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IB Contemporary World History Mr. Blackmon

The Spanish Civil War

I. The Antecedents: 1898-1931 (Ellwood 5-12)A. Conservative ideology in Spain, which is well established by 1700, is based upon

1. Spanish imperial greatness2. National identity3. Catholicism4. National unity

B. Conservatives equated these qualities with Spain itself, and regarded anyquestioning or disagreement with those values as un-Spanish, foreign andsubversive.

C. The crisis of the Conservatives1. The French Revolution

a. Liberalism ("Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité")b. Loss of empire

2. "Expressed very simply, the partisans of absolutism, empire, inheritedwealth and social inequality gave their support to authoritarian,conservative political groupings, while those who favored parliamentaryrule based on universal suffrage, democratic freedoms and measures toreduce social and economic inequality backed liberal and, from the latterpart of the century onwards, socialist formations" (Ellwood 7)a. Socialism as an outgrowth of Enlightenment and Liberalism

D. Government in Spain in 19th century characterized by frequent coups orpronunciamentos led by the military on behalf of civilian forces too weak orfragmented to effect change. The military was not necessarily acting to preservestatus quo automatically, but as caretakers for the nation as a whole, at least as thegenerals understood the nation. (Ellwood 8)1. This establishes a tradition by which direct military action substitutes for

parliamentary or democratic methods in order to achieve change.E. The Spanish-American War and the loss of the Philippines and Cuba were

particularly heavy blows for the Conservatives, who begin to yearn for a nationalreawakening.

F. The Algeciras Conference in 1906 provides Spain with an opportunity toregenerate the nation by the conquest and pacification of Spanish Morocco (sort ofEl Cid's revenge, I suppose).

G. War in Africa1. The Army of Africa provides a forum for professional soldiers to earn

honors and promotions. It develops a fierce sense of identity among theofficers, but is physically and spiritually separated from the bulk of thenation; yet the Army of Africa tended to see itself as the embodiment ofthe nation and the hope of the future. They tend to blame Spain's loss ofgreatness on the cowardice and ineptitude of the civilians. In other words,they represent a coup waiting to occur.

IB Contemporary World History Mr. BlackmonThe Spanish Civil War

2. The cost of war weighs heavily upon a nation that is not wealthy. a. A saying from the American Civil War, "It's a rich man's war but a

poor man's fight," sums up the problem. The costs in casualtiesand treasure was borne unequally. For peasant and working classfamilies, whose sons were conscripted to fight, sweat and die, thewar became very unpopular.

b. A disastrous offensive at Annual in Morocco in 1921 led to scandaland investigation. Rumors that the King, Alfonso XIII, hadauthorized the offensive without the knowledge of his own warminister, generated such unhappiness as to actually threaten thecrown itself.

3. General Miguel Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja intervened to protect thecrown and established a dictatorship.a. Primo de Rivera ends the war in Morocco in 1925, and thus saves

the monarchy, but at the cost of transferring effective governmentfrom the king to the military.(1) Dictatorship, however well-intentioned, was not popular

with liberals, socialists, and anarchists, and eventuallyPrimo's high handed ways cost him the support of the othergenerals.

(2) In 1930, Primo felt compelled to resign and go into self-imposed exile. He is replaced by two military governmentswhich, however, came under increased pressure to providea modern democracy.

4. A "Revolutionary Committee" is formed in 1930, including liberals,socialists--The Spanish Socialist Party or Partido Socialista ObreroEspañol, or PSOE--as well as disaffected conservatives.

H. The Second Spanish Republic1. Elections in April 1931 left the king in command of the rural regions but

defeated in the urban and manufacturing centers, from whence economicand political power derived. Alfonso reluctantly left the country to saveface

2. The republic is proclaimed on April 14, 19313. The Provisional Government was emphatically not Socialist or

Communist, although these groups had influence. The government wasreformist and dominated by Liberals.a. The first President was Niceto Alcalá-Zamora, an Andalusian

landowner.b. Spanish conservatives, and conservatives everywhere in Europe,

had a great difficulty in distinguishing the difference between aLiberal, a Socialist, and a Communist. All of them looked likeSatan to the Conservatives.


II. The Second Republic: 1931-1936 (Ellwood 13-27)A. Conservatives were not reconciled to republican government

1. These people believed that Spain should be governed by a monarch whowould rule by divine right and the natural inequality of men.a. Parliamentary government requires accountability of the governors

to the governed, which is fundamentally opposed to theseconservative values.

b. These conservatives came primarily from upper-middle class andaristocratic classes whose wealth originally was based on landownership.(1) The latifundia were concentrated in the south, west and

center: Castile, Andalusia, and Estramadura.2. Formation of Conservative political groups

a. Acción Española (Spanish Action)b. Acción Nacional (National Action) (later Acción Popular)

3. The Republic is severely hampered by this political opposition which isfundamentally hostile to its very existence. They are unable in to achieveneeded (and promised) reforms in large part due to this opposition. Furthermore, the Republic's very commitment to democratic freedomsmade it impossible to defend itself effectively against those who woulddestroy it. a. The implication of this ironic situation for all free societies is quite

serious. At the very least, democracy cannot survive unless there isa societal consensus that it should survive. The lesson of Spainalso suggests that a democratic society under deliberate attack maybe in very deep trouble unless it suspends or restricts the veryrights and liberties that distinguish a democratic society fromauthoritarian or totalitarian ones.

