development (DFID), United States Agency for International

Development (USAID), International Development Association (IDA), Joint

United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), to mention but a few have

taken the lead on poverty reduction especially on developing countries like

Nigeria. Nationally, agencies and establishment, such as Nigerian Agricultural

Cooperation and Rural Development Bank (NACRDB), National Empowerment

and Economic Development Strategy (NEEDS), National Poverty Eradication

28

Porgramme (NAPEP), Partnership for Transformation of Health System (PATHS),

National Action Committee on Aids (NAC), State Empowerment and Economic

Development Strategy (SEEDS), Stated and Local Government Programme

(SLGP), Local Empowerment and Economic Development Strategy (LEEDS),

Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project (LEEMP),

Community Development Co-coordinating Council (CDC), etc. have also taken the

challenges of poverty reduction in Nigeria.

The establishment of these agencies has been necessitated due to high

poverty level in Nigeria for instance, the establishment of poverty

alleviation/reduction strategy by each state under the State Empowerment and

Economic Development Strategy (SEEDS). Poverty reduction constitutes measures

taken by the government to address the problems of poverty. These measures

include improving delivery of basic social services, improving basic

infrastructures, supporting entrepreneurship and self help human development and

empowerment, etc. This is why Nnanna (2003) cited in Imo State Empowerment

Economic and Development Strategy (2005:37) that “to achieve sustainable

poverty reduction by the enhancement of livelihood and human capabilities

through board based wealth creation and employment generation”.

The awareness on poverty reduction and actions on poverty alleviation

programmes are both global and national efforts. We shall proceed to examine the

29

various efforts of the federal environment to cub poverty in Nigeria and other

component programmes in Imo state.

Before the creation of Nation’s Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP) in

2002, there had been various efforts by the Federal Government or Nigeria to

attack national poverty Ukoha (2003: 15). Ukoha further noted that by 1999,

eighteen (18) Federal Ministries and 30 Agencies and Extra-ministerial

Department were involved in poverty alleviation activities at the federal levels.

Although national efforts to tame poverty in Nigeria can be traced to the

nation’s fourth national development plans which were indirectly aimed at tackling

people’s poverty Ukaoha (2003). Observations from and Anyanwu (1997), Onah

(2006) and Ukaoha (2003) showed that the most serious poverty reduction

programmes of the Federal Government of Nigeria took place in the post 1980s era

following the consequences that followed the introduction of the structural

adjustment programme (SAP) by the Babangida military regime in 1986.

Ukoha (2003) for instance noted that “the austerity measures contained in

SAP were believed to have worsened the poverty situation in Nigeria. Indeed, even

today, many economists do argue that the present socio-economic situation which

is receiving the present administrative economic reforms is still as a result of SAP

(UNNP 2000).

30

By 1997, Nigeria was ranked as the 5th poorest nation among 78 developing

nations in recent times; poverty has become pervasive in the country. According to

the World Bank report of 2000 “the poverty situation has aptly been described as a

paradox, the paradox is that the high level of poverty in Nigeria contradicts the

country’s enormous wealth. Among other things, Nigeria is endowed with

immense human agricultural, petroleum, gas and solid mineral resources, much of

which have not been harnessed, yet Nigeria’s remained poor (Ogwunike, 2005:94).

He further stated that “it is important to note that the country’s has earned over 300

billion U.S dollars from its natural resources during the last decade of the 20th

century. But instead of making progress in the national socio-economic

development, the country retrogressed to become the 25th poorest country in the

world at the beginning of the 21st century where as she was among the richest 50

countries in the early 1970 (Ekhator, 2003:73).

In the light of the above, Federal Government has apparently concern its

policy directives mainly for poverty reduction in Nigeria, numerous policies and

programmes have been designed at one time or the other to solve the problem of

poverty in the country. It is important to emphasize that the advent of Structural

Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986 brought out more forcibly, the need for

policies and programmes to alleviate poverty and provide safety nets for the poor.

Indeed, since after the introduction of SAP there have been conscious efforts by

31

various governments towards the alleviation of poverty situation in the country has

been worsening over the years.

Consequently, when the former President Chief Olusegun Obasajo came to

power as an elected President of Federal Republic of Nigeria on May 29, 1999, the

first step taken in solving the county’s poverty problems was creation of Poverty

Alleviation Programme (PAP) under which the regime intended to create 200,000

jobs within the first year of his tenure, that is by the year 2000 Aliyu (2003:24).

