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ANNUAL REPORT 2001

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

Picture credits: PhotoDisc;Third photo on left: D. Kinley, IAEA

GC(46)/2

ANNUAL REPORT2001

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

A r t i c l e V I . J o f t h e A g e n c y ’s S t a t u t e r e q u i r e s t h eB o a r d o f G o v e r n o r s t o s u b m i t “ a n a n n u a l r e p o r tt o t h e G e n e r a l C o n f e r e n c e c o n c e r n i n g t h e a f f a i r so f t h e A g e n c y a n d a n y p r o j e c t s a p p r o v e d b y t h eA g e n c y ” .

T h i s r e p o r t c o v e r s t h e p e r i o d 1 J a n u a r y t o3 1 D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 1 .

The Agency’s Statute was approved on 23 October 1956 by the Conference on the Statute of theIAEA held at United Nations Headquarters, New York; it entered into force on 29 July 1957. TheHeadquarters of the Agency are situated in Vienna. Its principal objective is “to accelerate andenlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world’’.

© IAEA, 2002

Printed by the IAEA in AustriaJuly 2002

MEMBER STATES OF THEINTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY (as of 31 December 2001)

AFGHANISTANALBANIAALGERIAANGOLAARGENTINAARMENIAAUSTRALIAAUSTRIAAZERBAIJANBANGLADESHBELARUSBELGIUMBENINBOLIVIABOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINABRAZILBULGARIABURKINA FASOCAMBODIACAMEROONCANADACENTRAL AFRICAN

REPUBLICCHILECHINACOLOMBIACOSTA RICACÔTE D’IVOIRECROATIACUBACYPRUSCZECH REPUBLICDEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

OF THE CONGODENMARKDOMINICAN REPUBLICECUADOREGYPTEL SALVADORESTONIAETHIOPIAFINLANDFRANCEGABONGEORGIAGERMANYGHANA

GREECEGUATEMALAHAITIHOLY SEEHUNGARYICELANDINDIAINDONESIAIRAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAQIRELANDISRAELITALYJAMAICAJAPANJORDANKAZAKHSTANKENYAKOREA, REPUBLIC OFKUWAITLATVIALEBANONLIBERIALIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYALIECHTENSTEINLITHUANIALUXEMBOURGMADAGASCARMALAYSIAMALIMALTAMARSHALL ISLANDSMAURITIUSMEXICOMONACOMONGOLIAMOROCCOMYANMARNAMIBIANETHERLANDSNEW ZEALANDNICARAGUANIGERNIGERIANORWAYPAKISTANPANAMA

PARAGUAYPERUPHILIPPINESPOLANDPORTUGALQATARREPUBLIC OF MOLDOVAROMANIARUSSIAN FEDERATIONSAUDI ARABIASENEGALSIERRA LEONESINGAPORESLOVAKIASLOVENIASOUTH AFRICASPAINSRI LANKASUDANSWEDENSWITZERLANDSYRIAN ARAB REPUBLICTAJIKISTANTHAILANDTHE FORMER YUGOSLAV

REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIATUNISIATURKEYUGANDAUKRAINEUNITED ARAB EMIRATESUNITED KINGDOM OF

GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND

UNITED REPUBLICOF TANZANIA

UNITED STATES OF AMERICAURUGUAYUZBEKISTANVENEZUELAVIET NAMYEMENYUGOSLAVIA,

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OFZAMBIAZIMBABWE

■ 133 Member States.

■ 58 intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations worldwide haveformal agreements and arrangements with the Agency.

■ 44 years of international service in 2001.

■ 2205 professional and support staff.

■ $230 million regular budget for 2001, supplemented by extrabudgetarycontributions amounting to $27.7 million.

■ $73 million target in 2001 for voluntary contributions to the Agency’sTechnical Co-operation Fund, supporting projects involving 3422 expert andlecturer assignments, 3005 meeting and workshop participants, 2260participants in training courses, and 1516 fellows and visiting scientists.

■ 3 international laboratories and research centres.

■ 2 liaison offices (in New York and Geneva) and 2 safeguards regional offices (in Tokyo and Toronto).

■ 120 approved Co-ordinated Research Projects involving 1590 active researchcontracts and agreements.

■ 225 safeguards agreements in force in 141 Member States (and with Taiwan,China) involving 2487 safeguards inspections performed in 2001. Safeguardscosts in 2001 amounted to $70 million in regular budget and $15.2 millionin extrabudgetary resources.

■ 15 national safeguards support programmes and 1 multinational supportprogramme (European Union).

■ 500 000 plus monthly visits to the Agency’s WorldAtom web site.

■ 2 million plus records in the International Nuclear Information System(INIS), the Agency’s largest database.

■ 182 publications issued (in print and electronic form) in 2001.

THE IAEA AT A GLANCE (as of 31 December 2001)

NOTE

■ The Annual Report reviews the results of the Agency’s programme according to the three“pillars” of technology, safety and verification — and also management — as presentedin the Medium Term Strategy. The introductory chapter, “The Year in Review: Major Issuesand Challenges”, in particular, seeks to provide a thematic analysis, based on the threepillars, of the Agency’s activities in 2001 within the overall context of notabledevelopments during the year in the ‘nuclear world’.

■ Tables that were previously included in the Annex on the:

— Situation on 31 December 2001 with respect to the conclusion of safeguardsagreements between the Agency and States party to the Treaty of Tlatelolco.

— Agreements providing for safeguards, other than those in connection with NPT or theTreaty of Tlatelolco, approved by the Board of Governors as of 31 December 2001.

— Facilities under Agency safeguards or containing safeguarded material on 31December 2001.

— Main equipment and activities in support of safeguards.

are now available on the Agency’s WorldAtom web site (http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Documents/Anrep/Anrep2001/).

■ All sums of money are expressed in United States dollars.

■ The designations employed and the presentation of material in this document do notimply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat concerningthe legal status of any country or territory or of its authorities, or concerning thedelimitation of its frontiers.

■ The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated asregistered) does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it beconstrued as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the Agency.

■ The term “non-nuclear-weapon State’’ is used as in the Final Document of the 1968Conference of Non-Nuclear-Weapon States (United Nations document A/7277) and in theNPT.

ABACC Brazilian–Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear MaterialsAFRA African Regional Co-operative Agreement for Research, Development and Training

Related to Nuclear Science and TechnologyARCAL Co-operation Agreement for the Promotion of Nuclear Science and Technology in

Latin America and the Caribbean

BWR Boiling water reactor

CRP Co-ordinated Research ProjectCTBTO Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization

ESTRO European Society for Therapeutic Radiology and OncologyEuratom European Atomic Energy Community

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsFORATOM Forum Atomique Européen

HWR Heavy water reactor

IAEA-MEL IAEA Marine Environment LaboratoryICTP International Centre for Theoretical PhysicsIIASA International Institute for Applied Systems AnalysisILO International Labour OrganisationIMO International Maritime OrganizationINDC International Nuclear Data CommitteeIOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (UNESCO)ISO International Organization for Standardization

LWR Light water reactor

NEA OECD Nuclear Energy Agency

OCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentOLADE Organización Latinoamericana de EnergíaOPANAL Organismo para la Proscripción de las Armas Nucleares en América Latina y el

Caribe

PAHO Pan American Health Organization/WHOPHWR Pressurized heavy water reactorPWR Pressurized water reactor

RAF Regional AfricaRAS Regional East Asia and PacificRAW Regional West AsiaRBMK Light boiling water cooled graphite moderated pressure tube reactor (former

USSR)RCA Regional Co-operative Agreement for Research, Development and Training Related

to Nuclear Science and Technology

SQ Significant quantity

UNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social AffairsUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNIDO United Nations Industrial Development OrganizationUNOPS United Nations Office for Project Services.UNSCEAR United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

WCO World Customs OrganizationWEC World Energy CouncilWHO World Health OrganizationWMO World Meteorological OrganizationWTO World Trade OrganizationWWER Water cooled and moderated energy reactor (former USSR)

ABBREVIATIONS

The Year in Review: Major Issues and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

The Board of Governors and the General Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

T H E A G E N C Y ’ S P R O G R A M M E I N 2 0 0 1

Technology

Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Waste Management Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Comparative Assessment for Sustainable Energy Development . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Food and Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Marine Environment and Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Applications of Physical and Chemical Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Safety

Nuclear Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Radiation Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Radioactive Waste Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Co-ordination of Safety Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Verification

Safeguards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Security of Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Verification in Iraq Pursuant to UNSC Resolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Management

Management of Technical Co-operation for Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Policy-making, Management and Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Annex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Organizational Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inside back cover

CONTENTS

AnnexTable A1. Allocation and utilization of regular budget resources in 2001 . . . . 121

Table A2. Extrabudgetary funds in 2001 — resources and expenditures . . . . . 122

Table A3. Technical co-operation disbursements by Agency programme and region in 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Table A4. Estimated costs of alternative mitigation technologies in the power generation sector compared with baseline coal fired stations and potential reductions in carbon emissions to 2010 and 2020 for Annex I countries . . 125

Table A5. Estimated costs of alternative mitigation technologies in the power generation sector compared with baseline coal fired stations and potential reductions in carbon emissions to 2010 and 2020 for non-Annex I countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Table A6. Estimated costs of alternative mitigation technologies in the power generation sector compared with CCGT power stations and potential reductions in carbon emissions to 2010 and 2020 for Annex I countries . . 126

Table A7. Estimated costs of alternative mitigation technologies in the power generation sector compared with gas fired CCGT power stations and potential reductions in carbon emissions to 2010 and 2020 for non-Annex I countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Table A8. International Probabilistic Safety Assessment Review Team (IPSART)missions in 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Table A9. Review of Accident Management Programmes (RAMP) in 2001 . . . . 127

Table A10. Operational Safety Review Team (OSART) missions in 2001 . . . . . 127

Table A11. Peer Review of Operational Safety Performance Experience (PROSPER) missions in 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Table A12. Safety Culture Enhancement Programme (SCEP) activities in 2001 128

Table A13. Engineering Safety Review Service (ESRS) missions in 2001 . . . . 128

Table A14. Integrated Safety of Research Reactors (INSARR) missions in 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Table A15. Safety review missions in 2001 to research reactors under project and supply agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Table A16. International Regulatory Review Team (IRRT) missions in 2001 . . . 129

Table A17. Number of States having significant nuclear activities at the end of 1999, 2000 and 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Table A18. Approximate quantities of material subject to Agency safeguards at the end of 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Table A19. Number of facilities under safeguards or containing safeguarded material on 31 December 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Table A20. Additional safeguards support provided by States and organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Table A21. Status with regard to the conclusion of safeguards agreements and additional protocols (as of 31 December 2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Table A22. Participation by States in multilateral treaties for which the Director General is depositary, conclusion of revised supplementary agreements and acceptance of amendments to Articles VI and XIV.A of the Agency’s Statute (status as of 31 December 2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Table A23. Conventions negotiated and adopted under the auspices of the Agency and for which the Director General of the Agency is depositary (status and relevant developments) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

Table A24. Co-ordinated Research Projects — New or completed in 2001 . . . 145

Table A25. Training courses, seminars and workshops in 2001 . . . . . . . . . . 148

Table A26. Publications issued in 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Annual Report 2001 1

THE YEAR IN REVIEW: MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

The International Atomic Energy Agency continued to play an important role in 2001 under the threepillars of its mandate — technology, safety and verification. In particular, it served as a catalyst forsustainable development through the transfer of nuclear science and technology, as a key contributorto global nuclear safety and as a cornerstone for nuclear non-proliferation. The Agency’s programmeof activities focused on: bringing about the development and transfer of peaceful nuclear technologies;building and maintaining a global nuclear safety regime; and guarding against the proliferation ofnuclear weapons and strengthening the security of nuclear material and facilities.

This chapter presents the state of the ‘nuclear world’ in 2001 from the perspective of the Agency, alongwith a summary of its major activities and achievements.

T E C H N O L O G Y

Sustainable development

During 2001, as before, a range of different views on nuclear power was expressed. In April, at theninth session of the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD-9), Parties agreed to disagree onnuclear energy’s role in sustainable development. The final text noted that some countries see nuclearenergy as a substantial contributor to sustainable development, while others consider the two to befundamentally inconsistent. However, the parties did reach unanimous agreement that “the choice ofnuclear energy rests with countries”.

The Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) reached agreement in November on implementation rules (referred to as the “MarrakeshAccords”) for the 1997 Kyoto Protocol to limit greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. For nuclear energythis is an important step towards attaching a tangible economic value to nuclear power’s avoidanceof GHG emissions, even though the Marrakesh Accords exclude nuclear projects from two of the threeflexible mechanisms in the Kyoto Protocol that provide credits for GHG avoidance by States: the cleandevelopment mechanism and joint implementation (the third mechanism is emissions trading).

As the expert body on nuclear science and technology within the UN family, the Agency has beenactive as an information resource in the continuing CSD and UNFCCC processes. For example, theAgency contributed to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC), which concluded, among other things, that nuclear power plants have the highestpotential for GHG mitigation in the energy sector. The Agency has also been participating in thepreparatory process for the August 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) inJohannesburg. Nuclear science and technologies have had much to contribute to progress onAgenda 21 — negotiated at the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (the Rio“Earth Summit”) — in such areas as agriculture, food safety, public health, industrial techniques,electricity generation and water resources development and management (Box 1).

Nuclear power around the world

Nuclear power continues to be an important part of the energy mix in many countries. At the end of2001 there were 438 nuclear power plants in operation, corresponding to a total capacityof 353 GW(e), more than 10 000 reactor-years of cumulative operating experience and about 16% of

global electricity generation. Two new plants came on line during the year. While nuclear power isbeing generated primarily in a broad range of industrialized countries, 31 of 32 new plants underconstruction are in Asia or in Central and Eastern Europe.

For existing nuclear power plants, the most significant recent trend is a steady increase in avail-ability factors through improvements in operational practices, engineering support, strategicmanagement, fuel supply and spent fuel disposition. These have reduced generating costs andimproved safety. Their cumulative impact is substantial — during the 1990s, availability increasedby an amount equivalent to building 28 new nuclear power plants of 1000 MW(e) each. Among coun-tries for which 2001 operating data are available, Argentina, Brazil, the Czech Republic, Germany,India, the Republic of Korea, Spain, the Russian Federation, Switzerland, Ukraine and the USA allincreased their production of nuclear electricity to record levels.

For new plants, the outlook is mixed. New nuclear power plants are more attractive in countries expe-riencing a rapid growth in energy demand, or where indigenous energy resources are scarce, energysupply security is a priority or nuclear power is seen as an important way to reduce air pollution andGHG emissions. In Western Europe and North America, the two regions with the largest number ofoperating nuclear power plants, there were no firm plans for new construction through the end of2001. However, in January 2002, the Government of Finland made a favourable decision “in princi-ple” on a utility application to build a fifth nuclear power plant. In addition, the new US “EnergyPolicy”, released in May 2001, recommended government support for “the expansion of nuclearenergy in the United States as a major component of…national energy policy”. During the year,Belgium and Germany took legislative actions to phase out nuclear power at the end of the lifetimesof their currently operating reactors.