B. Opposition of the Catholic Church to the Republic1. It would be difficult to understate the importance of the Church in molding

Spanish life. The Church saw the Republic as an atheistic threat.2. The Church's fears were exaggerated but not imaginary. Republican

leaders wished toa. Establish lay schools (control of education has been one of the

Catholic Church's most important goals where ever it has been thedominant religion. Throughout the Hispanic world, the struggleover religious or secular education is often the first fault line for adeeply divided society, and often also serves to defineConservatives and Liberals.)

b. Allow divorcec. Permit freedom of religion for other Christian denominations

3. For Conservatives, "Catholicism was inseparable from national identity."


(Ellwood 15)C. Fear of the Latifundists

1. Land reform was a high priority issue for the Republicans.2. The latifundia were very inefficient economically, since the owners had

little incentive to invest in such innovations as fertilizer or machinery.3. Latifundia are typically tied into inheritance, political dominance, social

class, etc. They act as powerful conservative forces within a society.dividing the population into a very small number of wealthy, patriarchal,semi-feudal landholders and masses of desperately poor, ignorantdependant peasants.a. Problems which we may see in Spain may also be seen throughout

Latin America.4. The most difficult issue was compensation for the landowners for the

redistribution of land.5. A Law of Agrarian Reform was introduced into the Cortes in March 1932

but was blocked by the Conservatives.a. The Republicans did something very nasty in this bill: they

established that compensation would be on the basis of the taxablevalue of the land declared by the latifundists. The latifundists hadgrossly undervalued their land (to avoid having to pay any taxes)but could hardly admit that they had been defrauding thegovernment all along.

D. Opponents from the Left who felt that republican reform was much too limitedand hesitant1. The PSOE (socialists), their trade union (Unión General de Trabajadores,

General Workers Union, or UGT)2. The Partido Communista de España (Communist Party of Spain, or PCE)3. The Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (National Confederation of

Labour, or CNT, an anarcho-syndicalist organizationa. Anarchism as an intellectual movement had its roots in Russia,

with Mikhail Bukharin as its most famous spokesman. Theanarchists viewed all government as evil. They dreamed of aprimitive socialism of genuine equality, without having much ideahow to achieve that (beyond random violence) or how to maintainit. By definition, anarchists were much better at destroyinggovernments than in creating them. They were enthusiastic andoften very destructive revolutionaries, but not successful. Themuch more disciplined Bolsheviks were vastly more effective.

b. Syndicalism has as its chief spokesman the French philosopherGeorges Sorel. Georges Sorel (1847-1922) accepted Marx' idea ofa class war as well as the idea of violence as an end in itself (aconcept that is irrational or even antirational, as opposed to the


rationalism of the Enlightenment) from Nietzsche. (Blum 249-50) He urged a campaign of violence on the part of the workers,including sabotage and strikes. The ultimate revolutionary weaponis the general strike. (Bernstein 195) Syndicalism was especiallyinfluential in Latin America.

c. The elections of November 1933 resulted in right-wing victories. Reasons for this surprising result are(1) The political system favored coalitions. The Right was

willing to work together despite differing agendas; the Leftwas less willing.

(2) Universal suffrage permitted women to vote for the firsttime. They proved to be generally conservative (a patterntrue for other societies as well; male conservatives havetended to fear that permitting the vote to women wouldresult in a sharp turn to the left and the end of moderncivilization; more often than not, women have votedconservatively; I attribute--without the research to prove it--that to traditional concerns for children, family, andstability.)

E. The Rightist Coalition included1. Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas (Spanish Confederation

of Autonomous Rightist Parties, or CEDA) led by José María Gil Robles. Robles is a monarchist and a Catholic, and he is reactionary, norrevolutionary.

2. Falange Española de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista(Spanish Phalanx and the Committees for National Syndicalist Offensiveor Falange Española de las JONS [do you mind if I call them theFalange?} They were led by José Antonio Primo de Rivera, the son ofthe former dictator.

F. The "Black Biennium" (November 1933 to February 1936)1. Economic conditions were harsh (Spain was not immune to the Great

Depression)2. Rural protest was crushed savagely by the Guardia Civil, who were viewed

as the instrument of the landlords and the political caciques)3. In the Asturian mining districts, the strikers fought back desperately

against the police and Guardia Civil. General Francisco Franco wascalled in to suppress the strikers.

4. Franco deployed Spanish regulars, Spanish Legionnaires, and Moroccantroops (the latter had a well-deserved reputation for ferocity and cruelty; Ellwood notes that Asturias never submitted to Moorish rule and was thespringboard for the Reconquest; the use of Moorish troops in Asturias bythe devoutly Catholic Franco seems a bit ironic) (19)


5. Rightist rule was weakened by financial scandals in 19356. The Left began to organize its opposition in November 1935

a. Indalecio Prieto of the PSOEb. Manuel Azaña Díaz of the Republican Leftc. UGT, the trade unionistsd. PCE, the Stalinist Communistse. Juventudas Socialistas (Socialist Youth or JS)f. Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista (Workers' Party of

Marxist Unification, or POUM, which was anti-Stalinist)7. The Seventh Congress of the Comintern (Communist International) in

1935, an organization thoroughly controlled by Stalin, gave orders for allCommunist Parties to cooperate with other Socialist organizations tooppose fascism. From this came the term "Popular Front," which isapplied to the Republicans in Spain and to the Socialist government inFrance.a. Stalin was trying to be very clever here. He hoped to assist