His wife, the then first Lady, Chief (Mrs.) Stella Obasanjo (now late),

followed suit the introduction of the Child Care Programme for the disabled

children of the indigent people. The wife of the former Vice President, Chief (Mrs)

Titilayo Atiku Abubakar complemented this with the WOTCLEF, a programme

designed to fight against abuse of poor women and prostitution. Ezeonu (2011)

also attributed that the objectives of Child Care Programme and WOTCLEF have

been carried over in the new programme by the wife of incumbent President Mrs.

Dim Patience Jonathan in her “Women for Change Initiative” programme.

Ekhator (2003:74) asserts that “if the only success determinant for

measuring the performance of the various programmes so far implemented is the

degree of poverty in the country, it would not be difficult to conclude that they

have all failed woefully since the number of the poor people has been on the

increase”.

32

Asiodu (2000) cited in Ekhotor (2003:74) further stated that “the United

Nations and its Development Report of 1998 indicates that about 48% of Nigerian

population live below the poverty line”. According to Ekhator (2003), Asiodu who

made the statement in his address at the annual directors conference held in Ibadan

on 28th June, 2000, asserted that the United National Report provided the basis

upon which the present administration formulated its poverty alleviation

programme to attest for poverty and improve the standard of living of Nigerians.

A sum of N 10 billion was voted for this programme (Ekhator, 2003). No

sooner did the programme started that public outcry began to trail it. Beneficiaries

of the earmarked N3,500 monthly stipends were believed to be more the relations

and friends of politicians in the ruling Peoples’ Democratic Party (PDP)

(Ogwumike,2005:54). Following the recommendations of the Technical

Committee on the Review of Alleviation Programme (TCRPAP), the Obasanjo’s

administration re-designed the programme and again came up with another term”

name- National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP) to carry on the

objectives of the government from where the Poverty Alleviation Programme

(PAP) stopped.

33

2.1.6 The Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project

(LEEMP) as a Poverty Alleviation Programme

LEEMP, a World Bank assisted poverty alleviation programme in

partnership with the Nigerian government is being executed in nine states of the

country (LEEMP, 2007). Its components include multi-sectoral community-driven

investments, local government assessment and capacity building as well as

protected areas and biodiversity management, Strengthening environmental

institutional framework and programme management.

The policy instrument establishing LEEMP was signed between the federal

government and World Bank on December 3, 2003 while the implementation took

effect on April 29, 2005 Papka (2007). Furthermore, Papka, the national co-

ordinator of LEEMP, explained that the participating states are Adamawa, Bauchi,

Bayelsa, Benue, Enugu, Imo, Katsina, Niger and Oyo states. Three local

government areas are selected from each state, while 10 communities were chose

from each local government. Chief (Mrs.) Helen Esuene, the former Hon. Minister

of Environment, at the 6th National Council on Environment held in Katsina in

November 2006, acknowledged the success of LEEMP, adding it was a

justification of the federal government’s intervention in poverty alleviation. The

Minister who represented the President at the occasion said reports from where

LEEMP projects were being executed were encouraging.

34

2.1.7 Institutional Structure of LEEMP

LEEMP, has a national representative chaired by the President while the

Minister of Environment is usually the Vice-Chairman. There is also a national

coordinator. At the state level, the Executive Governors of nine states which are

under the implementing states of LEEMP namely: Adamawa, Bauchi, Bayelsa,

Benue, Enugu, Imo, Katsina, Niger and Oyo states are the state chairmen while the

Commissioners in State Ministries of Environment are the Vice-Chairmen. Beside

this, there are state coordinators of LEEMP in the nine states and at the local

governments and communities, LEEMP has the Local Government Chairmen as

representatives while the community-leaders are also representatives.

2.1.8 Gap in Literature

Explicitly, this study has unveiled some salient literatures that have some

degree of relevance to the subject matter under study. These literatures have

concentrated mainly on general notes on issues of Nigerian poverty problems and

government poverty alleviation programmes with little emphasis on Imo state. The

past studies on poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria by many scholars

reviewed here tend to focus mainly on poverty as a systemic problem without

holistically diverting their views on multidimensional approach of poverty and the

possible solutions to problem. This study therefore, intends to cover this lacuna by

examining in detail the LEEMP’s efforts in alleviating poverty in Imo state.

35

3.2 Theoretical Framework

For the purpose of this study, efforts have been made to incline on a theory

that has holistic view on the subject matter of public policy making and analysis

and such that can explain the present scenario of the poverty in Imo State.