Given low fuel costs and improved capacity factors, a well run, amortized nuclear power plant is oftenthe least cost electricity generation option. There is thus growing interest in extending the lifetime ofexisting plants. By the end of 2001, six electricity plants in the USA had been granted extensions,

T H E Y E A R I N R E V I E W : M A J O R I S S U E S A N D C H A L L E N G E S

2 Annual Report 2001

BOX 1. ISOTOPES — INDISPENSABLE TOOLS FOR STUDYING CLIMATE CHANGE

While it is widely accepted that recent global warming is largely a product of enhanced GHG concentra-tions in the atmosphere, great uncertainty remains regarding the relationships between specific parame-ters and climate phenomena, and regarding the impacts of climate change on the Earth’s water cycle. Thechanges observed in the last few decades appear to be unprecedented compared with the history ofchanges in the Earth’s climate. Understanding the causes of past climate changes is, therefore, an impor-tant part of climate change research. Isotopes are one of the most important tools to assist researchersin gaining insights into past climate changes, primarily by measuring changes in the distribution of oxygenand hydrogen isotopes in groundwater and sediments over time.

An international conference on ‘The Study of Environmental Change using Isotope Techniques’ was organ-ized by the Agency in Vienna in April 2001. The conference reviewed the latest isotope techniques andtheir applications in global climate change research. Future research directions in the assessment of: theimpacts of deforestation on water balance in the Amazon Basin; understanding of past climate variabilityand changes through continental and polar ice core records; characterization and understanding of themovement, mixing and residence times of oceanic water masses; and past climate changes recorded ingroundwater in aquifers in Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa and the Americas were discussed. The confer-ence recommended the establishment of a global network of isotope monitoring of large rivers along thelines of the Agency’s global network for isotopes in precipitation. ■

increasing the licensed lifetime of each to 60 years. The owners of an additional 40% of operating USplants have indicated their intention of seeking license extensions — the US Nuclear RegulatoryCommission expects this figure to eventually reach 85% or higher. In addition, the Ministry forAtomic Energy of the Russian Federation decided to extend the lifetimes of the Novovoronezh-3 and4 plants by 15 years.

For nuclear power, innovation will be a key factor in closing the gap between near term scenarios thatproject only modest expansion (or even a decline) and most long term scenarios, which project a substan-tial expansion. The principal objectives of innovative concepts are low capital costs, short constructionand start-up times, a very high level of safety, and proliferation resistance. Several small to mediumsized designs seek to benefit from modular structures and systems for rapid on-site installation,economies of series production, easier financing and their potential appeal for countries with small elec-tricity grids or power needs in remote locations. They may also be more appropriate for non-electricapplications such as district heating, desalination and hydrogen production. Many advanced reactordesigns are in various stages of development in national research programmes around the world.

There are two major international efforts on innovative reactor designs. The first is the Agency’sInternational Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO), which has a member-ship of 13 (i.e. Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, India, Republic of Korea, Netherlands,Russian Federation, Spain, Switzerland and Turkey, as well as the European Commission) and isopen to all interested Member States and organizations. The other is the Generation IV InternationalForum (GIF), which was initiated by the USA and currently has ten members. The GIF Charter wasformally signed in 2001; this was also INPRO’s first year of operation.

INPRO, in particular, seeks to promote innovations in nuclear reactors and fuel cycles to meet likelyfuture needs in terms of economics, safety, environmental impacts, proliferation resistance and publicacceptance. Its objectives are to ensure that nuclear energy is available to help meet 21st centuryenergy needs and to engage both technology holders and users. The current focus is on defining userrequirements, which can then be used to help design appropriate R&D strategies. Subsequently,Member States can examine innovative designs against these requirements.

Nuclear fuel cycle and waste management

The ‘back end’ of the fuel cycle saw important developments in Finland and in the USA. In May 2001,the Finnish Parliament ratified the Government’s decision “in principle” to approve a final repositoryfor spent fuel in a cavern near the nuclear power plants at Olkiluoto. Construction is scheduled tostart in 2011, with operation scheduled to commence ten years later. Also in May, the US Departmentof Energy determined that the proposed Yucca Mountain disposal site in Nevada meets the Environ-mental Protection Agency’s radiation standards set earlier in the year.

Recognizing that there are more countries interested in the science of deep underground storage anddisposal, the Agency launched an ‘International Network of Centres of Excellence for Demonstrationand Training in Geological Disposal’. This network, which was built initially around the deep under-ground research laboratories made available by the Governments of Belgium and Canada, has nowexpanded to include Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the USA.

Turning to the ‘front end’ of the nuclear fuel cycle, a new edition of the “Red Book” — Uranium 2001:Resources, Production and Demand — was published jointly by the Agency and the OECD NEA. TheRed Book is the foremost world reference on uranium supplies and includes the latest information onuranium exploration, production, resources and demand. A complementary study published by theAgency, Analysis of Uranium Supply to 2050, concluded that known resources are adequate to satisfyprimary supply requirements through 2035 in a middle demand case, after which new resourceswould need to be developed.



Nuclear fusion

The world’s leading fusion scientists and engineers completed a detailed engineering design for the500 MW International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), which will demonstrate thescientific and technological feasibility of fusion energy. The Agency has supported activities related tothe ITER project since its inception and the ITER Parties (Canada, the European Union, Japan andthe Russian Federation) have asked for the Agency’s continued support during the next phase lead-ing to the construction of ITER. A site in Canada is under consideration and other offers of sites areexpected from the European Union and Japan.

Technology transfer

Promoting the scientific, technological and regulatory capabilities of developing countries throughtechnology transfer and capacity building are among the main tasks of the Agency’s technical co-oper-ation programme, with special emphasis given to technical co-operation among developing countries(Box 2). In 2001, which was a banner year for the programme, disbursements went up significantlyto $73.5 million from $59.1 million in 2000. The major areas of activities were: human health (23%),safety (20%), food and agriculture (17%), applications of physical and chemical sciences such asisotope hydrology (14%), capacity building (7%), marine environment (7%), nuclear power (5%) andnuclear fuel cycle and waste management technology (4%). Of these disbursements, approximately41% went towards equipment and 59% provided training, expert services, subcontracts, miscella-neous services and fellowships. The effectiveness of the Agency’s technical co-operation programmecan also be enhanced by the fostering of strategic partnerships that combine nuclear technologies andessential non-nuclear activities (Box 3).

Capacity building, which involves the promotion of local human resources development and technol-ogy transfer, has become a central theme in Agency activities directed at developing Member States.In this regard, thematic CRPs were introduced by the Agency with the purpose of combining capac-ity building with scientific research activities. An essential component of a thematic CRP is thepairing of senior researchers in developing and developed countries, with this pair supervising aresearch fellow from the same developing country in studies leading toward a doctorate or similar



BOX 2. SERVING HUMAN NEEDS — NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER FORSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Technology transfer in relation to the Agency’s technical co-operation activities was the focus of the Scien-tific Forum held in September 2001 at the 45th regular session of the General Conference. The forumprovided an opportunity for dialogue between national, intergovernmental and non-governmental counter-parts from different regions that share common development challenges.

The forum focused on three areas of technology transfer: promoting food security using isotopes and radi-ation to overcome basic ecological constraints; managing water resources by understanding aquiferdynamics; and improving human health using isotopes to develop new vaccines and diagnostic reagents.In his keynote address to the Forum, Jeffrey Sachs, Professor of International Trade at Harvard University,analysed the role of science and technology in industrialized and developing countries and pointed outthat drawing leading scientists and engineers into the challenge of helping the world’s poorest is a criti-cal task that requires international donor support and action from international agencies such as theAgency. At the concluding panel discussion the experts examined ways in which “sci-tech” tools, particu-larly nuclear related technologies, could be better applied at national, regional and global levels to solvethe pressing problems of food security, improving public health and developing clean water resources. ■

advanced degree. This will assist in building capacity in developing countries, particularly in thecontext of the general decline in the number of young people embarking on careers in the nuclearsciences. The individual doctoral work under the thematic CRP addresses the same research area,thereby providing a broad based approach to the research subject under investigation. In 2001, twothematic CRPs were under way in the fields of nuclear medicine and nutrition.

Sterile insect technique (SIT)

The tsetse fly is one of Africa’s greatest constraints to socioeconomic development, severely affectinghuman and livestock health and land use. At their July 2001 summit in Lusaka, the Heads of AfricanStates and Governments approved an Action Plan for the Pan African Tsetse and TrypanosomosisEradication Campaign (PATTEC).

The Agency is playing a major role in supporting the PATTEC initiative as SIT will be an essentialcomponent of a package of technologies that will be used. In 2001, the Agency’s General Conferenceadopted a resolution welcoming the OAU’s Action Plan and requesting the Agency, in co-operationwith Member States and relevant international organizations, to continue supporting AfricanMember States in the tsetse eradication endeavour. The FAO Conference in 2001 adopted a similarresolution.

To ensure the involvement of all stakeholders within and outside Africa, and in recognition of theimportance of international co-operation in supporting the PATTEC initiative, the OAU formed aPolicy and Mobilization Committee, under the chairmanship of its Secretary General, to guidePATTEC. The Agency, FAO and WHO are represented on this committee.

Food irradiation

The International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation (ICGFI) is composed of 46 Member States,more than half of them developing countries. The Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques inFood and Agriculture serves as its Secretariat. ICGFI has been evaluating global developments infood irradiation; providing advice on its application to Member States and to the three co-sponsoringorganizations — the Agency, FAO and WHO — and providing information to the JointFAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee on the Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food and the CodexAlimentarius Commission. After completing its mandate of developing policy guidelines for the



BOX 3. BUILDING STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIPS FOR TECHNICAL CO-OPERATION

The benefits of the Agency’s nuclear technology transfer to Member States can be maximized when thistechnology is combined with skills and know-how in other related fields. Strategic partnerships withrelated technical institutions help ensure that the transferred nuclear technologies achieve the desiredimpact.

A good example is in the field of tissue banking. The Agency has had considerable success in establish-ing training courses — now available through distance learning facilities — for irradiating tissue for usein operations. However, merely producing irradiated tissue is not enough. Awareness campaigns need tobe launched to encourage the donation of tissue, and surgeons need to be trained to be able to trans-plant it in patients. Since these non-nuclear “forward and backward linkages” are not part of its normalactivities, the Agency formed a partnership with the Musculo-Skeletal Transplant Foundation, a non-profitorganization that can transfer the requisite skills. This and other such strategic partnerships will helpensure that the nuclear technology transferred to Member States will not only be used to create valuableproducts, but will be available on a sustainable basis. ■

Agency, FAO and WHO, and successfully contributing to efforts to facilitate the acceptance and appli-cation of food irradiation techniques over the last 17 years, ICGFI decided in 2001 to phase out itsactivities by 2004, paving the way for the establishment of a new organization with strong involve-ment of the private sector, especially the food industry. The structure of this organization will bedefined at the ICGFI meeting to be held in November 2002.

Nutrition

An estimated 70% of all stunted children live in Asia, where 21% of infants are born undernourished.In addition, iron and iodine deficiencies continue to be major public health issues in the region.Isotope techniques are very effective mechanisms for evaluating the nutritional status of individualsand populations, measuring nutrient requirements and studying the bioavailability of vitamins andminerals. The Agency has been supporting these activities through several of its programmes in 2001.Of special importance is a regional technical co-operation project in Asia to study the bioavailabilityof added micronutrients in staple foods. China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailandand Viet Nam participate in this project. Thus, wide acceptance of nuclear technologies by severalgovernments in the East Asia and Pacific region to test the bioavailability of fortified foods has builtpartnerships that have strengthened efforts to fight malnutrition in that region. In addition, theAgency initiated steps to establish a partnership with the Asian Development Bank to deal with thisproblem.

An international Code of Practice for dosimetry

To assist Member States in standardizing their procedures for measuring the amount of radiationused to treat cancer patients, the Agency published a new Code of Practice for dosimetry. The devel-opment of this Standard took five years, involving several eminent medical physicists and review bymore than 50 scientists from 20 countries. The WHO, PAHO and the European Society of Thera-peutic Radiology and Oncology have also endorsed it. This Code is unique as its calculation approachis consistent for a variety of radiation beams and it is inherently simpler than earlier methods. It isexpected to benefit radiation measurement laboratories all over the world; institutes in Algeria,Greece, Finland, Norway, Sweden and Saudi Arabia have already adopted the Code.

Depleted uranium

Military conflicts during the last decade involved the use of depleted uranium (DU) ammunition. Thepotential and reported consequences of exposure to DU residues for the local civilian population,peacekeeping forces and the environment have been the subject of public concern and media atten-tion. The Agency therefore decided to hold a scientific seminar and training course to provide theproper scientific basis and adequate background information to its Member States for assessing DU’sradiological and toxicological risks and consequences. The seminar and training course were organ-ized in September in co-operation with UNEP and WHO. In related work, Agency and UNEP experts,at the government’s request, began an assessment of the consequences of DU residues that may bepresent in Kuwait since the Gulf War.

Integrating isotope applications in national water development programmes in Africa

Isotope techniques are unique tools for obtaining hydrological information for sustainable ground-water resource management. As a result of the increased interest of the Agency’s Member States inthe application of these techniques, technical assistance in isotope hydrology has nearly tripled in thelast five years. More than 65 technical co-operation projects in isotope hydrology are presently oper-ational in Africa, Asia and Latin America to develop appropriate approaches for integrating isotopetechniques with ongoing national water resource management programmes. Several regional projectshave been developed to assist major government and donor supported freshwater programmes.



A chronic shortage of water is a major constraint for the socioeconomic development of southernMadagascar, which constitutes the least developed part of the country. To increase the availability ofdrinking water in this area, the Government has initiated a World Bank supported “500 WellsProject”. In 2001 the Agency made available to the project authorities hydrogeological data collectedusing isotope techniques in similar geological strata in Madagascar. These data are being used toguide site selection for the drilling of these wells.

Using isotope techniques, the Agency also assisted in identifying the sources of nitrate pollution inthe aquifer that supplies water to the city of Dodoma in the United Republic of Tanzania. The Govern-ment has used this information in developing criteria for land use restrictions and groundwaterprotection in the area.

S A F E T Y

National and international efforts continued during the year to enhance the global safety of nuclearpower, an attribute that is vital to the credibility of nuclear technology. In 2001, there was furtherconfirmation that since the Chernobyl accident safety performance has continued to show significantimprovement around the world. This has been established through the Agency’s own safety reviewmissions and through the collection of information on operating experience and plant performancedata by the World Association of Nuclear Operators (WANO). The positive trends in nuclear safetywere confirmed at the second review meeting for the Convention on Nuclear Safety, when theContracting Parties discussed the national reports submitted by States in 2001 and concluded thatsignificant progress had been observed since the first review meeting in 1999. Also, the Council of theEuropean Union (EU) issued a ‘Report on Nuclear Safety in the Context of Enlargement’, noting thata number of States seeking membership in the EU had embarked on the implementation of majormodernization and safety improvement programmes. In spite of these positive developments, muchremains to be done at the national and international levels to address the varying safety practices indifferent countries. In addition, in the aftermath of the events of 11 September 2001, the interrela-tionship between the safety and security of the use of nuclear technologies has been underlined.

In the past year, there have been notable developments with regard to the work of a number of expertbodies in providing authoritative findings and recommendations on nuclear safety related topics.Their advice constitutes important inputs to the development of the Agency’s safety standards andmany national safety regulations. For example, the United Nations Scientific Committee on theEffects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) focused on the risk of hereditary effects from exposure toradiation and concluded that such a risk was likely to be somewhat lower than previous estimates,requiring a downward revision of the previously used risk coefficients for hereditary effects. Also in2001, the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) continued its work on revisingand making simpler its recommendations on radiological protection that would place more emphasison individual doses than collective doses. The International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group (INSAG)completed its work on key issues in strengthening safety culture and on maintaining knowledge,training and infrastructure for research and development. INSAG’s advice on the latter stressed theneed for greater efforts to ensure that knowledge, human resources and R&D support needed tomaintain and improve the safety of nuclear activities continue to be available in the future.