Germany (indirectly) to rearm. Then he hoped for Germany towage war against Great Britain and France, fellow capitalists; theresult would be the exhaustion and collapse of all three. Then,Stalin reasoned, he could move into the power vacuum and pick upthe pieces. He did not, however, want Germany to become toostrong nor France too weak. Hence, the Popular Fronts, whichwould act as a counter-weight to growing German strength. SinceStalin was unable to distinguish the difference between theConservative Neville Chamberlain or Edouard Daladier and theNazi Adolf Hitler, this complex and risky policy turns out to beone of the worst foreign policy disasters in history. One wouldthink that someone as pathologically paranoid as Stalin, not tomention ruthless, amoral, cruel, cynical, and evil, would recognizea kindred spirit. Actually, he did. He just didn't expect Hitler toattack him.

b. Stalin's attempts to be clever has a profound effect on the SpanishCivil War. What must be firmly understood about Stalin's policytowards Spain is that ideology (the fostering of the world socialistrevolution so beloved by Trotsky and Lenin) had been pervertedinto "What's good for the Soviet Union is good for worldSocialism" or "Socialism in One Country," the official slogan. AllCommunist Parties were expected to function as extensions ofSoviet foreign policy, and the immediate benefit of the SovietUnion (a concept which Stalin tended to treat as if it were the oldImperial Russia, but that is impossible, isn't it, since Stalin was aCommunist, and Communists are not imperialists, are they, only us


Capitalist-Imperialist running-dog paper tiger pigs.) took absoluteprecedence over every thing else. Stalin cares nothing for Spain orSpanish Communists (or anyone else for that matter).

G. The elections of February 19361. The Popular Front won a narrow victory in popular vote which became a

much larger victory as a result of proportional representation in the Cortes.2. Manuel Azaña Díaz became the new Prime Minister.3. This change of government was interpreted by the Right as tantamount to

a Communist takeover (ie the deionization of one's political enemies,which paves the way to killing them ruthlessly). This is nonsense; thePopular Front implies cooperation with the bourgeois parties, not RedOctober.a. Having lost the election, the Right began to look to other measures.

4. Rightist conspiracies were revealed in February 1936, and Azaña postedthe conspirators in the army to distant posts. a. Franco was sent to the Canary Islands. b. Unfortunately, radio and secret codes permitted continued plotting.

5. Tensions within the nation rose as Primo de Rivera was arrested and sentletters from prison urging war, and the PSOE and Falangists battled in thestreets.

6. The Republican cause was hurt when José Calvo Sotelo, the leader of theRE, was murdered by government police. This caused fears that thegovernment could not control its own adherents (a not unjustified fear,under the circumstances, one must admit; the Republicans will have anunfortunate tendency to commit real atrocities, which provide a pretext forthe Nationalists to commit much larger, thorough, and devastatingatrocities.a. Friedrich Engels' analyses of Revolution of 1848 are quite a propos

here:(1) Do not start an insurrection unless prepared to face the

consequences(2) Once begun, always maintain the offensive and initiative

III. The Rising: July 17, 1936-August 1, 1936 (Ellwood 28-41)A. Conspiracy turned into actual rebellion as the result of fears among the rebels at

Melilla, along the North African coast about 400 km east of Gibraltar, that the plotwould be exposed.

B. Precipitate action led to arrests and proclamations in Tetuán and Ceuta.C. Leadership in Morocco was exercised by Lt. Col. Juan Yagüe Blanco, who was

known as the "Hyena of Asturias."D. The rebels seize control of North Africa but cannot get to the metropolis, since the

navy and air force remain loyal.E. Francisco Franco arrived from the Canaries to take command.


1. I was raised to regard Franco as a fascist, just like Hitler and Mussolini. Since I have begun teaching fascism, I realize now that he is really areactionary. Order, discipline, hierarchy, Catholicism, national unity areall hallmarks of his personality. However odious he was, he still remainswithin the context of traditional Judaeo-Christian values, which is not trueof Lenin, Hitler or other genuinely totalitarian leaders.

F. On the mainland, the rising is successful at1. Pamplona, under the direction of Gen. Emilio Mola Vidal.2. Castile3. Provincial capitals such as Burgos, León, Valladolid, Salamanca, Segovia,

and Soria.4. Ellwood finds it significant that savage repression of all perceived

dissidents began in Castile immediately, despite the lack of organizedopposition or real fighting. (31-2)a. A standard defense used by revolutionaries for the use of terror as

an instrument of statecraft is that the threat of reactionaryresistance or outside intervention (or both) forced the use of terrorto ensure the very survival of the revolution. This is a veryplausible defense.

b. Close examination of several such events, including the BolshevikRevolution in Russia, and the Spanish Civil War, lead me to regardsuch claims with suspicion. In both of the above cases, theseclaims are a deliberate attempt to disguise the murderous nature ofthe regime.(1) If you are wondering why I did not include Hitler among

those, it is because Hitler never pretended that he wasforced to the use of terror.

G. The rebels fail in Asturias, Santander, Vizcaya and Guipúzcoa remained underRepublican control. 1. These provinces ensure that the rail and maritime links with France and

the outside world are secure.2. Outside support is therefore not precluded.3. For this reason, the struggle on the northern front is the decisive theater of

the war.4. Republican response was rather slow, since the Liberals were reluctant to

arm the workers, which implied a deep, class-driven civil war. Of course,that is what they already had.

H. Italian and German Intervention1. Benito Mussolini provided aircraft to Franco to transfer the battle

hardened Army of Africa to Spain.2. Adolf Hitler chipped in with more transport aircraft.

a. Without this assistance, the Nationalists would have failed.