Therefore, the study adopted elite theory because of its significance to the problem

under study. Elite theory is supported by Karl Marx (1873), Frank Gunder (1967)

Feldman, H (1967), David Easton (1971), among other scholars, who see society

from the class/ social class perspectives. The elite class theory, being one of the

most popularly advocated theories for public policy making and analysis conceives

public policies and programmes as the initiatives of the elites and not the masses

(the people). This is why Ikelegbe (1996:53) states that “the elite theory postulates

that public policy reflects the values and preference of the elites rather than the

demands of the masses. It is the elites that make policies, while administrators and

public officials carry out the elites’ policy decisions. The elites have common

interest in the preservation of societal status quo, policies are bound to be

conservative, non innovative and marginal rather than those with bold and high

change potentials. Policies might sometimes be in the masses interest, even though

the long term interests may be that of the elites, but this happens as concessions to

or reactions by the elites to threats to the status quo by the masses. The elites are

few in the society but they wield power and influence, allocate values and rules.

36

The majority (i.e. the masses only obey and are guided, controlled and governed by

the few). The elites consist of those who hold leading positions in the strategic

aspects of society and who wield power in the strategic groups. There are thus

military elites, business elites, bureaucratic elites, political or governing elites,

religious and traditional elites. Many of the elites do not hold formal or legal

authoritative powers but are rather behind the scene, tele-guiding and manipulating

overt political and policy actions. The elites owe their positions to the control of

the productive resources of the society and of the social or religious values held by

the society such as wealth, economic influence, social status and education.

In summary, the theoretical tenets of the elites’ theory attempt a realistic

explanation of the source of public policy by predicating it on the elites rather than

the masses. In the reality, however, the masses of the population hardly have any

considerable influence on public policies. Again, elite theorists however have

tended to see elite power as cumulative and pervasive in all aspects of society. To

them, the same few wield power in all areas. This enables the elites to maintain and

preserve the societal status quo where the rich get richer and the poor get poorer

with unemployment, poor healthcare, poor housing, malnutrition, and other

problems of poverty becoming the order of the day.

37

2.2.1 Application of the Theory

The elites’ theory has much significance to the continuous rise or increase of

poverty in Nigeria. Ordinarily, in Nigeria, it may be assumed that public

preferences articulated by representatives are the main source of policy flow. In

reality, however, the masses of population hardly have any considerable influence

on public polices made or initiated by government judging from the elites theory.

In other words, poverty reduction programmes such as the National Poverty

Alleviation Programme (NAPEP), National Directorate of Employment (NDE),

National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS), Local

Empowerment and Environmental Management Project (LEEMP), among others,

are considered as the policy actions and programmes to maintain and control the

society’s status quo. In common sense, these create more avenue for the

exploitation of the masses and as well create more poverty among the masses

thereby creating more poverty. This is why the true beneficiaries of poverty

alleviation programmes deviate from the poor to the rich.

Demonstratively, the practical tenets or postulations of the elite theory show

that Nigerian society is controlled by the elite who have the control of economic,

social, cultural, political, and religious powers. In other words, the elites view

poverty as a normal economic phenomenon that must exist and should be

maintained, if the society must grow (Onah, 2006:80). The elites also look at poor

38

as a normal economic class that must exist and need not to be allowed to leave

their status quo. Poverty, on the other hand, is created by the elites through seizing

up the opportunities to create and liberate the poor. In Nigeria, however, poverty

alleviation programmes are structurally designed to enrich the elites and create

more poverty to the masses who are majority of the poor group of the societal

population. For instance, certain jobs are structurally designed for the poor such as

small-scale entrepreneurial empowerment; Keke-Napepe business, training of the

poor ones in agriculture without any land and financial empowerment, petty trade

training, and other occupations without adequate empowerment to stand on their

own. By so doing, the elites continue to deprive the poor from having access to

grow and liberate themselves from the shackles of poverty which usually

associated with problems such unemployment, poor access to healthcare, good

drinking water, housing, good income, among others. This is achieved by the elites

through authoritative allocation of values to the poor ones in the society. Judging

from the institutional structure of LEEMP, one can also see the exclusion of the

people participation in the implementation or programme management. There is a

top-bottom structurally management. This may likely affects the impact of the

people in initiating projects based on felt-needs of the communities.

39

2.3 Hypotheses

The following hypotheses have been formulated to guide this study:

1) There is a significant relationship between the nature of poverty alleviation

programmes and the rate of poverty in Imo State.