The OECD NEA continued its efforts to stimulate international co-operation in safety research. Forexample, its project launched on the research in the nuclear regulatory context brought togetherregulators, researchers and licensees to discuss current challenges. It also continued to focus on thesafety aspects of the management of long lived waste, addressing such issues as the retrievability ofdisposed waste or the step-wise decision making in the long term implementation process for geolog-ical repositories.



Public demands for reassurance on safety issues, with calls for greater transparency and accounta-bility, are being widely voiced in many countries. The need, therefore, for a more effective and trans-parent international safety regime continues to be a high priority. An international conference ontopical issues in nuclear safety, held in September 2001, highlighted some of the most important chal-lenges facing the nuclear safety community. These included the safety of research reactors, main-taining competence for safety, risk informed decision making, the influence of external factors onnuclear safety, the safety of nuclear fuel cycle facilities and safety performance indicators. Theconference underlined the central importance to all aspects of safety of a strong safety culture andmanagement of safety.

Chernobyl

In March 2001, the Ukrainian Government selected the design for a new shelter to be built aroundthe existing Chernobyl-4 ‘sarcophagus’. The European Bank for Reconstruction and Developmentagreed to this decision, paving the way for the development of technical specifications and for obtain-ing tenders for the work to begin.

In April and June, two major international conferences were held in Ukraine to mark the 15thanniversary of the Chernobyl accident. Their focus was on the lessons learned and the health effectsof the accident. In addition to providing an update on the incidence of radiation induced thyroidcancer in individuals who were infants or young children at the time of the accident, both conferencesreflected on other health problems in the affected region. They concluded that there was someevidence — as yet not conclusive — of an excess of leukaemia cases among the “liquidators” (involvedin clean-up operations at the site in 1986 and 1987), who received significant radiation doses, but nosignificant increase in the incidence of leukaemia in the wider population. There were also some dataindicating a possible increase in the incidence of solid cancers in the affected areas, but little or noevidence of any causal link to radiation exposure.

Strengthening the global safety regime

The development and adoption of international, legally binding conventions under the Agency’sauspices has significantly contributed to the enhancement of nuclear safety worldwide. To date,conventions have been developed covering the safety of power reactors, radioactive waste and spentfuel management, early notification and assistance in the case of a nuclear accident or radiologicalemergency, and the physical protection of nuclear material. However, many States are not yet partyto these conventions, certain key areas of nuclear activity are still not subject to conventions andsome of the conventions that exist are not comprehensive in their coverage. Further efforts areneeded to make these conventions universal and comprehensive and to consider other areas, suchas the safety of research reactors (Box 4), in which codes of conduct or other types of internationalundertakings could be beneficial. An important new development in 2001 was the entry into force ofthe Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Manage-ment.

Since the major aim of the safety related conventions is to promote adherence to internationallyagreed and respected safety objectives and principles, the development and maintenance of a compre-hensive body of safety standards is a second key element for the establishment of a comprehensivesafety regime. Over the past few years, the Agency has been working intensively to update, completeand raise the quality and visibility of the set of safety standards that covers the entire range ofnuclear activities, including nuclear, radiation, waste and transport safety. These standards definewhat is necessary to achieve a high level of safety. Although the number of States using the Agency’ssafety standards directly or as the reference basis for national nuclear safety regulations has beenincreasing, acceptance of the standards by all States and relevant intergovernmental organizationsremains a high priority objective.



Agency safety services

The Agency continued to assist States in applying its standards by providing education and training,promoting information exchange on best safety practices, and rendering a broad range of safety serv-ices (Box 5). The nuclear safety services offered by the Agency — such as operational safety reviews,design reviews and regulatory reviews — continued to be in great demand. The main challenges hereare ensuring that the advice and assistance provided by the Agency are explicitly underpinned by thesafety standards and that the practical experience of applying the standards generates feedback toimprove the next generation of safety standards.

The benefits of the international peer reviews and other services are demonstrated by the increasingdegree to which follow-up missions find that identified safety problems have been resolved. In thepast year, the Agency has begun to develop a more holistic approach — an ‘integrated safetyevaluation’, which by drawing together results from existing appraisal services, provides a diagnosisof a State’s overall nuclear safety profile and identifies those areas where safety enhancementsshould be focused.

During 2001, the Agency’s nuclear safety review services and assistance were availed by countries ofCentral and Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, South East Asia and the Pacific and the FarEast. For example, an expert team assembled by the Agency assessed the safety of the design of theTemelin-1 nuclear power plant in the Czech Republic. In China, assistance continued to be providedfor the improvement of nuclear safety at the Qinshan Nuclear Power Corporation and expert missionsreviewed the design of the newly constructed Tianwan nuclear power plant, providing recommenda-tions on severe accident mitigation and the reactor protection system. Also, the Agency, at the requestof the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization (KEDO), completed a design safety reviewof the LWR project that KEDO is implementing for the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK).

Safety and security of radiation sources

An important safety issue for the Agency is the safety and security of radioactive sources. In the pastyear, the Agency’s Action Plan on these issues was revised and expanded aiming, among other things,at promoting self-assessment of national protection arrangements, provision of more guidance andassistance in locating ‘orphan sources’ and responding to emergencies. The revised plan foresees thedevelopment and implementation of a universal system of labelling of radiation sources so that



BOX 4. ADDRESSING THE SAFETY OF RESEARCH REACTORS

An area of continuing concern is the safety of research reactors. In the past year, the Agency initiated arange of measures towards the establishment of a comprehensive, internationally accepted safety regimefor these reactors. In addition to work performed on safety standards, incident reporting and regulatorysupervision, the Agency identified some key concerns — such as degraded equipment, inadequate fuelstorage, lack of regulatory oversight as well as the absence of adequate funding and the lack of a clearplan on how to make the best use of the reactors. Responding to these concerns, the Agency decided toimplement an internationally agreed action plan for research reactors that includes: an assessmentsurvey to acquire comprehensive information on the safety status of research reactors worldwide; prepa-ration of a Code of Conduct on the safety of these reactors; a review of the Agency’s assistanceprogrammes to ensure that priority is being given to issues of highest safety relevance; and strengthen-ing of monitoring activities on the safety of research reactors under project and supply agreements. Inimplementing the latter action, for instance, the Agency conducted Integrated Safety Assessment ofResearch Reactors (INSARR) missions in Greece, where the operational safety aspects of the “Demo-kritos” research reactor were reviewed, and in Australia, where the Preliminary Safety Assessment Reportfor the Replacement Research Reactor to be built at Lucas Heights was examined. ■

individuals are immediately aware of the potential hazards. While concern with respect to potentialmalicious acts in connection with orphan sources exists, public health effects due to inadvertent expo-sure are an equally important concern. This was demonstrated at the end of 2001 when two power-ful radioactive sources were found unshielded in a remote area of the Republic of Georgia. The Geor-gian incident also serves as an illustration of the much larger problem of orphan sources thatdeserves prompt attention.

Safe transport of radioactive material

In spite of the outstanding safety record of those transporting radioactive material, many States andregional groups, in particular small island developing States and other coastal States, have expressedconcern over the impact — on people, the economy and the environment — of a potential accidentduring the transport of this material by sea. The 2001 General Conference adopted a resolution thatcalled for several actions, including urging those States shipping radioactive material and spent fuelto provide assurances to potentially affected States that their national regulations are in accord withthe Agency’s Transport Regulations. It also called for efforts to examine and further improve meas-ures and international regulations relevant to the international maritime transport of radioactivematerial, including spent fuel. The resolution welcomed the practice of some shipping States andoperators of undertaking timely consultations with relevant coastal States in advance of shipmentsand invited others to do so. Recognizing that uniform implementation and interpretation is an impor-tant prerequisite to an international transport safety regulatory regime, the resolution also notedthat during 2001 the relevant international organizations had incorporated into their respectiveregulatory documents the requirements of the Agency’s Transport Regulations. These modal regula-tions (for air, sea and land transport) were all in force at the international level as of 1 January 2002.

Radiological protection of patients

Medical practice involving the use of ionizing radiation accounts for about 95% of human exposurefrom human made sources of radiation. Accidents during medical treatment with radiation continueto occur, frequently with severe consequences. The increasing importance of the issue of radiologicalprotection of patients is, among other things, witnessed by the fact that during 2001 four major



BOX 5. UPGRADING RADIATION, WASTE AND TRANSPORT SAFETY INFRASTRUCTURES

Providing assistance for upgrading national radiation, waste and transport safety infrastructures contin-ued to be a priority for the Agency in 2001. Radiation Safety Regulatory Infrastructure peer reviewmissions were sent to Niger, Philippines, Thailand and Venezuela. Based on an assessment of its inter-regional Model Project on Upgrading Radiation Protection Infrastructure, which was implemented between1995 and 2000 in 52 States, the Agency concluded that, despite the progress made in many countries,the situation in many other countries remained unsatisfactory. The development of legislative and regu-latory infrastructures will still require years of national effort in many States, with continuous governmentcommitment, in order to comply with the International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ioniz-ing Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources (BSS). To achieve this objective, full implementationof national work plans agreed to by the relevant governments is a prerequisite. In 2001, two new ModelProjects were started to allow some 30 more States to upgrade existing radiation protection infrastruc-tures with the Agency’s assistance. It is expected that, through the establishment of a national notifica-tion, authorization, inspection and enforcement system for the control of radiation sources and materials,the regional Model Projects will contribute to enhanced protection and security of the public. It is furtherexpected that the successful implementation of these projects will improve the level of compliance byStates with the principal requirements of the BSS and, consequently, contribute to a safety basedapproach to the application of nuclear technologies. ■

publications of the ICRP were devoted to various aspects of radiation protection in medicine. Duringthe year, the Agency investigated accidental exposures of radiotherapy patients in Panama andPoland, where, due to human errors in the data entry of the treatment plans and an electrical fault,a number of patients were treated with doses up to 100% higher than those prescribed. To highlightthis concern, the Agency, together with the European Commission, PAHO and WHO, organized aconference in Málaga, Spain, on the radiological protection of patients in diagnostic and interven-tional radiology, nuclear medicine and radiotherapy.

V E R I F I C A T I O N

Strengthening the safeguards system

Since the early 1990s, the Agency has been involved in strengthening its safeguards system, bearingin mind the importance of achieving the universal application of the Agency’s safeguards system,consistent with the respective safeguards undertakings of Member States. In 2001, this effort tookseveral forms. Additional protocols were concluded, comprehensive State level evaluations became amore central feature of the system and technological improvements had a positive impact on theimplementation of safeguards measures (Box 6).

The Model Additional Protocol, approved by the Board of Governors in May 1997, is the key tool forstrengthening the safeguards system. By concluding an additional protocol a State undertakes toprovide a broad range of information about all aspects of its nuclear fuel cycle and nuclear relatedactivities, and to provide more access rights for Agency inspectors. This enables the Agency toprovide credible assurances not only about the non-diversion of declared nuclear material, but onthe absence of undeclared nuclear material and activities. During the year the number of States for



BOX 6. CHALLENGES FACING SAFEGUARDS AND NUCLEAR MATERIAL SECURITY

The Agency’s ninth safeguards symposium, ‘International Safeguards: Verification and Nuclear MaterialSecurity’, was held in Vienna in October–November 2001. The topics covered the full range of currentnuclear security interests, such as nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament, physical protection ofnuclear material, illicit trafficking and future Agency verification roles.

The symposium addressed both proliferation challenges and opportunities for further progress in safe-guards and nuclear material security. The challenges included: implementation and universalization ofadditional protocols; early implementation of integrated safeguards; and finding ways to meet the legiti-mate demands of the international community in ensuring adequate and reliable physical protection ofnuclear material. Opportunities for strengthening safeguards and nuclear material security covered: devel-oping new tools and capabilities; new concepts and approaches; increasing the role of technology in meet-ing the challenge of an expanding mandate in combination with the continued reality of financialconstraints imposed on the Agency’s budget; making more effective use of satellite imagery; and evolv-ing new randomized inspection strategies.

Symposium participants noted that there was a need for: a stronger and better financed safeguardssystem; many more States with comprehensive safeguards agreements and Additional Protocols in force;integration of new safeguards measures with the traditional methods in a way that strengthens the entiresystem; a dramatic increase in national and international efforts, to ensure that all potential nuclearweapons material worldwide was secure and accounted for; and an amendment to the CPPNM.

In view of the 11 September attacks in the USA, a special session on combating nuclear terrorism wasorganized to discuss the potential threats posed by nuclear terrorism and outlined the activities alreadyunder way at the Agency to deal with such threats. ■

which additional protocols were concluded increased from 57 to 61, and the number of additionalprotocols in force rose from 18 to 24 (with one more being applied provisionally). Progress, however,remains slow. With regard to comprehensive safeguards agreements, in 2001 the number of StatesParty to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) that have not fulfilled theirlegal obligation to bring into force the required NPT safeguards agreement stood at 52 (54 at theend of 2000).

Evaluation of information about a State’s nuclear programme for safeguards purposes is becoming anintegral part of the process of deriving safeguards conclusions. The information collected is periodi-cally updated and evaluated. This evaluation is critical to enabling the Agency to draw and maintainits conclusions about the State’s compliance with its safeguards and non-proliferation obligations.

Technological developments have always had an impact on the way safeguards have been applied.During 2001 major progress was made in increasing remote monitoring.

Integrated safeguards

The measures contained in the Model Additional Protocol were meant to be “integrated” with exist-ing ones to ensure the optimum combination — in terms of effectiveness and efficiency — of the meas-ures available to the Agency under comprehensive safeguards agreements and additional protocolsthereto. During 2001, a major achievement was the development of a conceptual framework for inte-grated safeguards, designed to ensure consistency in their implementation in States with similar fuelcycles, but at the same time to provide flexibility so that in each State the combination of safeguardsmeasures can be chosen to ensure maximum effectiveness and efficiency. Integrated safeguards canbe applied once the Agency, on the basis of its activities under the comprehensive safeguards agree-ment and the additional protocol, has drawn a positive conclusion about the non-diversion of declarednuclear material and the absence of undeclared nuclear material and activities in the Stateconcerned. For the first time, an integrated safeguards approach was applied in a Member State,namely in Australia.

Implementation of safeguards agreements and additional protocols

The implementation of additional protocols was initiated in a number of countries, including somewith large nuclear fuel cycles. Substantial resources were utilized for increased information collec-tion, analysis and evaluation activities, such as the review of declarations pursuant to additionalprotocols. Complementary access under additional protocols was conducted 88 times in 13 States, inmost instances in conjunction with inspections.

Iraq. For more than three years the Agency has not been in a position to implement its mandate inIraq under UN Security Council Resolution 687 (1991) and related resolutions. As a consequence, theAgency cannot provide any assurance that Iraq is in compliance with its obligations under those reso-lutions. Since January 2000, the Agency has carried out annual inspections, pursuant to Iraq’s NPTsafeguards agreement, of the declared nuclear material remaining under safeguards in Iraq. Theseinspections do not serve as a substitute for the verification activities required by the relevant resolu-tions of the Security Council, nor do they provide the assurances sought by the Council. The Agencyremains prepared to resume its Security Council mandated verification activities in Iraq at shortnotice.