I. Catalonia1. The Catalans had been granted self-government in 1938.2. The destruction of Catalan and Basque nationalism were very high

priorities throughout Franco's life since they posed a fundamental threat tothe Conservatives' entire concept of Spanish nationhood. In neither casewere the Nationalists successful.

3. Divisions within Republican ranks seriously hurt the government inCatalonia, and this is virtually the story of their defeat in the war.a. The Catalan government was middle-class and generally

conservative; in all but Catalan autonomy they were more insympathy with the Nationalists than with the Republicans. However, nationalism is an enormously powerful force, and so theCatalans remain loyal to the government.

b. Barcelona was stronghold for the anarchists. The CNT saw anopportunity enact a thorough anarnicho-communist social andeconomic revolution.(1) Part of that revolution was persecution of the Church

(including desecration of churches, relics, and the graves ofnuns.)

(2) Such scenes make it hard for the disparate elements in theRepublican government to work together smoothly and theyalso harden the determination of the Nationalists to fight tothe bitter end and to give no mercy.

(3) Throughout the war, the anarchists tended to place socialrevolution first and defeating the Nationalists second, whilethe socialists and communists reversed the order. Theirbitter internecine feud is a terrible weakness. We shall seethat Franco does not make this mistake. (a) Of course, as an authoritarian reactionary, Franco

would not be expected to tolerate internal dissent. And as anarchists, one would expect them to rebelagainst centralized authority of whatever kind andto refuse to subordinate their particular desires to acommon cause. In this respect, the Nationalistshold an inherent advantage.

J. Madrid1. A lack of unified leadership weakened the rebels in Madrid. There, police,

leftist paramilitary militias, and citizens besieged the rebels in their ownbarracks.

2. The defenders of the Montaña Barracks surrendered, but were massacredby the populace. This demonstration that the government lacked effectivecontrol of its own forces is not helpful.


3. The failure to seize the capital is a major defeat for the Nationalists.4. With so much of the regular army disloyal, the government now must turn

to socialists, paramilitary militias to defend itself5. Nationalist forces launch a drive on Madrid in the Sierra de Guadarrama.

While the Nationalists were successful at driving the Republicans out ofthe mountains, they stalled before Madrid itself.

K. The chance of a relatively swift coup d'etat has been lost. Now Spain is facedwith a civil war which will force everyone in the country to choose up sides.

IV. A Failed Coup Turns Into War: August 1-October 1, 1936 (Ellwood 42-55)A. The Nationalists quickly established military rule in their zones of control. The

Republicans attempted to maintain civilian control in theirs. B. Offensive Against Extramadura

1. A column from Seville, composed of Legionnaires and Moroccans headedtowards Extramadura, with the crossroads of Mérida the goal. They hopedto link up with Gen. Mola, who was advancing south from Castile. Thiswould link up Nationalist enclaves that were physically separated. Thesecolumns were later joined by one under the command of Juan Yagüe.

2. Badajoz was assaulted on August 13, and taken after hand to handfighting. An unknown number of Republicans were then massacred; thecount is certainly well into hundreds.

C. By the end of July, the Nationalists held the agricultural regions of the west,northwest, and south-west, and north-central regions, but the Loyalists held theindustrial and manufacturing centers of Madrid, Vizcaya and Catalonia, and theagricultural regions of Andalusia, Murcia, Alicante and Valencia. In particular,the Loyalists still held rail links through the Pyrenees.

D. French policy 1. France had just established a Popular Front government with Leon Blum, a

Socialist, as Premier.2. Blum's instinct was to defend the French Popular Front by defending the

Spanish Popular Front. Since the Popular Front had been formed toprovide unity against the Nazi resurgence, this made sense.

3. France is a deeply divided society. Blum's attempts at support raised amaelstrom of opposition domestically.

4. The British then waded in and warned the French against any meaningfulsupport of the Republicans. If French assistance led to war with NaziGermany, the British told the French they would be on their own. This leftBlum with little choice.

5. Under British pressure, Blum closed the Spanish border, which is not aneutral act--it is hostile to the Republicans. Neutrality would have allowedthe purchase of equipment and munitions and the movement of food,volunteers and medicines into the country.

6. Also under British pressure, Blum supports a non-intervention agreement,


which is signed by Britain, France, Germany, and Italy a. The fascists begin breaking the agreement almost immediately.

(Sontag 304-5)7. The failure of the Popular Front to take a firm stand really destroys it.

Blum resigned in June 1937. Afterwards, the French government wasincapable of effective action.

8. French conservatives preferred the order and discipline which Hitler wasimposing on Germany to the "godless" socialists. "Better Hitler thanBlum!" All too soon, Hitler would show them what kind of order anddiscipline he meant.

E. British policy1. I cannot find much good to say about British policy. Frankly, it makes me

ill.2. The government was really hoping for a stalemate leading to a British

negotiated peace settlement with Franco in charge.a. Neville Chamberlain is a Conservative and is quite hostile to any

government that includes socialists.3. British intellectuals, like George Orwell, Aldous Huxley, and Bertrand

Russell, were all pro-Red. Unfortunately, they were also pacifists.4. Pacifism remained very strong in Britain among all segments of society. It

was especially strong among intellectuals. Cambridge students voted aresolution that they would never fight for king and country, for instance. Russell is on record with some fatuous comments about greeting Germaninvaders with open arms. (Sontag 309-10)

5. British policy is quite hostile to the Republic in practice (British merchantvessels were barred from bringing food and medicine into Barcelona, forexample.)