2) Poor participation of people is partially responsible for poor benefits of the

rural communities from LEEMP poverty reduction programmes in Imo

State.

3) Poor accountability of LEEMP official is a major factor militating against

targeted goals of the government objectives in poverty reduction

programmes in Imo State.

2.4 Operationalization of Key Concepts

The operationalization of key concepts present the contextual use of terms in

this research study. These concepts includes:-

Policy:- Policy is governmental actions or course of actions or proposal actions or

course of proposed actions directed at achieving certain goal.

Programme-: A programme is a set or package of decisions, rule and regulations,

activities and structures designed to implement a particular policy.

Standard of Living:- Standard of living here refers to the state of economic well-

being of the people.

High Incidence of Corruption:- High incidence of corruption is seen as any form

of official miss-conduct to breach the official protocols or bend some rules and

40

regulations governing the implementation of government poverty alleviation

policies or programmes to achieve personal interest or that of others.

Weak Implementation Strategies:- Implementation strategies are measures map-

out framework to be followed in administering policy actions. In other words,

weak implementation strategies are defaults in implementation of poverty

alleviation policies or programmes.

Poor Accountability: Poor accountability is state of no stewardship of those who

manage the resources of the government in implementation of the LEEMP

programmes.

2.5 Method of Data Collection

This sub-section of the research deals with ways, approaches, or steps followed

in carrying out the research study. Methodology according to Behling (1984.50) is

the authority base for the research. The following steps were taken in this study.

2.5.1 Research Design: A research design, according to Odo (1992: 42) relates to

the general approach adopted in executing a study. This research is a fact-finding

one and is designed to examine the poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria

mainly narrowed down to LEEMP in Imo State.

2.5.2 Sources of Data Collection

The researcher made use of two types of data. These include primary and

secondary sources of data.

41

Primary Source of Data: This includes all methods adopted by the researcher to

gather relevant information through interview, personal observation and

questionnaire administration.

Secondary Source of Data: The secondary data were sourced from relevant text

books, government annual publications, official, records and magazines and

journals.

2.5.3 Target Population of Study

The term population is defined by Odo (1992:26) as “the entire number of

people, objects, events and things that all have one or more characteristics of

interest to a study”. The population of this study is drawn from the 26 local

governments in Imo State namely are: Aboh Mabaise, Ahiazu Mbaise, Ehime

mbano, Ezinihitte, Ideato North, Ideato South, Ihite/Uboma, Ikeduru, Isiala mbano,

Isu, mbaitoli Ngorokpala, Njaba, Nkwerre, Nwangele, Obowu, Uguta,

Ohaji/Egbema, Okigwe, Onuimo, Orlu, Orsu, Oru East, Oru West, Owerri

Municipal, Owerri North and Owerri-West Local Government Council. In

addition, the staffs of the Local Empowerment and Environmental Project

Management (LEEMP) who serve as local and community coordinators in the

local governments are also included in the target population of the study.

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2.5.4 Sample Size and Sampling Technique

By definition and according to Odo (1992:26) sample size is a process of

selecting a proportion of the population considered adequate to represent all

existing characteristics within the target population for the purpose of generalizing

target population and or any other population having similar characteristics with

the target population.

The researcher considered the largeness of this population and decided to

apply stratified random sampling to enable us group the local governments

according to their political zones. From the stratification, we have three senatorial

districts namely; Owerri, Okigwe and Orlu from where we selected only six local

government areas, two each from the three senatorial districts of the state.

Therefore the population is drawn as shown below:

Target Sample of the Study

Senatorial District Areas No. of Persons/Respondents

Owerri Senatorial Zone

Ahiazu Local Government 50

Ngor Okpala Local Government 50

Okigwe Senatorial Zone

Obowo Local Government 50

Okigwe Local Government 50

Orlu Senatorial Zone

Nwangele Local Government 50

Ideato South Local Government 50

Total 300

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The study adopted sample size formula by Yamani (1964:280). The formula

was applied thus:

n = N 1+N (e)2

Where N =Sample size

N =Population

E= Level of significance or error allowable

I=Constant

The researcher chose 5% (percent) as level of significant or margin of allowable

error. The translation of the formula has been stated hereunder:

)05.0300(1

300

x

n

+

=

151

300

+

=n

161

300

+

=n

n =18.75 to the nearest whole number n = 19. Then since the population was drawn

from six local governments, we therefore multiply 19 by 6 to get our sample size n

=113. In addition the use of simple random sampling would be adopted to enable

the researcher to select respondents from all the six local government areas.