DPRK. The Agency remains unable to verify the completeness and correctness of the DPRK’s initial1992 declaration, and is therefore unable to conclude that there has been no diversion of nuclearmaterial. The work required to verify that all nuclear material subject to safeguards in the DPRK hasbeen declared and placed under safeguards could take three to four years, with the full co-operationon the part of the DPRK.



Nuclear security

In the week immediately following the tragic events of 11 September 2001, the Agency’s GeneralConference adopted a resolution that requested the Director General to initiate a thorough review ofAgency activities and programmes relevant to preventing acts of terrorism involving nuclear andother radioactive materials. The response by the Secretariat has been immediate, with concretemeasures being taken to expand the scope and reach of many of its security related and safetyservices.

The Agency has been engaged for a number of years in a variety of activities relevant to the preven-tion of acts of nuclear terrorism, including programmes to promote the physical security of nuclearfacilities and nuclear and other radioactive material, help prevent and respond to illicit trafficking inthis material, strengthen the emergency response systems of the Agency and Member States andenhance the safety and security of nuclear facilities. In these areas of activity, the Agency developednorms and guidelines, promoted international co-operation, provided expert advice, training andequipment. It also provided an expanding array of advisory services to States to better protectnuclear and other radioactive material against theft; as well as nuclear facilities against sabotage,and to manage and safely dispose of radioactive sources.

Through an ongoing regional technical co-operation project in Europe, the Agency has devoted signif-icant efforts to the training of customs officials, border guards and police in detection techniques, useof equipment and response mechanisms for combating illicit trafficking in nuclear and other radioac-tive materials.

The first international conference on the security of nuclear material was organized by the Agency inStockholm in May. The conference concluded that a comprehensive approach to security of materialwas warranted, considering both the risks for nuclear proliferation and possible radiation and healtheffects. The conference encouraged States to become parties to the Convention on the Physical Protec-tion of Nuclear Material (CPPNM). It also highlighted the Agency’s role in supporting measures atthe national level through the development of norms and guides, and co-ordination of technical devel-opment and assistance to States in implementing security measures.

In November the Agency prepared a report outlining plans to expand and strengthen programmes fornuclear security. It also addressed the Agency’s response to threats from acts of nuclear terrorism andhighlighted the need for additional resources to cope with this newly emerging threat (Box 7).

The informal open ended expert meeting, first convened in November 1999, to discuss whether therewas a need to revise the CPPNM completed its work in May. In response to the experts’ recommen-dations, the Director General convened in December a group of legal and technical experts to preparea well defined draft amendment to the Convention.

O U T R E A C H

In keeping with a new policy aimed at informing and engaging both existing and new constituencies,the Agency expanded its outreach activities. For instance, many more non-governmental organiza-tions (NGOs) were invited to participate in the Scientific Forum at the Agency’s 2001 General Confer-ence, and more systematic contacts are being maintained with these NGOs and with other parts ofcivil society. In addition, efforts continued to optimize synergies with other international organiza-tions. A notable example was the Revised Arrangements between the Food and AgricultureOrganization and the Agency for the Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food andAgriculture, concluded in December 2001.



The visibility of the Agency increased significantly during the year. In part, this was due to CNN’sbroadcast throughout the second half of the year of public service announcements describing theAgency and its main areas of activity. Moreover, in response to public interest in nuclear matters afterthe 11 September attacks in the USA, the Agency conducted a public information and mediacampaign on combating nuclear terrorism. Complementing these activities, the Agency’s WorldAtomweb site was redesigned.

M A N A G E M E N T

Over the past four years the Agency has conducted a comprehensive review of its management struc-ture and operations. Of particular importance in this process has been the introduction of “resultsbased programming and budgeting” — involving the formulation of programmes and budgets drivenby a number of desired results that are articulated at the outset of the process, and against whichactual performance is measured at the end of the programme and budget cycle. This has been accom-panied by a proposed change to full biennial programming and budgeting. In this respect, 2001 wasa transitional year for the Agency, which was marked by the incorporation of the initial componentsof the results based approach in the Agency’s programme and budget. The consequence of the transi-tional year is that the Agency’s fiscal cycle is now synchronized with those of other UN organizations.

As described in the Medium Term Strategy, the Agency’s activities in 2001 were integrated under thethree broad “pillars” of technology, safety and verification, and were distributed among six majorprogrammes (increasing to seven starting in 2002). Often, the objectives to be achieved by these activ-ities cut across programme and organizational structures. ‘Matrix management’ is the optimal



BOX 7. ENHANCING PROTECTION AGAINST NUCLEAR TERRORISM

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373 (2001) of 28 September 2001 noted with concern theclose connection between international terrorism and the illegal movement of nuclear material and, in thatregard, emphasized the need to enhance co-ordination of efforts at the national, subregional, regional andinternational levels in order to strengthen a global response to this serious challenge and threat to inter-national security. The Council also called upon all States to find ways of intensifying and accelerating theexchange of operational information, especially regarding, among others, the threat posed by the posses-sion of weapons of mass destruction by terrorist groups, and to become parties as soon as possible tothe relevant international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism.

In the same vein, the Agency’s General Conference adopted a resolution on 21 September 2001 notingthe importance of physical protection in preventing the unauthorized removal of nuclear material and thesabotage of nuclear facilities and nuclear materials by individuals or groups. The conference called on theAgency to thoroughly review its programmes relevant to preventing acts of terrorism and to report to theBoard of Governors as soon as possible. In response to this request, the Director General prepared aninitial report on protection against nuclear terrorism outlining plans for substantially expanding andstrengthening the Agency’s programmes in the areas of: physical protection of nuclear material andnuclear facilities; detection of malicious activities (such as illicit trafficking) involving nuclear and otherradioactive materials; strengthening of State systems for nuclear material accountancy and control; secu-rity of radioactive material other than nuclear material; improving the security of nuclear facilities;response to malicious acts or threats thereof; the adherence to international agreements and guidelines;and enhancement of programme co-ordination and information management for nuclear security relatedmatters. The report emphasized that the proposed activities were not a substitute for national measures,nor could they diminish the primary responsibility of the State for all matters of security. Rather, they weredesigned to assist Member State efforts in areas where international co-operation is indispensable to thestrengthening of nuclear security. ■

mechanism for planning and implementing activities that require the application of different fieldsof expertise and multi-disciplinary approaches. As more cross-cutting areas are identified, the roles,responsibilities and accountability of the staff involved need to be clearly defined, and procedures formonitoring implementation and periodic reporting have to be established. Work was under way in2001 to set up the necessary mechanisms and procedures for effective and efficient matrix manage-ment.

The reform process has been characterized by considerable restructuring within the Secretariat, andby the introduction of a corporate, ‘one house’ approach with the aim of improving co-ordination, effi-ciency and programme delivery. For example, new offices for policy co-ordination and for programmesupport were created. In addition, a new Office of Internal Oversight Services was established toconsolidate and rationalize evaluation, management services, internal audit and investigation intoone entity. And to improve ‘customer focus’ and streamline the information technology (IT) structure,a new IT Division and an IT Committee were established.

The preparation of the Agency’s first full biennial programme and budget document, covering theperiod 2002–2003, entailed far more extensive and earlier consultations with Member States toestablish their needs at the outset and obtain their views on programme content. This resulted in arevised and more focused programme structure.

Although the budgetary proposals for 2002–2003 cover the two years of the biennium, the Secretariatcould only present a budget resolution for 2002. This was because the amendment to the Agency’sStatute to enable the change to biennial budgeting can only take effect after the required number ofMember States has formally accepted it. At the end of 2001, only 26 States had deposited theirinstruments of acceptance — well short of the required two thirds of the Agency’s members.

Extensive consultations were conducted in the first half of the year owing to the need for increasedfunding for the technical co-operation and safeguards programmes, compounded by a compulsory costof living increase in Vienna. After intensive discussions, a consensus was reached on funding for the2002 budget.

C O N C L U S I O N

The peaceful uses of nuclear energy will continue to be an important factor in economic developmentand in improving human welfare. In this regard, a capacity in nuclear science and technology is oftenan asset in its own right, contributing to broader technological development. Many challenges facethe world today, including understanding and combating climate change, preserving the environ-ment, feeding and protecting the health of the world’s growing population, and supplying the waterand energy needed for sustainable economic growth and development. Responding to these chal-lenges requires concerted, collaborative efforts by Member States, international organizations andcivil society. It also requires flexibility — the ability to adapt to changing circumstances to achievecommon goals.

In 2001, the Agency remained active in fostering international co-operation for the peaceful uses ofnuclear technologies, and in transferring these technologies to developing countries — but adequateinvestment and continuing innovation are essential to ensure that nuclear technologies remainviable. It continues to press for a comprehensive and effective nuclear safety regime — but, again,such a regime will be effective only if States adhere to it and invest in its necessary infrastructure. Ithas been laying the groundwork for a state of the art verification system — but such a system mustbe subscribed to, and above all must be underpinned by other parts of the non-proliferation regime.For the Agency’s Secretariat and Member States to be able to move forward on all these fronts, activepartnership is indispensable. The Agency is committed to reinforcing this partnership.



A view of the plenary session at the 45th regular session of the General Conference, which was held in the Austria CenterVienna from 17 to 21 September 2001.

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As a mark of respect for the victims of the tragic events of 11 September 2001 in the USA, the Vienna Boys Choir gave aperformance at the opening of the General Conference on 17 September.

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THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS AND THE GENERAL CONFERENCE

The Board of Governors oversees the ongoing operations of the Agency. Among its functions it exam-ines and makes recommendations to the General Conference on the Agency’s accounts and itsprogramme and budget, and considers applications for membership; it also approves safeguardsagreements and the publication of the Agency’s safety standards. The Board of Governors comprises35 Member States and generally meets five times a year (see Box 1).

The General Conference comprises all Member States of the Agency and meets once a year. It consid-ers the annual report of the Board of Governors on the Agency’s activities during the previous year;approves the Agency’s accounts and the budget, approves any applications for membership, and electsmembers to the Board of Governors. It also conducts a wide ranging general debate on the Agency’spolicies and pro-gramme and passes resolutions directing the priorities of the Agency’s work (see Box2 for a complete list of resolutions in 2001).

The applications of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Republic of Botswana for membershipof the Agency were approved by the General Conference upon the recommendation of the Board ofGovernors. At the end of 2001 the application by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia had taken effect,and the Agency had a total of 133 members.

The Board of Governors decided to appoint Mohamed ElBaradei as Director General of the Agency byacclamation for a further term of office of four years, until 30 November 2005. His appointment wasapproved by the General Conference in accordance with Article VII.A of the Statute.

The Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of RadioactiveWaste Management entered into force on 18 June 2001, the required number of States havingdeposited their instruments of ratification. In December 2001, a meeting was held for the purpose ofpreparing for the first review meeting of the Contracting Parties, which is to take place in 2003.

The General Conference reappointed the Comptroller and Auditor General of the United Kingdom asthe External Auditor to audit the Agency’s accounts for 2002 and 2003.

The General Conference took note of a report by the Secretariat, made pursuant to General Confer-ence Resolution GC(43)/RES/19, on progress made towards the entry into force of the amendment toArticle VI of the Statute (concerning the size and distribution of seats on the Board of Governors, bywhich membership of the Board was expanded from 35 to 43 seats). The report stated that, as of16 July 2001, the Director General had been informed by the depositary Government that 26 MemberStates had accepted the amendment in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. Inaccordance with the Statute, entry into force of the amendment requires acceptance by two thirds ofall members (see Table A22 in the Annex for the status as of 31 December 2001).


Note: This chapter reports on matters of a procedural nature dealt with by the Board of Governors and the General

Conference during the year. Substantive programmatic issues considered by the policy making organs are covered under

the relevant chapters of this report.

During the General Conference the President ofthe Conference made the following statement onterrorism:

“During the Conference, widespreadcondolences were expressed to the victimsand their families as well as to theGovernment of the United States ofAmerica for the terrorist acts that tookplace on 11 September 200l in New York,Washington, DC, and Pennsylvania. TheDelegates were unequivocal in theircondemnation of these terrorist acts. Ascalled for in UNGA RES 56/1 (2001) andUNSC RES 1368 (2001), the urgent needof working together to bring to justice theper-petrators, organizers, and sponsors ofthese terrorist attacks and to holdaccountable those responsible for aiding,supporting, or harbouring the perpetra-tors, organizers, and sponsors of these

acts was supported. With particularregard to the Agency’s mandate, theConference expressed its concern aboutthe possible impact of terrorism on thesecurity of nuclear material and otherradioactive materials. In this regard, theConference requested the DirectorGeneral to review thoroughly the activi-ties and programmes of the Agency with aview to strengthening the Agency workrelevant to preventing acts of terrorisminvolving nuclear materials and otherradioactive materials. It further urged allMember States to co-operate fully withthe Director General and to support theAgency’s efforts in this regard.”

In December, the Board considered the DirectorGeneral’s initial response to the statement andto the request of the General Conference inResolution GC(45)/RES/14B.

T H E BOA R D O F G OV E R N O R S A N D T H E G E N E R A L C O N F E R E N C E


BOX 1. THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS, 2001–2002

Chairman of the Board: H.E. Mr. Max Hughes AustraliaAmbassador

Vice-Chairmen: H.E. Mr. Sameh Hassan Shoukry Selim EgyptAmbassador

Mr. Vadym V. Gryshchenko UkraineHead, State Nuclear Regulatory Committee

Composition of the Board of Governors at the conclusion of the 45th (2001) regular session of the General Conference

● Argentina● Australia● Brazil● Bulgaria● Burkina Faso● Canada● Chile● China● Colombia● Egypt● Finland● France● Germany● Ghana● India● Iran, Islamic Republic of● Ireland● Japan

● Kuwait● Libyan Arab Jamahiriya● Mexico● Morocco● Pakistan● Peru● Philippines● Romania● Russian Federation● South Africa● Spain● Switzerland● Thailand● Turkey● Ukraine● United Kingdom of Great Britain

and Northern Ireland ● United States of America

T H E BOA R D O F G OV E R N O R S A N D T H E G E N E R A L C O N F E R E N C E


BOX 2. RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL CONFERENCE DURING ITS 45thREGULAR SESSION (17–21 SEPTEMBER 2001)

Title of resolution Resolution number

● Applications for membership of the Agency

— Application by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia GC(45)/RES/1

— Application by the Republic of Botswana GC(45)/RES/2

● Approval of the appointment of the Director General GC(45)/RES/3

● The Agency’s accounts for 2000 GC(45)/RES/4

— Regular budget appropriations for 2002 GC(45)/RES/5

— Technical Co-operation Fund Allocation for 2002 GC(45)/RES/6

— The Working Capital Fund in 2002 GC(45)/RES/7

● Scale of assessment of members’ contributions towards the regular budget GC(45)/RES/8

● Rules regarding the acceptance of voluntary contributions GC(45)/RES/9

● Measures to strengthen international co-operation in nuclear,radiation, transport and waste safety GC(45)/RES/10

● Strengthening of the Agency’s technical co-operation activities GC(45)/RES/11

● Strengthening the Agency’s activities related to nuclear science,technology and applications GC(45)/RES/12

● Strengthening the effectiveness and improving the efficiency of the safeguards system and application of the Model Additional Protocol GC(45)/RES/13

● Measures to improve the security of nuclear materials and other radioactive materials GC(45)/RES/14

● Implementation of the NPT safeguards agreement between the Agency and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea GC(45)/RES/16

● Implementation of United Nations Security Council resolutions relating to Iraq GC(45)/RES/17

● Application of IAEA safeguards in the Middle East GC(45)/RES/18

● Personnel GC(45)/RES/15

● Examination of delegates’ credentials GC(45)/RES/19

The Agency’sProgramme in 2001:Technology

NUCLEAR POWER

P R O G R A M M E O B J E C T I V E

To assist Member States, at their request, inplanning and implementing programmes forthe utilization of nuclear power, as well as tosupport them in achieving improved safety,reliability and economic cost effectiveness oftheir nuclear power plants by promotingadvanced engineering and technology, training,quality assurance and infrastructure modern-ization.