6. Such short sighted policies are difficult to stomach. Neville Chamberlainwill live to see German bombers over London and the city in flames. Somehow it seems not to have occurred to him until far too late that thedefense of the home islands required the defence of France.

7. British intellectual pacifists failed to grasp the idea that letting anaggressor have his way with you does not discourage the aggressor. Ifsomeone is punching you in the face, it is rather too much to expect that hewill quit because your face is hurting his fist.

F. Stalin's policy1. Stalin was primarily interested at this time in the first great show trials in

his Great Purge.2. The Spanish Civil War put Stalin in an embarrassing situation. The Purge

required him to follow a cautious policy, since the Soviet Union was veryvulnerable. A Socialist or Communist victory would have benefits for himso far as a world wide revolution were concerned, but Adam Ulam points


out that Spanish history gave Stalin little expectation that the Spanishwould become tools of any foreigner. Furthermore, such a victory wouldbe purchased at the hostility of France and Britain, and Stalin wasbeginning to test the waters for cooperation against Hitler. On the otherhand, a Franco victory could not have been desired in Moscow. As theself-proclaimed leader of international socialism, Stalin could not sit idlyby in a war which pitted the left against the right, especially whenTrotskyite Communists were accusing Stalin of betraying the revolution. Stalin's hatred and fear of Trotskyites was real, hence his concern to crushPOUM and the NKVD assassinations. (244-6)

3. Stalin had the PCE under strict discipline, which is a great advantage, andhe also controlled the Comintern.

4. The Comintern recruited the famous International Brigades.a. Most, but not all, of the volunteers were Communists. Others were

idealists fighting dictatorship. Many equated communism withfreedom.

b. A total of 25,000-35,000 men served in the Brigades. (Bell 215)c. Brigade commanders were under Stalin's control.d. Stalin organized the financing and equipping of the brigades.e. Unlike either Italy or Germany, Stalin carefully refrained from

deploying Soviet troops. 5. Stalin also decided to send substantial aid to the Republicans. (Sontag

302) including 700 tanks and 1,500 aircraft (Messenger 100-101) [P.M.H.Bell has somewhat different figures: 1,000 aircraft and 900 tanks.] (Bell214) Among the officers were four future marshals, and heroes of WorldWar II

6. Stalin does require the Republicans to turn over Spain's entire goldreserves before delivery. (I thought he was a Communist, not a capitalist?)

G. Mussolini's policy1. Mussolini's contribution to the Nationalist cause was very substantial.2. He sent an entire corps (about 50,000 men and 700 aircraft, plus very

substantial munitions. [Bell offers 73,000 men total, 759 aircraft, 157tanks, 1,800 guns and 320,000,000 rounds of small arms ammunition](Bell 213)

3. Mussolini's motives are more obscure.a. He claimed to have wished to avoid a Communist government so

close to Italy. This is not worth his effort.b. More likely is Mussolini's wish for glory, to gain victories for

Italian arms. Mussolini's rhetoric was filled with images of warand violence; he seems to have felt he had to put his money wherehis mouth was. (Sontag 301)

c. Italy emerged from the war weaker economically and socially


4. Whatever his reasons, the decision is disastrous. The Italian economy wasin no position to support even so small a war as the Spanish

H. Hitler's policy1. Hitler was never as deeply involved in Spain as Mussolini, contrary to

popular belief. 2. German forces never exceeded 10,000 men, of whom 6,000 were the

Condor Legion from the Luftwaffe (about 600 aircraft in all according toBell (214)).a. The Condor Legion included the very best Hitler had, which was

very very good indeed. Included were two fighter pilots andcombat leaders who became legendary: Werner Mölders andAdolph Galland

b. Werner Mölders invented the fighter formation which the US callsthe "finger four." It is still the standard fighter formation in usetoday.

c. Galland specialized in close-air to ground support, an essentialcomponent of Blitzkrieg war and, certainly, the most notable singlecharacteristic of the method of waging war by the US armed forces. German air support was a basic part of all Nationalist offensives.

d. Wolfram von Richthofen was sent over to test out the new JunkersJu-87 dive bomber. Especially early in World War II, the Ju-87Stuka is THE airplane associated with Blitzkrieg. (Messenger 100-103)

3. Hitler's motive was mostly to complicate the strategic problems faced byFrance. (Sontag 321) He is more interested in the fastening an iron grip onhis military and on the annexation of Austria, to be followed by the rape ofCzechoslovakia.

4. Hitler's observation of the weak-kneed, pusillanimous policies of Franceand Britain strengthen his opinion that the democracies would never fight.

I. The Largo Caballero Government1. The execution of a number of prisoners held in Madrid, which was in

retaliation to the Badajoz massacre, helped discredit the government ofJosé Giral on September 4, 1936.

2. He is replaced by Francisco Largo Caballero, a socialist, and hisgovernment reflects the leverage exerted on the Republic by the PCE,operating under Stalin's orders.

J. Toledo1. While the Nationalist drive on Madrid stalled, attention was drawn to the

siege of Nationalists in Toledo, which was both the religious center andthe location of the officer cadet school.

2. Toledo was not militarily important, but the siege of Nationalists by theRepublicans there assumed great emotional significance for the


Nationalists.3. Although suffering terribly from casualties, and lack of food, water and

medicine, the Nationalists refused to surrender.4. Franco showed his political acumen by diverting forces from Madrid to

fight their way into Toledo. He could not afford to allow such a symbol tofall, and he also wanted the credit for saving such as symbol--he wanted atriumphal entry, like a modern day El Cid.