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2.5.5 Method of Data Analysis

In analyzing the data collected, the researcher would be guided by the

objectives of the study and the research questions. Also items on the questionnaires

would be spread out in order to capture the qualitative and quantitative responses

expected from the respondents.

The study adopts the use of tables, simple percentage and descriptive content

analysis to analyze our data gathered from the primary and secondary sources of

data. However, in presenting the tabulated data, the use of simple percentage

would be adopted. It is worthy to mention that the simple percentage will enable us

to assess the proportional percentages of the respondents’ opinions in the questions

asked while the descriptive content analysis will enable us assess the variables in

our research questions. Hence, the researcher would be guided by the following

formulas:

For the calculation of simple parentage, we shall use

n x 100 N 1

Where, n = Number of the Respondents’ opinions in a particular options;

N = Total number of the Respondents = 100

100 = Percentage Constant Factor 1

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Hypothesis was tested using the statistical test known as Chi-square

The value of the chi-square is computed using the formulae:

∑(Oi-Ei)

Ei

Where

Oi = observed data

Ei = expected data

= chi-square

Df = degree of freedom

The degree of freedom is calculated using the formula df = (N-1)

Where N is the number of observation in a particular table.

The researcher assumed a 0.5% level of significance in testing the hypothesis.

2.5.6 Reliability and Validity of Instrument (Questionnaire)

According to Obasi (2000:103); Black and Champman and Nachinias and

Nachimas (1981), the success of any research lies to a large extent on the

dependability of the data employed in analysis. This then raises the question of

validity and reliability.

Validity as the name implies is the appropriateness of an instrument in

measuring what is intended to measure. According to (Odo, 1992:50) validity is

the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure. Validity

therefore, occurs when a careful attempt has been made to ensure that an

instrument adopted measures achieve the desired results by applying the theoretical

knowledge in the filled about what is being studied and by convincing oneself

46

common-sensically, that the items, in the instrument has been logically validated

Obasi (2000:104).

In validating our instruments for data collection, we shall be concerned with

establishing their content validity. We are doing this first, to ensure that they

measure what they are expected to measure and more importantly, because content

validity comprises of face validity, predictive and concurrent validity, construed

validity or criterion related or empirical validity, Black and Champion (1976:91).

We shall therefore, ensure that the questionnaire we shall use will be appropriately

structured; well worded and covers a good representation of some experts in

government policy analysis or public programmes managers from government

organizations and non-governmental organizations.

We shall ensure validity by insisting that our empirical measure adequately

reflects the real meaning of the concept under consideration. We shall employ

content or face validity method which will enable us to ensure that the instrument

we shall use will be valid. To ensure this, we must ensure that the questions in our

instruments are good ones. We must equally ensure that they are logically and

relevantly measuring what the instruments are set out to measure.

Reliability, on the other hand, refers to the ability of an instrument to

produce the same results consistently over some time when applied to the same

sample, Good and Hart (1952:86). The reliability of our instruments will be

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assured by our consistency in our question and interview models. According to

Odoh (1992:54) reliability means consistency and it is the consistency of the test in

measuring whatever it purports to measure. We shall ensure reliability of our

instruments by ensuring that the question we shall pose in both questionnaire and

personal interview shall be in simple, good, precise and understandable form to the

respondents.

To ensure reliability, we shall use internal consistency method whereby

cross-checking questions are built into the questionnaire and oral interview. We

shall further ensure reliability by cross-checking our information against many

sources and by ensuring that facts and figures collected from various sources

earlier stated shall not only be accurate and authentic but would remain same if the

collection is repeated again and again.

In addition to the above measures aimed at ensuring validity and reliability

of the study, we shall employ external criterion to check how correct the findings

of a particular instruments are. We shall do this by comparing the result with

existing knowledge as well as our findings from field work, questionnaire, oral

interview, participant observation and content analysis. With the above processes,

the validity and reliability of the instruments as well as the study will be assured.

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CHAPTER THREE

ETHNOGRAPHIC SETTING OF THE CASE STUDY (IMO STATE)

3.1 Historical Background of Imo State

Imo State was created on February 3, 1976 out of the old East Central State

by the then regime of General Murtala Mohammed. Abia State was carved out of

Imo State in the state creation exercise of 1991. It has Owerri as it capital and

largest city. Other major towns are Okigwe, Oguta, Nkwerre, Orlu, Mbaise, Mbano,

Mbieri, Ideato, Awo-Idemili, Ohaji, Obowo, Ngor-Okpuala, Uzoagba, Emekuku,

Orodo, Mgbidi.