K E Y I S S U E S A N D H I G H L I G H T S

• Publications were issued on quality assurance standards, risk management, managing changein nuclear utilities, economic performance indicators, personnel training and evaluating outsidecontractors.

• Updated versions of Agency databases and the Power Reactor Information System (PRIS) werereleased to Member States. In addition, a third module on steam generators was added to theAgency’s database on nuclear power plant life management.

• A major international seminar was convened in Cairo to review innovative small to medium sizedreactor (SMR) designs.

• CRPs on seismic features and thermal-hydraulic codes for metal cooled reactors were completed,and a new CRP was started on the economics of selected nuclear desalination projects.

• The first full year of the extrabudgetary International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactorsand Fuel Cycles (INPRO) was completed.

Regular budget expenditure: $4 124 557Extrabudgetary programme expenditure

(not included in chart): $589 175

1. Nuclear Power Planning, Implementation and Performance: $2 298 347

2. Nuclear Power Reactor Technology Development: $1 826 210

1

2


N U C L E A R P O W E R P L A N N I N G ,I M P L E M E N T A T I O N A N DP E R F O R M A N C E

Global electricity demand is projected to morethan triple in the next 50 years. Figure 1 showsthe increase in the global energy availabilityfactor in the last decade. Individual plant avail-ability increased in many cases by some 30percentage points. From 1990 to 2000, globalenergy availability increased from 73% to over82% — the equivalent of adding 28 GW(e) of newgenerating capacity. The data for 2001 indicatethat a new record was again set. Currently, theenergy availability factors at the most success-ful nuclear power plants are well above the 2000average of 82%. However, for most of the world’snuclear plants there is still much room forimprovement.

The Agency assists Member States in planningand implementing nuclear power projects andmanaging the performance and service life ofnuclear power plants. The Agency used ‘Inter-net Virtual Office’ to facilitate collaboration andthe dissemination of information to experts inMember States involved in projects.

Contractor personnel provide many essentialservices to nuclear utilities and individualnuclear power plants during planned outages,for refuelling, for major upgrade projects, forspecialized maintenance and for routine non-nuclear services such as security, administrativesupport, facility management, buildings mainte-nance and catering. An issue of great impor-tance with respect to contractor personnel isthat of ensuring, in a cost effective manner, thatthey are competent and qualified to perform theassigned tasks. A technical document on Assur-ing the Competence of Nuclear Power PlantContractor Personnel (IAEA-TECDOC-1232)assists utility and nuclear power plantmanagers, and other relevant organizations, inidentifying the required technical and profes-sional competence of contractor personnel, andincludes specific tools for contractor assessmentand evaluation.

A technical report comparing the ISO-9901:2000quality standards and the Agency’s 50-C/SG-Qsafety codes was completed. Prepared inresponse to numerous requests and a high level

of interest in Member States, this publication isa follow-on to Quality Assurance Standards:Comparison between IAEA 50-C/SG-Q and ISO-9001:1994, which was jointly developed in 2001with FORATOM. Both publications assistMember States in developing quality assurancepolicies and programmes and are consideredespecially useful to the utility/supplier interfacein the nuclear industry. The current qualitystandard ISO-9001:1994 is in force until Decem-ber 2003, when it will be replaced by the revisedISO-9001:2000 that was published in December2000.

In the field of integrated management of nuclearpower plant operations, a new publication —Risk Management: A Tool for Improving NuclearPower Plant Performance (IAEA-TECDOC-1209) — helps operators identify and implementappropriate measures to remain competitive. Itprovides a structure for risk management, alongwith examples of how operating organizationsare using this tool to help integrate the assess-ment of safety, operational and economic relatedrisks in a changing environment.

Managing Change in Nuclear Utilities (IAEA-TECDOC-1226) analyses the experience ofMember States in adapting nuclear powerproduction to changing market, economic andregulatory environments. It identifies theimportant factors for maintaining a successfulsafety conscious, continuous improvementmanagement culture in the midst of change.

N U C L E A R P OW E R


FIG. 1. Global average energy availability factor (EAF).

72.9

74.2 74.2 74.7

76.2

77.778.7 78.6

79.2

81.082.1

68

70

72

74

76

78

80

82

84

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

EA

F (

%)

Properly managed, changes can enhancenuclear safety, plant reliability and cost compet-itiveness, from the design stage to decommis-sioning. The document provides guidance to alllevels of management involved in developingand implementing changes within their areas ofresponsibility.

The use of resources can be optimized by mini-mizing operations and maintenance (O&M)costs. A new publication, Developing anEconomic Performance International System toEnhance Nuclear Power Plant Competitiveness(Technical Reports Series No. 406), providesguidance on this subject, using information fromthe Agency’s NEPIS (Nuclear Economic Perfor-mance International System) database, whichcontains cost data provided by utilities from15 countries. Performance targets and O&Mcosts are also correlated with the objective ofidentifying major economic performance indica-tors.

In the past, much of the focus of formal nuclearpower plant training and developmentprogrammes has been on technical skills, partic-ularly those of control room operators. Thechanging market environment in which suchplants operate places new emphasis onincreased efficiency and operator effectiveness,while still maintaining high levels of safety. A

report published in 2001, A SystematicApproach to Human Performance Improvementin Nuclear Power Plants: Training Solutions(IAEA-TECDOC-1204), provides guidance ontraining nuclear power plant personnel in non-technical skills. It also presents an integratedapproach that incorporates training as one ofseveral co-ordinated approaches to achievingdesired levels of human performance.

Staying with the area of training, the Agencysupported an initiative on ‘Co-operation amongNuclear Training Centres in the EuropeanRegion’ to improve both the quality and costeffectiveness of training activities in MemberStates in this region. In April, the Paks NuclearPower Plant Maintenance Training Centre inHungary hosted an initial meeting with repre-sentatives from 12 Member States. Activitiesunder this initiative will include: developmentof training centre dossiers and an Internet data-base of available training tools; as well as collec-tion and sharing of benchmarking information;and exchange of staff.

New releases of Agency databases included aCD-ROM version of PRIS (Fig. 2) incorporatingboth mapping features and the full database.PRIS data were also released to the publicthrough the Internet (http://www.iaea.org/programmes/ne/nenp/npes/index.htm). The



FIG. 2. The percentage of electricity generated by nuclear power in 30 countries in 2000 (based on data fromPRIS and Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period up to 2020, Reference Data Series No. 1,IAEA, Vienna (2001)).

FRANCE

LITHNIA

BELGIUM

SLOVAKIA

UKRAINE

BULGARIA

KOREA RP

HUNGARY

SWEDEN

SWITZRLD

SLOVENIA

JAPAN

ARMENIA

FINLAND

GERMANYSPAIN

CZECH R.USA

RUSSIA

CANADA

ROMANIA

ARGNTINA

S.AFRICA

NETHLNDS

MEXICOINDIA

BRAZIL

PAKISTANCHINA

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

Nuc

lear

sha

re (%

)

UK

33.8

47.345.0

40.638.2 37.4

40.7 39.0

73.7

53.456.8

76.4

4.0 3.9

19.814.9

11.8 10.97.3 6.6

33.0 32.1 30.627.6

21.9 20.1

3.1 1.9 1.7 1.2

other two PRIS services to Member States,MicroPRIS and PRIS-PC (the connection toPRIS through the Internet), are currently beingdistributed to more than 700 users in MemberStates and international organizations. PRIScontains multiple modules covering differentaspects of nuclear power plants, includingoperating experience and outages, reactordesign characteristics, non-electrical applica-tions and decommissioning. Data on delayednuclear power projects will be added in the nearfuture.

A third module on steam generators has beenadded to the Agency’s Nuclear Power Plant LifeManagement database. This module will makeit easier to monitor and analyse the state ofsteam generators in different countries on thebasis of information acquired during their accu-mulated operating years. Such results areimportant for steam generator life optimization,and are helpful in the scheduling of timely deci-sions on necessary repairs and replacements.

Requests from developing Member States fortechnical co-operation missions are given highpriority and influence significantly the contentand structure of the Agency’s programme innuclear power. In addition, direct outputs of theregular programme (e.g. standards, CRPresults, documents, reports and databases) areused in planning, designing and implementingtechnical co-operation projects. Wherever possi-ble, activities within regular and technical co-operation projects are implemented jointly totake advantage of synergies and have a greaterimpact in recipient Member States. In 2001,support was provided to a range of technical co-operation projects in such areas as:

— Engineering aspects of life management ofnuclear power plants;

— Planning and management of the first/newnuclear power project;

— Integrated approaches to improving opera-tions management;

— Planning, management and implementa-tion of nuclear power plant decommission-ing;

— Personnel training and qualification.

A total of 135 people received training throughtraining courses, 535 through workshops and

technical meetings, 9 through fellowships and19 through scientific visits.

N U C L E A R P O W E R R E A C T O RT E C H N O L O G Y D E V E L O P M E N T

In addition to support for continuous perform-ance improvements in current nuclear powerplant facilities and projects, the Agency alsoprovides support for R&D on new and modifieddesigns that promise lower costs, betterperformance, a higher level of safety and greaterproliferation resistance (Box 1).

Global interest in modular high temperaturegas cooled reactors (HTGRs) continues, drivenby their promising safety and economic features.The Agency’s ‘Knowledge Base’ web site onHTGR technology (http://www.iaea.org/inis/aws/htgr) continued to draw global attention asa source of information and publications. Thefollowing achievements were recorded in 2001:

— The Chinese HTR-10 reactor underwentoperational tests;

— The Japanese HTTR reached 30 MW(th) offull power;

— Design studies were carried out on theproposed Pebble Bed Modular Reactor proj-ect in South Africa, with a planned upgradeof power from 268 to 302 MW(th);

— Studies were carried out in the RussianFederation on the proposed internationalplutonium burning GT-MHR design project;

— The European High Temperature ReactorTechnology Network was actively engagedin co-ordinated research related to HTGRswithin the 5th EURATOM frameworkprogramme. In the USA, HTGR conceptsand technology are being examined as apossible future design candidate for the‘Generation IV technology roadmap’ and‘Nuclear Energy Research Initiative’ proj-ects.

The Agency’s Technical Working Groups onAdvanced Technologies for Light Water Reactors(TWG-LWR) and Heavy Water Reactors (TWG-HWR) focused on technology developments toimprove the economic competitiveness of watercooled reactors while meeting stringent safetyobjectives. In this connection, investigations



aimed at optimizing the technology, safety andthe economics of water cooled reactors werecarried out jointly with the OECD/NEA, theEuropean Commission, industrial organizationsand government agencies. One conclusion wasthat in order to achieve the largest possible costreductions for nuclear plants, proven means forreducing costs must be fully utilized, and newapproaches should be developed and imple-mented.

Building on its expertise in water cooled reactordesigns, the Agency also sponsors the develop-ment of nuclear reactor simulators, which oper-ate on PCs and simulate the responses ofmedium and large sized water cooled reactortypes (e.g. BWRs, PWRs and HWRs) under oper-ating and accident conditions. The Agency’ssimulator workshops have now become anannual event at the International Centre forTheoretical Physics (ICTP) in Trieste. During2001, a new 1360 MW(e) BWR simulator wasdeveloped and demonstrated at the ICTP work-shop. Updated versions of the PCTRAN PWR

and the WWER-1000 simulators were also madeavailable.

In the field of metal cooled reactors, one area ofconcern is thin walled and flexible reactorcomponents that operate at low pressure butcould be seriously affected by earthquakes.Responding to this concern, the Agency recentlycompleted a CRP on the verification of analysismethods for predicting seismically isolatednuclear structures, and harmonization and vali-dation of analysis methods for fast reactor ther-mal-hydraulic codes and relations using experi-mental data. Another CRP seeks to validate,verify and improve methodologies and computercodes used for the calculation of reactivitycoefficients in liquid metal fast reactors.

Lead and lead–bismuth cooled systems offer analternative to sodium, provided the high corro-sion activity and other long term materialcompatibility problems are solved. In responseto Member State requests, the Agency has beenconducting information exchange activities in



BOX 1. USING SMALLER PLANTS FOR A WIDER RANGE OF POWER AND NON-POWERAPPLICATIONS

Several innovative designs for future nuclear power plants are in the small to medium sized range. Theseplants can be constructed with factory built structures and components, including complete modular unitsfor rapid installation. They also benefit from economies of series production, in contrast to the economiesof scale sought by larger designs. Small and medium sized reactors (SMRs) may also be easier to financeand may be attractive for countries with small electricity grids or for use in remote locations. Finally, theymay be more appropriate for non-electric applications such as district heating, desalination, hydrogenproduction and oil production from tar sands and heavy crudes. To investigate these various uses, theAgency organized a seminar in Cairo in May on the status and prospects for SMRs, in co-operation withthe OECD NEA and the World Nuclear Association (formerly the Uranium Institute). Hosted by the NuclearPower Plants Authority of Egypt, the seminar looked at innovative SMR concepts with an emphasis onsimple and standardized designs, reduced construction times, enhanced safety and reliability and prolif-eration resistance. Co-generation applications of SMRs such as nuclear seawater desalination and thenecessary infrastructure development were also discussed. The major conclusions of the seminar werethat with population growth in developing countries greatly increasing the demand for energy and elec-tricity, SMRs were likely to play an important role in these countries. There would also be a continuingglobal need for different types and sizes of reactors for a range of applications. However, economiccompetitiveness and public acceptance were seen as the two most critical factors for the growth ofnuclear power. There was agreement that the rapid development of commercial SMRs was of great impor-tance as most developing countries would not be willing to wait for two or three decades to increase theirelectricity capacity. ■

the area of heavy liquid metal coolants for fastreactors. Data on thermophysical and thermal-hydraulic parameters of lead and lead–bismutheutectic have been collected, reviewed andprepared for documentation, and a comparativeassessment was carried out of sodium charac-teristics.

A new web site (http://www.iaea.org/inis/aws/fnss) provides an overview of an Agencyproject on technology advances in fast reactorsand accelerator driven systems for actinide andlong lived fission product transmutation. Apartfrom power production, the rationale for thisproject stems from public concerns regardingthe long term storage of nuclear waste. Fastreactors and accelerator driven systems arebeing developed in some Member States as apossible response to the challenges of long termwaste storage and potential proliferation risks.Through this project, the Agency facilitatesinformation exchange and collaborative R&D,thereby fostering the pooling of resources andexpertise. The main objectives of the projectare to establish the technical and economicfeasibility of new, advanced fast reactordesigns, and to provide the basis for hybridsystems technology development activities inMember States.