K. Creation of a Nationalist Government1. Since the mining and manufacturing districts were in Loyalist hands, the

Nationalists would have to obtain weapons and munitions from abroad,which meant Hitler and Mussolini.

2. Neither Hitler nor Mussolini would provide the assistance for free. Theywould have to be paid for by economic concessions (Hitler drove somevery hard bargains) Only a functioning government could make suchagreements.

3. The Nationalist Defence Committee began to discuss how to organizeitself and who should lead the state. They quickly concluded that themilitary commander should lead the state, and the only viable choice wasFranco.

4. Franco is declared "Head of the Spanish state" on September 30, 1936.V. The Battle for Madrid: October 1936-May 1937 (Ellwood 56-74)

A. The Republicans granted the Basques self-government in July, both to ensure theirloyalty and to recognize the fact that they were cut off from the rest of the Loyalistterritory.

B. José Antonio Aguirre became the President of Euzkadi in October.C. The Nationalists fought their way close enough to Madrid on November 13 to

begin direct bombardment of the city.D. The Republican President, Manuel Azaña left Madrid for Barcelona.E. Also in November, 4 members of the anarchist CNT join Largo Caballero's

cabinet. The cabinet then abandons Madrid for Valencia.F. Despite being abandoned, the madrileños refused to surrender. They organized

themselves for stubborn defense, and organized themselves for life under siegeand bombardment--a siege that lasted two and a half years.

G. By January 16, 1937, stalemate had been reached on the Madrid front.H. In the south, Italian and Moroccan troops captured Málaga on February 8, 1937.

German warships bombarded civilians as they fled along coastal roads. Fleeingcivilians were also subjected to air attack. Hundreds of prisoners were executedafter summary trials.

I. The Battle of Jarama Valley1. The Jarama Valley controlled the Madrid-Valencia road. The Nationalists

wanted to sever that. Fighting lasted from January 30 to February 17, cost16,000 dead, and ended in stalemate.


J. The Battle of Guadalajara (March 1937)1. Spanish and Italian troops attacked east of the capital.2. The Republicans routed the Italians and drove the Nationalists back.

a. It was following this battle that the Russian Gen. Pavlov concludedthat tanks were unsuitable for operations independently of infantry,and he recommended that the new Soviet panzer divisions bebroken up and the tanks distributed among infantry divisions.

b. The German observers drew different conclusions; the attack hadbeen conducted by Italians and therefore any lessons to be drawnwere useless.

c. Pavlov was rewarded for his insight by being surrounded, routed,and crushed by German panzers in 1941. Stalin decorated himwith a nine millimeter bullet worn intercranially (a standardStalinist decoration for services rendered). As Danton onceremarked, "Pour l'encourager les autres!"

K. The Fall of Bilbao1. Gen. Mola began a drive on the port of Bilbao with the purpose of

isolating the Republic from maritime resources and from Cantabria2. The Basque defenders put up much stiffer resistance than expected, and

although the Nationalists advanced, it was slow and costly.3. Guernica

a. On April 26, 1937, the German Condor Legion conducted adeliberate terror bombing attack on the town of Guernica, thecradle of Basque nationalism.

b. The bombers struck on Sunday, and waited until the market placewould be crowded with civilians. The legitimate military targets inGuernica (an arms factory and a bridge) were carefully avoided. The target was the civilian population itself. After bombing (bothhigh explosive and incendiary were used), the Germans came downand strafed the survivors. About 1,500 people were killed.

c. The Nationalists have claimed that the Germans acted without theirknowledge. Ellwood correctly points out that this is tantamount toFranco confessing that foreigners acted with contempt for hissovereignty. (68) The Germans have claimed that the timing andtarget were accidental. Captured German records prove that that isa lie.

d. Ellwood believes that Franco asked for the attack, and I believe theGermans gladly obliged.(1) The Scripture says that he who sows the wind shall reap the

whirlwind.(2) On July 24, 1943, the British and Americans began

Operation Gomorrah against the city of Hamburg,


Germany(a) Some 791 bombers from Bomber Command

mounted the first attack 2,396 tons are dropped in2.5 hours. (Caidin 63) Water mains ruptured, inmany cases beyond repair. Fires rageuncontrollably, in some areas for weeks.

(b) On July 25, 1943 218 B-17s from the USAAF 8thAir Force attack the docks. Damage is very heavy.

(c) July 26, 1943 56 B-17s bomb the electrical works,destroying it.

(d) July 27, 1943 The Firestormi) 739 bombers from Bomber Command drop

2,417 tons of high explosive andincendiaries between 23:40 and 23:55 hours.

ii) All defense systems are overwhelmed andcollapse abruptly.

iii) The most heavily populated district inHamburg, with a pre-war population of over400,000 in 6 square miles is targeted.

iv) Thousands of individual fires merged intoincreasingly larger fires. In the still air,flames shot up buildings like chimneys. Apressure differential built up between thecenter of the fire and outside. Super heatedair rushed upward explosively. Cooler,oxygen laden air rushed in at ground level,stoking the fire hotter, and accelerating theprocess.

v) Temperatures rocketed upward. The largerfires merged into a single inferno beyondimagining.

vi) Pressure differential built so sharply that theair flow is visible in smoke flowinghorizontally. Flames streaked out downstreets.

vii) Wind speed in the suburbs reach gale force--30-40 mph. Trees are stripped. The soundis like locomotives roaring by. Think ofHurricane Andrew outside your window.