Situated in south eastern Nigeria, Imo State covers an area of 5,530 square

kilometres. Imo State shares boundaries with Enugu and Ebonyi States to the north,

Anambra State to the west, Rivers State to the south and in the North and Rivers

State to the South, Cross River and Akwa Ibom States to the east.

The inhabitants of Imo State are Igbo. The official language of the state is

Igbo alongside English. Imo State has a rich cultural heritage. This is manifested in

dressing, music, dance, festivals, arts and crafts.

3.2 Geographical Location of Imo State

Imo State derives its name from Imo River, which takes its course from the

Okigwe/Awka upland. It lies within latitudes 4°45'N and 7°15'N, and longitude

6°50'E and 7°25'E. Imo State has many rivers. The main rivers in the state are Imo,

49

Otamiri and Njaba. The major lakes are in Oguta and Abadaba in Obowu local

government area.

The main streams draining the state are Imo, Otamiri, Njaba and Orasi

rivers, all of which have very few tributaries. With the exception of Imo River, this

runs through the area underlain by the Imo Shales, other rivers rise within the

coastal plain sands. Generally, river valleys constitute the major physical features,

which are often marshy. Imo State is bounded on the east by Abia State, on the west

by the River Niger and Delta State; and on the north by Anambra State, while

Rivers State lies to the south. Imo State covers an area of about 5,100sq km.

Relief and Drainage: Imo State is underlain by the Benin Formation of coastal

plain sands. This formation, which is of late Tertiary age, is rather deep, porous,

infertile and highly leached. In some areas like Okigwe, impermeable layers of clay

occur near the surface, while in other areas, the soil consists of lateritic material

under a superficial layer of fine-grained sand. Rivers are few with vast inter fluxes

which are characterized by dry valleys that carry surface drainage in periods of high

rainfall. The phenomenal monotony of the terrain may be accounted for by the

absence of any tectonic disturbances and by the homogeneity of the rock structure.

3.3 Socio-Cultural Organization of Imo State People

Cultural is the social life of the people. This covers their religion, way

dressing, music, food, housing, marriage, burial rites, child naming, among others.

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Cultural is therefore the totality of people’s way of life. Imo State people are known

for their cultural life and values just like in every part of Igboland. This is Duru

(2010), opined that part of the culture of the state is the lgbo traditional hospitality

to visitors, which begins with the presentation of kolanuts to the visitor. The kolanut

signifies that the visitor is heartily welcomed. The ritual of the presentation of the

kolanut is consummated with the offering of prayers and thanksgiving or petition to

the supreme God and other deities, for the protection of the visitor and the host.

Other aspects of the socio-cultural lives and values of Imo State people are

discussed below.

3.3.1 Ethnic Composition and Culture: The inhabitants of Imo State are lgbos, a

culturally homogeneous group. The lgbo language is spoken throughout the state

with minor differences in dialects. The official language of the state is however,

English. Imo State has a very rich cultural heritage. This is manifested in dressing,

music, dance, festivals, arts and crafts, and the traditional hospitality of the people.

3.3.2 Festivals: There are many traditional festivals observed in the State. Each

community has different festivals celebrated in honour of ancient deities or to mark

an important event in the history of the area. There are different festivals to usher in

the Eyiri-eyi Obohia; Iwakwa of Ihitte Afor Ukwu – Every 3 years; Inunkwu of

Oparanadim; Iriji Mbaise (New yam festival) – August 15th every year; Iwa –Akwa

performed by Okponkume community; Ituaka of Ahiara Ofiri, among others. Most

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of these festivals take place within the last quarter of every year. Below are some

local government and their major festivals.

Obowo LGA

Iwa Akwa festival – celebrated every three years by all the communities.

Mbomuzo festival- (community sanitation & cleanliness)

Ntumamka festival – (emphasizes ancestral lineage)

Egbenkwu festival – September

Okonko Masquerade

Igbu - Ewu Ukwu festival (glorifies fertility in the female folk)

Nwangele LGA

Okorosha dance - Amigbo community - December

Owu festival - Isu and Abajah communities - December

Ekpukele - during the new yam festival

Nta Cultural festival - last week of August - New cropping season.

Ngor Okpala LGA

New yam festival

Mbom - Uzo festival

Nwokorobo and Abigolo Dance

By all the Communities

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Aboh Mbaise LGA

New yam festival-unanimously celebrated by all the communities-August

15th yearly

Itu Aka festival