Starting its second phase of work, the Inter-national Nuclear Desalination Advisory Group(INDAG) reviewed recent activities in this area,evaluated the Agency’s programme andproposed possible new activities for 2004–2005to accelerate the deployment of nuclear desali-nation projects. The first edition of Newsletteron INDAG, issued in July, provided informationon nuclear desalination activities in severalMember States, particularly the demonstrationproject in Kalpakkam, India.

In October, the National Nuclear Energy Agencyof Indonesia and the Korea Atomic EnergyResearch Institute reached agreement on a jointpre-feasibility study of a nuclear desalinationplant in Indonesia under the Agency’s interre-gional technical co-operation programme. Asimilar agreement was reached between theFrench Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique andthe Tunisian Authority. These important agree-ments facilitate projects between technologyholders and end-users, leading to integrated

nuclear desalination systems generating bothpower and heat.

Other developments in nuclear desalinationincluded:

— Publication of a document on Safety Aspectsof Nuclear Plants Coupled with SeawaterDesalination Units (IAEA-TECDOC-1235);

— Establishment of a web site with informa-tion on the technology of nuclear seawaterdesalination, past and current activities ofthe Agency, major activities in MemberStates, sample calculations with theAgency’s DEEP software and relevantAgency publications;

— A progress report to the General Conferencein September on the Agency’s activities innuclear desalination. Thereafter, in Resolu-tion GC(45)/RES/12, the Conferencerequested “the Director General to note thehigh priority given by Member States to thenuclear desalination of seawater and SMRdevelopment ... and promote effective inter-national information exchange and co-oper-ation in this area”.

A new CRP entitled ‘Economic Research on andAssessment of Selected Nuclear DesalinationProjects and Case Studies’ was launched.Together with an ongoing CRP on the optimiza-tion of the coupling of nuclear reactors anddesalination systems, this project will facilitatethe co-ordination of current and plannednational studies on seawater desalination inMember States.

The International Project on Innovative NuclearReactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO) — a majorextrabudgetary initiative co-ordinated by theAgency — is based on a General Conference reso-lution in September 2000 that invited all inter-ested Member States, both technology suppliersand users, to consider jointly international andnational actions required to achieve desiredinnovations in nuclear reactors and fuel cycles.In Resolution A/RES/56/94, “Report of the Inter-national Atomic Energy Agency”, the UNGeneral Assembly emphasized “the unique rolethat the Agency can play in developing userrequirements and in addressing safeguards,safety and environmental questions for innova-tive reactors and their fuel cycles” and stressed



“the need for international collaboration in thedevelopment of innovative nuclear technology”.During the year INPRO’s Steering Committeeapproved the project’s organizational structure,outline of the proposed report, resources, overallschedule, work plan and tasks. A second meetingin December reviewed initial progress reportsand approved continued development of the proj-ect. Work also began on user requirements in

five areas: economics and resources, safety, envi-ronmental impacts, proliferation resistance and“cross-cutting issues”, which include infrastruc-tural and industrial requirements, and legal andinstitutional requirements, as well as education,training and R&D. A sixth task was begun todevelop assessment methods and criteria forapplying these user requirements to specificinnovative nuclear designs.



NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND WASTE MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY


To have the latest fuel cycle and waste manage-ment strategies adopted in an increasingnumber of Member States and related state ofthe art technologies in place in an increasingnumber of facilities; and to facilitate the plan-ning and implementation of safe, sustainable,cost efficient and environmentally soundnuclear fuel cycle and waste managementactivities in Member States.


• The latest edition of the IAEA–OECD NEA “Red Book” — Uranium 2001: Resources, Productionand Demand — was published. A complementary report, Analysis of Uranium Supply to 2050,was also published by the Agency.

• Key milestones were achieved in the areas of: mixed oxide (MOX) fuel technology; water chem-istry and corrosion control in nuclear power plants; and zirconium alloy degradation by hydro-gen.

• With fuel storage periods in some instances becoming longer than originally foreseen, the Agencyfocused on issues connected with long term dry storage, the implications for fuel fabrication andburnup credit.

• Initiatives to address the issue of geological repositories and the lack of infrastructure andresources to implement available technologies in many developing Member States included: thecreation of an ‘International Network of Centres of Excellence for Demonstration and Trainingin Geological Disposal’; and an international conference on the management of radioactive wastefrom non-power applications.


Regular budget expenditure:$5 018 868Extrabudgetary programme expenditure


1. Fuel Cycle and Materials: $2 201 1092. Waste Management and Technology:

$2 817 759

1

2

F U E L C Y C L E A N D M A T E R I A L S

A new edition of the “Red Book” — Uranium2001: Resources, Production and Demand —was completed and published jointly with theOECD NEA. The Red Book is the foremostworld reference on uranium supplies, andincludes projections of nuclear energy growththrough 2020 and implications for uraniumsupply and demand. The Agency also publisheda complementary study, Analysis of UraniumSupply to 2050. This study considers bothprimary supplies (newly produced uranium)and secondary supplies (from reprocessed fueland surplus nuclear weapons). The reportconcludes that known resources are adequateto satisfy primary supply requirementsthrough about 2034 in a middle demand case,after which currently speculative, undiscov-ered resources would need to be developed.Figure 1 shows the projected shortfall inmarket based production assuming that highenriched uranium (HEU) from nuclearweapons will not be available after 2023 andexcess inventories will have been drawn downto strategic levels. Known resources areadequate to satisfy market based requirementsto 2034. Cumulative production derived fromknown resources is adequate to satisfy 80% of

total market based production requirements to2050.

A new report, Manual of Acid In Situ LeachUranium Mining Technology (IAEA-TECDOC-1239), examines in situ leaching (ISL), a rela-tively new mining approach with both economicand environmental advantages for extractinguranium from suitable sandstone type deposits.ISL has accounted for 13–15% of world output inrecent years and is expected to grow furthergiven its low costs and environmental advan-tages. This document covers uranium geology,geo-hydrology, chemistry, reservoir engineeringand process engineering.

In the area of nuclear fuel performance andtechnology, the Agency began a new CRP ondata processing technologies and diagnostics forwater chemistry and corrosion control innuclear power plants (DAWAC). The goal of thisproject is to develop and implement the mosteffective systems to collect, evaluate, processand diagnose water chemistry data for a varietyof nuclear power plant designs.

Delayed hydride cracking can result in the fail-ure of pressure tubes in CANDU reactors andmay contribute to fuel cladding failures in

N U C L E A R F U E L C YC L E A N D W A S T E M A N AG E M E N T T E C H N O L O G Y


FIG. 1. Projection of market based production from a study of reasonably assured resources by cost category —middle demand case.

0

20 000

40 000

60 000

80 000

100 000

120 000

140 000

160 000

180 000

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

2016

2018

2020

2022

2024

2026

2028

2030

2032

2034

2036

2038

2040

2042

2044

2046

2048

2050

Year

To

nn

es u

ran

ium Very high

High

High medium

Low medium

Low

Market basedproductionrequirements

LWRs. In a CRP on hydrogen and hydridedegradation of zirconium alloys, the Agencycompleted a round robin exercise to address thedifficulties of accurately measuring hydrogenconcentrations in zirconium alloys at the lowlevels often of practical importance. A majoroutcome of this exercise was an improvement inthe techniques used at several participatinglaboratories.

To address fuel safety issues under sharp tran-sients and accident conditions, the Agencyconvened a Technical Committee meeting to:review current experimental programmes;analyse the validity and applicability of existingloss of coolant (LOCA) and reactivity initiatedaccident (RIA) criteria; assess existing data-bases; and determine needed criteria revisionsand new experiments. The participants maderecommendations on revising existing LOCAand RIA criteria as they apply to licensingprocedures. Licensing criteria dealing withenthalpy deposition for RIAs, for example, mayno longer be valid and may require rethinking,both in terms of limit values and whether theyactually target the correct failure mechanism.

Spent fuel is accumulating at about 10 500tonnes of heavy metal (t HM) per year world-wide. Only one third of this is reprocessed — theremaining two thirds must be stored. With stor-age periods becoming longer, it will be necessaryin the near future to extend the licences of exist-ing storage facilities. The long term behaviour ofspent fuel and materials during storage is alsobecoming increasingly important.

In this connection, the Agency completed a CRPon Spent Fuel Performance Assessment andResearch (SPAR) dealing with the behaviour ofspent fuel and structural materials during longterm storage. The principal conclusions werethat extending the period of interim storage is ageneral trend in the countries participating inthe CRP regardless of the policy adopted forclosing the ‘back end’ of the nuclear fuel cycle.However, extending the storage period requiresknowledge of fuel evolution during very longterm storage and the behaviour of the storagesystem. It is therefore important to maintainthe continuity of knowledge for fuel assembliesduring the entire fuel cycle and to have a systemfor registration and documentation using a data

storage medium that can be read and used wellinto the future, i.e. longer than 100 years. Ingeneral, the wet storage performance of LWRfuel is excellent. In dry storage, no degradationmechanisms are known and no detrimentalexperience has been reported. Dry storage hasbecome a mature technology, with almost 20years of favourable experience for spent powerreactor fuel and about 30 years for researchreactor fuel. It is important to have denseconcrete structures that keep free water to aminimum, making them less vulnerable tofreeze–thaw cycles. However, monitoring tech-nologies are particularly important for the longterm storage of spent fuel, including monitoringof fuel cladding and component integrity, as wellas containment system integrity.

Using extrabudgetary funds, the Agency modi-fied the COBRA-SFS code for use on PCs andheld a training workshop to apply the modifiedcode. With this code, countries with WWERs canperform thermal-hydraulic calculations for bothcask/container and multivault dry storagesystems directly on PCs.

More than 90% of all research reactor fuel isclad in aluminium and stored in water. A CRPthat studied the corrosion of such fuel in waterwas completed. One conclusion was that sub-optimal water quality is a major cause of local-ized corrosion that can eat through the cladding.A number of research reactors already havesuch leaking fuel. The CRP determined the opti-mum water chemistry conditions to minimizecorrosion. The results have been disseminatedto Member States and have already had anappreciable impact on water chemistry controlat several facilities.

In the last five years, 674 tonnes of HEU havebeen declared surplus to defence programmes. ATechnical Committee meeting in Novemberanalysed the impact of this material on theuranium production market. It was concludedthat low enriched uranium blended down fromHEU plays an essential role in maintaining thesupply of civil uranium resources. In addition,there were still a number of research reactorsusing HEU.

To date, more than a million tonnes of depleteduranium (DU) have accumulated as a result of



enrichment operations. The Agency addressedthis issue jointly with the OECD NEA, produc-ing a report that focused on the management ofDU. Among the issues discussed in this reportwere the length of time that DU could be stored,in what form it would be stored and the impli-cations of its final disposal.

Recent changes in nuclear fuel markets, partic-ularly as a result of market liberalization andexpanding nuclear programmes in Asia andEastern Europe, have created the need for up todate information on national and internationalfuel cycle activities. In response, the Agencypublished Country Nuclear Fuel Cycle Profiles(Technical Reports Series No. 404), which offersnational profiles that can be used by bothexperts and the public.

W A S T E M A N A G E M E N T A N D T E C H N O L O G Y

Radioactive wastes arising from the operation ofnuclear installations require timely and effec-tive management. To this end, accurate assess-ments of radioactive wastes from all sources arenecessary, and safe, cost effective and environ-mentally sound technologies should be madeavailable for Member States to manage anddispose of their nuclear waste. A related area isdecommissioning technology for nuclear powerand research reactors. For example, some 200currently operating research reactors are atleast 30 years old and will soon be candidates fordecommissioning. Many are in Member Stateswhere decommissioning experience may not bereadily available.

A CRP that ended in 2001 focused on howdecommissioning technology could be improved,adapted or optimized for the specific needs ofresearch reactors. Examples include the devel-opment or adoption of simpler decommissioningtechnologies in place of purchasing costly equip-ment, such as remote handling equipment. Oneobservation of the CRP was that there is now atrend towards early planning for decommission-ing. This was in contrast to the widespreadbelief in the past that resources required fordecommissioning would be readily availablewhenever needed. This resulted in inadequateplanning for decommissioning, including insuffi-

cient provision for the required infrastructure(e.g. the absence of decommissioning orientedregulations) or financial resources. Anotherissue was that despite the maturity of thenuclear decommissioning technology/industry,at least in developed countries, there were stillsome areas where more work was needed. Thus,technological developments were needed in thetreatment and disposal of decommissioningwastes, particularly medium and high activitymaterials. There is also a clear desire on thepart of individual Member States to developtheir own decommissioning technologies. This ispartly due to the need to understand the effectsof decommissioning under site specific condi-tions in order to satisfy the nuclear regulators,and partly because many processes are pro-prietary formulations that are expensive to buyon the open market. Achieving the properbalance between developing project and countryspecific technologies and purchasing technolo-gies in the open market remains a serious chal-lenge for many countries.

To help Member States improve systems,programmes and activities that support nuclearapplications and the fuel cycle, including thelegacy of past practices and accidents, theAgency established a new Directory of Radioac-tively Contaminated Sites (DRCS). It covers pastenvironmental contamination from the produc-tion and processing of nuclear materials,mining, milling, weapons testing, inadequatewaste management, and accidents involvingnuclear materials. Documentation was alsopublished describing the content, functionalityand conceptual layout of the DRCS.

Most Member States have to provide for the safemanagement of institutional radioactive waste,and many also have to manage naturally occur-ring radioactive material wastes and disusedradioactive sealed sources. ‘Management ofRadioactive Waste from Non-Power Applica-tions: Sharing the Experience’, an Agencyconference held in Malta in November, enabledStates without nuclear power programmes toshare information and learn from experiencegained in countries with nuclear power plants.The conference recommended enhanced co-oper-ation to solve technical, organizational andregulatory problems, and emphasized the role ofthe Agency in co-ordinating these efforts. In



particular, it was recommended the Agency:promote good practices for the management ofdifferent types of waste; encourage innovativetechnology development; organize training andprovide methodological support in the manage-ment of specific wastes; and set risk levels andstandards.

Thousands of tonnes of radioactive graphite andcarbon waste are by-products of the decommis-sioning of an entire generation of graphitemoderated nuclear power and research reactors.In addition, its high chemical stability makesirradiated graphite difficult to process for finaldisposal. An Agency study concluded that thewide variety of graphite forms, contaminationlevels and physical and chemical characteristicsdo not permit a universal solution for wasteprocessing and disposal. Management difficul-ties arise due to the large volume of contami-nated graphite and the presence of certainradionuclides (tritium and carbon-14). In addi-tion, high levels of Wigner energy stored in thegraphite lattice may lead to problems duringprocessing as well as disposal. On the positiveside, the good mechanical properties and rela-tively high chemical stability of graphite werenoted, permitting simplification of the wasteconditioning process. In the light of these facts,it was concluded that the processing anddisposal of graphite wastes need to be consid-ered on a case by case basis.

Many Member States are engaged in, or plan-ning, the near surface disposal of low and inter-mediate level waste, creating a need for infor-mation and guidance. The Agency has beenstudying the relevant technologies and issuesconcerning the development, siting, safety andperformance assessment, and implementationof disposal systems. Non-technical concerns,including socioeconomic, institutional, local andnational infrastructure, public policy, accept-ance and quality management issues have alsobeen addressed. Reports were completed on:Characterization of Groundwater Flow for NearSurface Disposal Facilities (IAEA-TECDOC-1199); Technical Considerations in the Design ofNear Surface Disposal Facilities for RadioactiveWaste (IAEA-TECDOC-1256); Procedures andTechniques for Closure of Near Surface DisposalFacilities for Radioactive Waste (IAEA-TECDOC-1260); and Performance of Engineered

Barrier Materials in Near Surface DisposalFacilities for Radioactive Waste (IAEA-TECDOC-1255).