viii) Wind speed near the edge of the firestormreached 150 mph (that is not a typo) (Caidin91-93)


ix) Temperatures reached 1472/ F. (that is alsonot a typo) (Caidin 133) At thattemperature, lead melts, wood willspontaneously explode, glass melts, andhumans are simply devoured. Doctorsconducting autopsies discovered that mostthe those who died died of cellulardisruption.

x) Flames roared upwards to altitudes of15,000 feet.

xi) It is a scene from Dante. People threwthemselves into canals and lakes, only to diefrom heat. Parents held children up withheads above water until they died. Hurricane winds drove blasts of this heatreducing humans to cinders without flames. People huddled in courtyards and bombcellars suffocated as oxygen is sucked out ofthe air.(Caidin 112)

(e) In all, 2,630 British bombers dropped 8,261 tons ofbombs on Hamburg, of which 4,309 wereincendiary. (Caidin 129)i) According to the United States Strategic

Bombing Survey, conducted after the war,the firebombing of Hamburg " 'destroyed 55to 60 percent of the city, did damage in anarea of 30 square miles, wiped out 300,000dwelling units, and made 750,000 peoplehomeless. German estimates range from60,000 to 100,000 persons killed.' " (Caidin129)

4. Bilbao fell on June 19, 1937.L. The nature of the Nationalist Government

1. Like the Republicans, the Nationalists represented a coalition. They allagreed that the Republic must go, but they were not all united as to whatshould replace it. There were Alfonsists, Falangists, Carllists, and CEDAconservatives.

2. Franco pre-empted any attempt to divide his coalition or threaten his post-war power. All party militias were forcibly incorporated into the armyforces, and all parties merged into one party.

3. The execution of Primo de Rivera by the Republicans helped in this. Primo feared precisely just such a military led coalition since that meant


reaction rather than revolution. Once he is safely dead, he can become amartyr instead of a rival.

4. Franco's brother in law, Ramón Serrano Suñer provided the intellectualunderpinning for the new regime.

5. On October 19, 1937, Franco issued the Decree of Unification, whichcombined the Falange with the Carlists (the CT) into a new, whollysubservient organization called FET y de las JONS. All other partieswere dissolved, a state of affairs that lasted 40 years.

6. When the Falange successor to Primo, Manuel Hedilla, he was arrested,saved from execution only by the direct intervention of the Germanambassador, and sentenced to a harsh prison term. (Ellwood 74)

7. Franco is authoritarian and he will brook no opposition.VI. The Republic's Desperate Struggle: May 1937-April 1938 (Ellwood 75-88)

A. The Failure of the Republic to Unify Its Effort1. The Republican's failure is in sharp contrast with Franco's success2. A very important factor is the leverage with the PCE wielded. They were

not large, and did not represent the bulk of the Spanish people or even thebulk of the leftists. However, since the Republic could not survivewithout Soviet aid, and since the PCE and Stalin played hard ball with theRepublic, it is difficult for the Republican leaders to maneuver.

3. Very serious conflict developed in Barcelona, which was a stronghold ofPOUM and CNT (the anti-Stalinist [or Trotsky] Marxists and theanarchists. a. President Lluis Companys formed a government which included

the Catalan Communists, the Partit Socialist Unificat de Catalunyaor PSUC), POUM, and CNT.

b. The PCE attacked the inclusion of POUM and the anarchistsresigned rather than disarm the civilians.

c. CNT and POUM ended up fighting in the streets against PSUC ,PSOE and left Republicans

4. Largo Caballero would have liked to have attempted to restore unity byforming a new cabinet that omitted the PCE, but could not or risk losingthe war.a. In the meantime, Stalin had boosted the NKVD representation in

the Soviet embassy. These agents and PCE began a systematicpersecution of POUM.

b. One of POUM's most important figures, Andreu Nín, wasimprisoned, and died of torture by Stalinists in June 1937.

B. The Battle of Brunete July 5, 19371. The defenders of Madrid attempted to break the siege with a surprise

attack at Brunete.2. The Republicans gained surprise and initially gained ground, but ran out of


momentum3. Moroccan troops counterattacked and finally drove the Republicans out of

the ruins of Brunete after bitter fighting. 4. The Republicans ended the battle demoralized. "To a large extent, this

battle was a watershed for the Republic. From that point onwards, thePopular Army was no longer thought of as the instrument for winning thewar, but simply as the means to hold out as long as possible. That the warlasted another two years was as much due to the grim tenacity of theSpanish people as to the quality of the Popular Army." (Ellwood 79)

C. The Fall of Santander August 27, 19371. Basque resistance ended with the destruction of the Santander pocket.2. The Basques surrendered to troops from Navarre and Italian "Black

Arrows." They hoped by surrender to mitigate reprisals, which theyexpected would be especially severe.a. Like the Catalans, the Basque National Party was very Catholic

and inherently very conservative, except for the issue of Basqueautonomy, which was an issue Franco could not abide. Franco hadexpressed his displeasure by shooting a group of Basque priestsand, of course, Guernica as a Basque center was not bombed byaccident.

b. Their surrender did not mitigate the reprisals. The Italians turnedthe prisoners over to the Spanish.

D. The Fall of Gijón and Oviedo1. The Asturian militias continued to resist fiercely but were completely

outgunned by this point.2. The last pockets were eliminated by October 21, 1937.3. The campaign in the north was over. All that remained were the arrests,

reprisals, and executions.4. The Nationalists now can concentrate on Madrid and Aragón/Catalonia.