The Agency has a particularly important role toplay in fostering co-operation, advancingresearch and building public confidence in theoverall science and technology of disposing highlevel, long lived radioactive wastes in deepgeological repositories. Underground researchlaboratories (URLs) have a central contributionto make to this effort. For three decades severalMember States have conducted extended exper-imental and demonstration programmes inURLs, providing valuable assessments of poten-tial disposal systems in various geological envi-ronments. In order to disseminate this informa-tion on a wider basis, the Agency published Useof Scientific and Technical Results from Under-ground Research Laboratory Investigations forthe Geological Disposal of Radioactive Waste(IAEA-TECDOC-1243). The opportunity toshare expertise, promote international consen-sus on geological disposal and expand expertisethrough training and hands-on experience inURLs was offered to the Agency by Belgium,Canada and the USA. These States have beendesignated as the founding members of the‘International Network of Centres of Excellencefor Demonstration and Training in GeologicalDisposal’, which was officially established by theAgency in 2001. The objective of the network isto facilitate the transfer and preservation ofknowledge and technologies, supplementnational efforts to resolve key technical issuesand promote public confidence in waste disposalschemes.

In the area of predisposal management of radio-active waste from nuclear applications, a newtraining programme in the quality managementof radioactive waste was initiated with anemphasis on quality assurance. The plan is toselect waste management facilities in differentregions that will host training sessions for wastemanagement operators and regulators.

One of the Agency’s major tasks is to assistMember States in rendering spent radiumsources safe. Such assistance was provided in2001 to Ethiopia, Indonesia, Lebanon, Philip-pines, Slovenia, Thailand, Zambia andZimbabwe. The Agency’s newly developed



‘International Catalogue of Sealed RadioactiveSources and Devices’ is an essential componentof this expert advice. The catalogue nowincludes basic technical data, design featuresand illustrations for more than 1800 radioactivesource models and 300 devices, as well as theaddress and company history of more than 900manufacturers and distributors. In addition,two technical documents were published insupport of these Agency advisory and assistanceprojects — Management for the Prevention ofAccidents from Disused Sealed RadioactiveSources (IAEA-TECDOC-1205) and WasteInventory Record Keeping Systems (WIRKS) forthe Management and Disposal of RadioactiveWaste (IAEA-TECDOC-1222).

Information collection and dissemination effortsincluded the release in July of the new ‘NetEnabled Waste Management Database’(NEWMDB), which contains waste managementinformation from correspondents nominated byMember States. Data have been collected onnational radioactive waste managementprogrammes and organizations, plans and activ-ities, relevant laws and regulations, policies andradio-active waste inventories.

The Contact Expert Group (CEG) for Interna-tional Co-operation in Radwaste Managementwith the Russian Federation — for which theAgency acts as the Secretariat — continued topromote and co-ordinate efforts to improve themanagement of spent nuclear fuel and radioac-tive waste. In 2001, several new projects wereinitiated. The first focuses on the Andreeva Bayex-navy technical base located on the northshore of the Kola Peninsula, which was used formore than 30 years to store radioactive wasteand spent nuclear fuel from submarines. About100 submarine reactor cores have been accumu-lated and stored in conditions that requireimprovement. In October, a CEG workshopreviewed Russian technical information anddeveloped project proposals that were formallyendorsed by the CEG in November, with negoti-ations on these projects starting thereafter.

Another project deals with the commissioning oftwo new installations for liquid radioactivewaste treatment, one at the Atomflot enterprisein Murmansk (built with the co-operation ofNorway and the USA), and the other at theZvezda plant near Vladivostok (built withJapanese assistance). These installations aredesigned to eliminate all radioactive releasesinto the sea during submarine decommission-ing. Other projects that have been endorsed bythe CEG include rehabilitation of theMurmansk RADON centre and construction of arepository for solid radioactive waste at theNovaya Zemlya Archipelago.

Agency technical co-operation projects aredesigned to enhance the organizational capabil-ities of Member States. This is of particularimportance for reactor decommissioning, whichis a multidisciplinary process requiring an inte-grated approach that makes optimum use ofnational and international resources. In thisregard, several projects achieved significantmilestones during the year. In Slovakia, theAgency provided expertise and training onremotely operated and robotic equipment fordecommissioning the A-1 nuclear power plant.Another project focused on developing plans andthe necessary infrastructure for decommission-ing Ukrainian WWERs. The Agency is alsoassisting Lithuania in planning for the decom-missioning of Unit 1 of the Ignalina nuclearpower plant. Through these projects informationand know-how on active decommissioning wastransferred to States planning decommissioningactivities. In addition, financial considerationsand other impacts of decommissioning werehighlighted.

Building capacity in Member States to manageradioactive waste is another important aspect ofthe Agency’s technical co-operation programme.A new project focuses on uranium mining inPortugal, studying numerous small mining andmilling sites as well as a former radium process-ing site. It will also assess and quantify thepotential environmental impacts of these sites.



COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT


To facilitate national and internationalcomparative assessments of full energy sourceto service chains, with the aim of supportingsustainable energy development. To explore therole of nuclear power for sustainable energysystem development and to assist MemberStates in making informed policy decisionsabout their future energy development.


• New methodological tools to aid in informed decision making were developed and distributed toMember States.

• Analytical reports were completed on the impact of competition on nuclear power, and on theimportance of nuclear power for environmental protection and greenhouse gas mitigation.

• Capacity building was promoted through the dissemination of methodologies, provision of train-ing and convening of information seminars for Member States.

• The Agency organized two information seminars at the Commission on SustainableDevelopment’s Ninth Session (CSD-9) (the first to address energy issues) and served as thesource of nuclear expertise at UN negotiations on energy, sustainable development and climatechange.




1. Energy Modelling, Databanks and CapacityBuilding: $1 240 847

2. Energy, Economy, Environment (3E) Analysis: $1 096 133

1

2

E N E R G Y M O D E L L I N G ,D A T A B A N K S A N D C A P A C I T YB U I L D I N G

The Agency provides the data, information andanalytical tools to support informed decisionmaking by Member States — particularly devel-oping Member States — on sustainable energydevelopment strategies, energy and environ-mental policies and investment decisions. TheEnergy and Economic Data Bank (EEDB), forexample, is a collection of time-series data for allMember States of the UN system with historicalinformation on energy and electricity productionand use, and the status of nuclear power atcountry, regional and global levels. It alsocontains medium and long term projections forenergy and electricity demand, as well asregional and global projections on nuclear powerdevelopment. Figure 1 shows the 2001 projec-tions using information from the EEDB. The lowprojection assumes only the completion of firmplans for new nuclear power plants or the retire-ment of old ones that have been announced bygovernments and companies. The high projec-tion reflects additional power plants that areincluded less firmly in government and companyplans, but are judged to be highly plausible by

expert meetings convened periodically by theAgency for this purpose.

In addition to data collection, the Agencyprovides a package of planning models, devel-oped (or adapted from models in industrializedcountries) to match the data availability condi-tions typical in developing Member States. Themodels are used to analyse alternativeapproaches to sustainable energy development(Table I). Although the package is very flexible

C O M PA R AT I V E A S S E S S M E N T F O R S U S TA I N A B L E E N E R G Y D E V E L O P M E N T


FIG. 1. Outlook for the global development of nuclearpower (source: Energy, Electricity and Nuclear PowerEstimates for the Period up to 2020, Reference DataSeries No. 1, IAEA, Vienna (2001)).

2000 2005 2010 2015 20200

100 000

200 000

300 000

400 000

500 000

600 000

Net

Cap

acit

y, M

W(e

)

Year

Agency estimates based on:Low: Firm plans announced by the Governments or utilities.High: Prospective plans by countries and experts’ judgement.

High

Low

TABLE I. AGENCY PLANNING MODELS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION

Type of package Description Releases toMember States

ENPEP Evaluates energy system development strategies 43

FINPLAN Assesses the financial viability of energy proposals,including cash flows and financial ratios 17

MAEDa Evaluates future energy needs based on development scenarios in a country or region 41

MESSAGE Formulates and evaluates alternative energy supply strategies for a country or region 10

Simpacts Estimates environmental impacts and costs using minimum data input 18

WASP Identifies the optimal long term expansion plan for a power generating system within constraints defined by the user 49

a MAED: Model for Analysis of Energy Demand.

and has been used in countries as diverse insize as Armenia and China, it needs regularupdating to remain abreast of both technologi-cal and institutional changes, including energymarket liberalization and stricter environmen-tal controls. An Advisory Group meeting atArgonne National Laboratory, USA, recom-mended upgrades to the user interfaces ofENPEP (Energy and Power EvaluationProgram), FINPLAN (Model for FinancialAnalysis of Electric Sector Expansion Plans)and MESSAGE (Model of Energy SupplySystems and General Environmental Impacts),extending ENPEP to include infrastructurecosts and adding features to FINPLAN to dealwith new high priority issues such as electricityimports and exports, and combined heat andpower plants. The improvements to ENPEP andFINPLAN were completed in 2001, as wasphase I of the MESSAGE improvements. Anupdated version of the WASP-IV (Wien Auto-matic System Planning Package) user’s manualwas also published.

During the year SIMPACTS — SimplifiedApproach for Estimating Environmental

Impacts and External Costs of ElectricityGeneration — was added to the Agency’s plan-ning model package. Developed principally fordeveloping Member States, SIMPACTS allowsdecision makers to make reasonable estimatesof environmental impacts and costs using aminimum amount of input data. The analysis issimple, transparent and user friendly. While notintended as a replacement for a detailed envi-ronmental impact assessment, SIMPACTS iscapable of producing results that are similar tothose obtained through such methods.Currently, there are four modules inSIMPACTS: AIRPACTS for quantifying theimpacts and costs of damage due to atmosphericemissions (Fig. 2); NUKPACTS for assessing thecollective doses and latent health effects fromthe routine operation of nuclear facilities andthe external costs due to accidents and wastedisposal; HYDROPACTS for calculating thedamage costs of hydropower dams resultingfrom resettling people due to flooding and lostland use; and ‘DAM’, a decision aiding modelpermitting multi-criteria policy analysis. Allfour modules were externally peer reviewed in2001. A CRP was also completed that success-



LE +FSI: life extension + retrofitting of furnace sorbent injection SO2 control.

LE+FGD: life extension + flue gas desulphurization + low NOx burners.

FBC boiler: fluidized bed combustion boilers.

Repwr/GT: repowering with gas turbine.

Fuel switch: coal � coal+gas.

CCGT: combined cycle gas turbine.

IGCC: integrated gasification combined cycle.

FIG. 2. Comparison, using AIRPACTS, of the costs of different emission abatement options and health damagecosts per tonne of SO2 for the Ostrołęka power plant in Poland.

Emission abatement cost Damage cost

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

LE+FSI LE+FGD FBC boiler Repwr/GT Fuel switch CCGT IGCC

Co

st (

euro

/to

nn

e S

O2)

Chronic mortalityChronic morbidityAcute effects

fully field tested SIMPACTS for applicabilityover a wide range of external cost questions. TheAgency has begun to use SIMPACTS in its ownanalytical work. For example, in co-operationwith the World Bank, the Agency completed apreliminary assessment in Belarus of the exter-nal costs due to environmental damages fromthe Chernobyl accident. The project focusedprimarily on assessing the agricultural, forestand water resource sectors, the need for addi-tional monitoring, and especially the effects ofagricultural countermeasures on the health andenvironmental impacts of exposure to caesium-137 from the 1986 Chernobyl accident.

Agenda 21, which was agreed at the 1992 ‘EarthSummit’ in Rio de Janeiro and is the subject ofthe August 2002 World Summit on SustainableDevelopment (WSSD) in Johannesburg, calls on“Countries at the national level and interna-tional governmental and non-governmentalorganizations at the international level [to]develop the concept of indicators of sustainabledevelopment...” The Indicators for SustainableEnergy Development (ISED) that the Agencyhas subsequently developed are designed to helpnational policy makers assess and monitor thecontribution of energy to sustainable develop-ment in their countries, the impacts of energy onenvironment, economic and social development,and the inter-relationship between these issues.Other agencies that have formally affiliatedthemselves with ISED include the OECD Inter-national Energy Agency, the UN Department ofEconomic and Social Affairs and the UNEconomic Commission for Europe. In April2001, the Agency reported on phase I of thisproject at CSD-9, in New York. Phase I involveda review of the indicator sets and statistics inthe energy field, development of a set of 41 indi-cators and field testing of these indicators.Phase II, starting in 2002, involves streamliningthe ISED package and its introduction into thestatistical regimes of the Member States of thevarious sponsoring agencies. Part of this effortwill take place under the aegis of a CRP.

Building capacity in Member States and provid-ing technical assistance are two major objectivesof the Agency’s programme in ComparativeAssessment for Sustainable Energy Develop-ment. And technical co-operation projects areone of the means for achieving these goals. In a

regional project for Asia, 11 Member Statesreceived assistance in carrying out studies onthe role for nuclear power and other energyoptions in their countries. Similar projects inSub-Saharan Africa and in Eastern Europe arehelping to build local capabilities for addressingsustainable development issues in nationalenergy policies, thereby contributing to progresson Agenda 21.

E N E R G Y , E C O N O M Y , E N V I R O N -M E N T ( 3 E ) A N A L Y S I S

To supplement assistance to Member States andto support the studies they may carry out inde-pendently, the Agency provides analyses ofcurrent topics and concerns, with a strong focuson issues relating to economics and competition,environment and climate change, and sustain-able development. As part of this work it seeksto reach out to a broad international audienceon the role for nuclear energy in increasinglycompetitive markets, in mitigating potentialclimate change and in helping to achievesustainable development. In this regard, a CRPthat ended in 2001 focused on establishingappropriate methodologies and developing suit-able analytical tools for Member Statesanalysing the potential contributions of variousenergy technologies to greenhouse gas (GHG)reductions. Country studies were carried out,each examining a wide range of reduction possi-bilities at both the national and regional levels.Figure 3, for example, shows the projectedextent of avoidance of GHG emissions bynuclear power in the USA for three scenarioswith different assumptions about the retire-ment, life extension and new additions ofnuclear power plants. The results of thesenational studies were also used by some coun-tries directly in official communications to theUnited Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCCC).

The Agency also participated in several key UNactivities in 2001 in the fields of sustainabledevelopment, environment and climate change.In the ‘Third Assessment Report’, published in2001 by the Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change (IPCC), the Agency contributedto the report of Working Group III, ‘Mitigation’,which concluded that nuclear power plants have



the highest potential for GHG mitigation in theenergy sector, and abatement costs that areamong the lowest (see Tables A4–A7 in theAnnex).

In addition, as the expert body on nuclearscience and technology within the UN family, theAgency has an important role as an informationsource on nuclear energy for Member Statesinvolved in ongoing UN negotiations in the CSDand the Conference of the Parties (COP) to theUNFCCC. CSD-9 was the first session of theCSD to specifically focus on energy. The Agencyprepared background information on nuclearenergy and organized two information events —one on ISED (described above) and the other onissues central to the debate surrounding nuclearenergy’s role in sustainable development.