E. The Battle of Teruel December 15, 19371. The Republicans attempted to ease pressure against Madrid by an attack

on Teruel, which is in the mountains.a. This is a frequent strategy for the Republicans, but their

geographical division, lack of coordination and lack of speed,leadership and resources lead to consistent bloody defeat. Initialgains were always wiped out after bloody fighting that left theRepublicans relatively weaker than before.

2. The winter was the most severe in many years, and conditions in themountains appalling.

3. The Republicans entered the outskirts of Teruel on December 214. Franco counterattacked on Christmas Day5. After 6 weeks of bitter house to house fighting, the Republicans withdraw,


having lost 60,000 dead.F. Franco promulgates a Labour Charter, which adopts corporatist ideas from the

Italian fascists.1. Philippe Schmitter writes, "Corporatism can be defined as a system of

interest representation in which the constituent units [ie, social andeconomic sectors] are organized into a limited number of singular,compulsory, noncompetitive, hierarchically ordered and functionallydifferentiated categories, recognized or licensed (if not created) by thestate and granted a deliberate representational monopoly within theirrespective categories in exchange for observing certain controls . . . ." (qtdin Payne 24-25)

2. It should be noted that Corporatism tends to sound quite nice in theory, butin practice transforms labor unions into a charade.

G. On April 15, 1938, the Nationalists captured Vinaroz, cutting the road betweenBarcelona and Madrid.1. It is now clear that the Republicans cannot win.

VII. The Third and Final Year: April 1938 - March 1939 (Ellwood 89-105)A. Some elements within the Republican government, seeing that victory was

impossible, were prepared to negotiate for the best peace they could obtain. Franco refused to negotiate at all.

B. The Nationalist Prime Minister, Juan Negrín López, held out in hopes ofintervention by the Western democracies.

C. The Battle of the Ebro July 19381. As so often previously, the Nationalists hoped to ease pressure by an

offensive, this time across the Ebro River. As before, their offensivestalled, and an attritional slugging match ensued, which the Nationalistscould not win.

2. The battle ended in November 1938, with about 40,000 lost on each side. (Ellwood 92)

D. The Munich Agreement (September 29, 1938) led Stalin to shift attention to thegrowing threat from Germany and to cut back on assistance to the Republicans. At the same time, German aid flowed unabated to Franco, in exchange forimportant economic concessions.

E. The Fall of Catalonia1. Franco launches his offensive on December 23, 1938

a. It quickly became clear that the Republicans could not stop theassault.

2. The Battle of Córdoba January 9, 1939a. Once again, the Republicans attempt a spoiling offensive. This

time,, it is stopped dead in its tracks.3. Tarragona fell on January 15, 1939.4. The Republican government, accompanied by Presidents José Antonio


Aguirre of Euzkadi and Lluis Companys of Catalonia fled Barcelona. ThePresident, Manuel Azaña accompanied the other two presidents intoFrance on February 5. The Republican government followed on February7.

F. Foreign Recognition for Franco1. Franco signed the Law of Political Responsibilities on February 13,

1939,"Which indicated that there would be no mercy for anyoneconsidered to have held even the most minor political post under theRepublic or to have 'obstructed' the Nationalist cause." (Ellwood 100) Thelaw was made retroactive to October 1934.

2. France and Britain recognized the Nationalists as the de jure governmenton February 27; Azaña resigned.

G. The Fall of Madrid1. In this extremity, it is only a matter of time before Madrid fell.2. The PCE and PSOE began fighting among themselves.3. On March 26, Republican resistance collapsed.

VIII. Immediate Aftermath (Ellwood 106-115)A. Franco began post-war reprisals immediately. The extent is debated, but Ellwood

quotes figures from 10,000 to 28,000 (108)B. The next decade were called the "hungry years" as food shortages were suffered

widely.C. Franco effectively destroyed the Republic institutionally.D. Franco did however, avoid allowing Hitler to pull him into World War II. He is

the only man I know of off-hand who met Hitler face to face and came out awinner.

E. After the Second World War, Franco was anathema to the Western democracies,who regarded him as little better than Hitler. Spain is diplomatically andeconomically isolated until the Cold War heated up.1. Franco's bitter anti-Communism helped to rehabilitate him, at least in US

eyes. I.


Works Cited

Bell, P.M.H. The Origins of the Second World War in Europe. New York: Longman, 1986

Bernstein, Paul and Green, Robert W. History of Civilization. Vol II. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams and Co. 1971.

Blum, Jerome, Cameron, Rondo, and Barnes, Thomas G. The European World Since 1815: Triumph and Transition. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1966.

Caidin, Martin. The Night Hamburg Died. New York: Ballantine, 1960.

Carsten, F.L. The Rise of Fascism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969.

Ellwood, Sheelagh M. The Spanish Civil War. Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, Ltd. 1991

Messenger, Charles. The Art of Blitzkrieg. London: Ian Allan Ltd., 1991.

Neumann Sigmund and von Hagen, Mark, "Engels and Marx on Revolution, War, and the Army in Society." Makers of Modern Strategy. Paret, Peter, ed. Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press, 1986.

Payne, Stanley G. Fascism: Comparison and Definition. Madison, WI: University ofWisconsin Press, 1980.

Sontag, Raymond J. A Broken World: 1919-1939. New York: Harper and Row, 1972.

Ulam, Adam. Expansion and Coexistence: The History of Soviet Foreign Policy 1917-67. New York: Frederick Praeger, 1968.

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