Two outcomes from CSD-9 are significant fornuclear energy. First, the parties agreed todisagree on nuclear energy’s role in sustainabledevelopment. The final text noted that somecountries see nuclear energy as a substantialcontributor to sustainable development, whileothers consider the two to be fundamentallyinconsistent. The second significant outcomewas unanimous agreement that, “the choice ofnuclear energy rests with countries”.

The Agency was also present at the 2001 meet-ings of the UNFCCC COP — COP-6 Part 2, in

Bonn in July, and COP-7, in Marrakesh inNovember. The latter meeting (dubbed the“Marrakesh Accords”) was successful in reach-ing agreement on implementation rules for theKyoto Protocol. For nuclear energy this was animportant step forward since it produces virtu-ally no GHGs and currently avoids 7–8% ofglobal GHG emissions. However, except for avery few instances, there have been no restric-tions or taxes on GHG emissions and thus noeconomic value to their avoidance. The KyotoProtocol is the world’s only currently operativeroute towards widespread, co-ordinated restric-tions on GHG emissions. Thus, the MarrakeshAccords represent a significant step towardsattaching a tangible economic value to nuclearpower’s avoidance of such emissions. However,much of the nuclear industry and the pressfocused on the Marrakesh Accords’ exclusion ofnuclear projects from two of the three flexiblemechanisms in the Kyoto Protocol, namely joint implementation and the clean develop-ment mechanism (the third mechanism isemissions trading). This exclusion reduces costeffectiveness and does not advance theessential UNFCCC objective of stabilizing“greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmos-phere at a level that would prevent dangerousanthropogenic interference with the climatesystem”.

In order to ensure that nuclear power is given afull and fair hearing in the sustainable energydebate, the Agency conducts studies comparingnuclear power with non-nuclear alternatives. In2001, the Agency’s analyses of the economicfuture of nuclear power in competitive marketscovered an assessment of technology learningneeds and experience in the nuclear industry,and the implications for future market growth.This work included an overview of future energymarkets, including alternative scenarios fordevelopment and niche markets for nuclearpower. It also included an assessment of thepotential contribution of nuclear energy in afuture hydrogen economy.



FIG. 3. Projected GHG offsets by nuclear power in theUSA.

0

50

100

150

200

2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018

High nuclear Reference nuclear Low nuclear

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ion

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es C

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.

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE


To enhance capacities at national and inter-national levels for identifying and alleviatingconstraints to sustainable food security byfacilitating the development and adoption ofnuclear and related biotechnologies.


• The 1964 Arrangements between the Directors General of FAO and the Agency for the JointFAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture (which plans and implementsthe food and agriculture programme at the Agency) were revised to enhance their effectiveness.The main features of the new Arrangements include redefinition of the responsibilities of theJoint Division and establishment of a steering committee composed of representatives from thetwo organizations to oversee the programme’s direction and implementation, and review staffand strategic issues.

• Significant achievements were made in applying radiation and isotopic techniques in research,leading to the optimization of water and nutrient use by plants, and ultimately ensuring sustain-able crop and livestock productivity and environmental preservation.

• To support human capacity building and technology transfer, standard operating and good labo-ratory procedures, manuals and guidelines were developed for use by Member State scientistsand technicians. Self-reliance at the national and regional levels was also promoted.



(not included in chart): $2 214 614

1. Soil and Water Management and Crop Nutrition: $2 076 245

2. Plant Breeding and Genetics: $1 705 0673. Animal Production and Health: $1 701 9414. Insect and Pest Control: $2 609 0235. Food and Environmental Protection:

$1 583 318

1

2

3

4

5

S O I L A N D W A T E R M A N A G E -M E N T A N D C R O P N U T R I T I O N

Soil organic matter, which is a key component ofsoil fertility, is concentrated in the surface soiland is rapidly lost under tropical conditionsthrough accelerated oxidation due to conven-tional cultivation practices under hot, moistconditions, as well as through water erosionprocesses. This rapid loss can be arrestedthrough appropriate soil conservation measuresthat include retention of crop residues. A CRPcompleted during the year supported nationalefforts in 11 Member States to identify manage-ment options for crop residues for sustainableagricultural production and environmentalpreservation in a wide range of soils and crop-ping systems. Various options for the recyclingof crop residues that are sustainable andeconomically attractive to farmers were exam-ined using isotopic techniques. The value ofsimple practices using wheat and rice residuesto produce compost as an alternative to stubbleburning was demonstrated. Such practices canhave important implications apart from thedesired maintenance of soil organic matter andimproving plant growth. For example, millionsof tonnes of rice and wheat straw are burntannually worldwide, causing atmospheric pollu-tion and producing large quantities of carbondioxide, a greenhouse gas. In addition, variousgaseous forms of nitrogen are emitted duringburning, representing a loss of fertilizer equiva-lents and significant pollution of the environ-ment by nitrous oxide.

Soil erosion and associated sediment depositionare natural landscape forming processes thatcan be accelerated by such human interventionsas deforestation, overgrazing, excessive tillageand other non-sustainable farming practices.Recognizing erosion as a serious threat tosustainable agricultural production and henceglobal food security, the Agency formed twointernational research networks — throughCRPs — involving 25 Member States, to developstandardized methodologies for measuring soilredistribution at the catchment level. The stud-ies resulted in a validated and cost effectivetechnique, based on the fallout radionuclidecaesium-137, that provides spatially distributedand time integrated estimates of soil erosionand sedimentation rates in a wide range of envi-

ronments and scales worldwide. In addition,institutional capacity in the various MemberStates for conducting applied research on soilerosion has been greatly enhanced. Standard-ized protocols and methodologies for the use ofthe caesium-137 technique have paved the wayfor field testing of strategies to control soilerosion, and to obtain a better understanding ofthe relationships between rates of soil loss andsoil and water quality, soil carbon and nutrientredistribution, and the fate of agrochemicalsand related contaminants in the landscape.

Human resources development is an importantservice provided by the Agency to MemberStates through its CRPs and the technical co-operation programme. The Agency’s Laborato-ries at Seibersdorf provided training in totalnitrogen and nitrogen-15 isotope analyses of soiland plant materials and associated qualityassurance procedures. Fellowship training wasprovided to scientists on radiation and isotopemethods to monitor flows and the balance ofnutrients and water in cropping systems. Tosupport human resources development activi-ties, a new training manual, Use of Isotope andRadiation Methods in Soil and Water Manage-ment and Crop Nutrition, was published.

P L A N T B R E E D I N G A N D G E N E T I C S

Global banana production, which totals around95 million tonnes per year and ranks fourthafter cereals, is threatened by many pests anddiseases such as Black Sigatoka, Fusarium wilt,nematodes and viruses. Among the achieve-ments of a recently concluded CRP on cellularbiology and biotechnology, including mutationtechniques, for the creation of new usefulbanana genotypes were the generation andscreening in Cuba, Malaysia, Philippines andSri Lanka of a series of mutants for desirabletraits such as early flowering, reduced height,large fruit size and tolerance to Fusarium.‘Novaria’ — a banana mutant variety derivedfrom mutation induction of ‘Grande Naine’ withimproved traits such as early flowering, shortstature, high yield potential and good flavour —was released in Malaysia. Further break-throughs included: identification of methods forthe analysis of karyological stability using a

F O O D A N D AG R I C U LT U R E


DNA flow cytometer; early screening of Fusar-ium wilt disease; a selection system againstBlack Sigatoka disease; and a screening tech-nique for nematode resistance. Significantadvances were also made in the application ofmolecular marker and cytogenetic techniquesfor the detection of different genomes of Musa,and in the genetic stability of micropropagatedbanana plants. Finally, the CRP helped severalyoung researchers in receiving advanceddegrees in Belgium, the Czech Republic andIsrael.

A technical co-operation project in Viet Nam ledto the development of a new and improvedsaline tolerant rice mutant, CM6, with anattractive long grain and a higher yield of 3–4.5tonnes per hectare. The market price for thislong grain variety is about one and a half timeshigher than the price of the currently availablesalinity tolerant rice mutant variety CM1. Inaddition, a number of mutant varieties,produced through other technical co-operationprojects were officially released (see Table I).

Molecular markers are rapidly being adopted byplant breeders as effective and appropriate toolsfor accelerating the breeding process. In order tointroduce new and promising marker tech-

niques to Member States, a new trainingprogramme was developed. The first interre-gional course in this programme, on mutantgermplasm characterization using molecularmarkers, was held at the Agency’s Laboratoriesat Seibersdorf.

Free access to crop mutants is essential for theirwidespread use in locations other than theirorigin of development. Moreover, mutants havebecome valuable tools in functional genomicsand proteomics. An FAO/IAEA MutantGermplasm Repository was set up at theAgency’s Laboratories at Seibersdorf with theaim of collecting and freely distributing mutantgermplasm to researchers. An Internet accessi-ble database was also developed to promote theexchange of germplasm from donors to recipi-ents in Member States (http://www.iaea.org/programmes/nafa/navig/index.html).

A N I M A L P R O D U C T I O N A N D H E A L T H

Efficient and robust disease diagnostic tools areessential for any disease control or eradicationprogramme. In 2001, the production anddevelopment of animal disease diagnostic kits



TABLE I. MUTANT VARIETIES OF PLANTS RELEASED BY THE AGENCY IN 2001

Country Crop/ornamental plant Name of mutant variety Changed character

Mali Sorghum Fambe, Tiedjan, Gnome Increased yield, lodging

resistance, improved grain

quality, disease (striga)

resistance

Egypt Sesame Taka 1, Taka 2, Taka 3, Tushki, Disease and insect

Shandawill 3 resistance

Malaysia Orchid (Dendrobium) Sonia Keena Ahmad Sobri Diamond shaped petals

Oysterplant Sobrii Creamy leaf stripes

(Tradescantia spathacea)

Thailand Moss Rose (Portulaca grandiflora) KU1, KU2, KU3 Flower colour

Canna (Canna x generalis) Pink Peeranuch, Yellow Arunee, Flower colour

Cream Prapanpongse, Orange Siranut

based on nuclear technologies was consolidatedin Africa. For the first time animal healthauthorities in Africa have regional access to kitsfor the diagnosis of African Swine Fever, RiftValley Fever, brucellosis and rinderpest.Through state of the art technology utilizing abacculo-virus expression system that can inex-pensively generate highly specific diagnosticreagents, the national veterinary laboratory inDakar, Senegal, has distributed rinderpest diag-nostic kits to some 34 African countries. Simi-larly, kits for African Swine Fever are now beingdistributed by the same laboratory. Althoughrequiring further validation, the technologyitself is proving appropriate and applicable tothe developing country situation. Linked to theuse of another biotechnology, the polymerasechain reaction (PCR), African scientists nowhave a regional capacity to both rapidly diag-nose and accurately characterize the majordiseases of their livestock. Produced locally, butbased on training and technology providedthrough the Joint FAO/IAEA programme in foodand agriculture and Agency technical co-opera-tion activities, this capacity will considerablyassist national governments in more effectivelycombating livestock diseases in the region.

A major constraint to increasing livestockproductivity in developing countries is thescarcity and fluctuating quantity and quality ofthe year round supply of conventional feeds.Trees and shrubs form the most abundantsource of protein in nature. However, theamounts of tannins that they contain varywidely, are largely unpredictable and haveadverse effects on animals ranging fromdecreased nutrient utilization to toxicity anddeath. With a better understanding of tanninproperties and proper management, leaves fromtrees and shrubs could become an invaluablesource of protein for strategic supplementation.As the demand for food rises, tanniniferousplants must play an increasingly important partin the diet of animals, in particular for rumi-nants in smallholder subsistence farming indeveloping countries. In studies conductedunder a CRP, it was found that seven tanninassays are required to predict the nutritionalvalue of tannin containing forages. The use ofthese assays, including the radiolabelled bovineserum albumin method for predicting the biolog-ical effects of feeding tannin containing leaves,

together with the new method for hydrolysabletannins developed in this CRP, provide thenecessary momentum to the efforts being madeby a number of international organizations todevelop strategies to effectively utilize the vastresource of protein in the form of trees andbrowses as livestock feed.

I N S E C T A N D P E S T C O N T R O L

As the interest of the private sector in the appli-cation of the sterile insect technique (SIT)increases, there is a need for guarantees thatsterile insects will continue to be safely andlegally shipped. In response, a ‘scenario analy-sis’ technique was used to quantify the potentialrisks involved in the transboundary shipment ofsterile insects for pest control programmes. Thisanalysis was the basis for the development of adraft international standard that was submittedfor consideration to the Interim Commission onPhytosanitary Measures (ICPM), the governingbody for the International Plant ProtectionConvention (IPPC). Harmonized guidance onregulating the shipment of sterile insects willfacilitate trade, while addressing any concernsabout shipment of what could be quarantinepest species.

Fruit flies cause very significant fruit losses, butthey are also of major quarantine significanceinternationally, interfering with the trans-boundary trade in fresh fruits and vegetables.There are no international guidelines on fruit flymonitoring, with importing countries establish-ing different and changing monitoring require-ments to determine low fly prevalence or fly freestatus. At the request of Member States, guide-lines on fruit fly monitoring were developed.These guidelines are now being used to facilitatethe international trade in fruit commoditiesamong Member States.

An International Database on Insect Disinfesta-tion and Sterilization (IDIDAS) was developedto compile information on a species basis forboth disinfestation (trade and quarantine) andsterilization (SIT). IDIDAS, which fills a gap inthe current knowledge base, adds value to exist-ing information by performing a quality assur-ance check on existing data and by making theinformation more accessible.



Considerable progress was made in developingSIT for the date moth, a serious pest in NorthAfrica. Following a ban on the use of insecti-cides, the Government of Tunisia embarked on aprogramme to reduce infestation rates in datesusing biological control methods including SIT.The introduction of an artificial larval diet andoviposition system through a CRP and a techni-cal co-operation project increased the productionlevel in the rearing unit to one million adultmoths per week. In addition, a chilled mothdispersal device was developed and tested. Thepheromone lure used to monitor adult malemoths was synthesized, and tests on the effi-ciency and stability of different formulationswere carried out in the field.

In response to an outbreak of tsetse transmittedanimal trypanosomosis a few years ago, and toreduce the fear of a resurgence of sleeping sick-ness in tourist areas of the Okavango Delta, theGovernment of Botswana initiated a series ofsequential aerosol spraying operations in thenorthern part of the delta, to be followed even-tually by the use of SIT as a permanent solution.A regional technical co-operation project was setup to support Botswana’s integrated, area wideprogramme for tsetse and trypanosomosiscontrol and eradication. The key component ofthis support is the establishment of mass rearedcolonies of Glossina morsitans centralis at insec-taries of collaborating institutions for the supplyof sufficient sterile males for aerial releases.

With the objective of reducing insecticide use incitrus production for export markets, a massrearing facility for the Mediterranean fruit fly(medfly) capable of producing 12 million sterilemales per week was constructed in Sidi Thabet,Tunisia, in the framework of a technical co-oper-ation project. This followed the agreement of theTunisian Ministry of Agriculture and the fruitindustry to participate in the project and under-take field activities. The national Atomic EnergyAuthority is responsible for sterile fly produc-tion. A trapping network has been set up in theCap Bon Peninsula, the main commercial citrusproduction area, for the collection of field data.

All medfly SIT field programmes require thatthe released flies are marked with a fluorescentdye so that they can be distinguished from wildinsects following their release. However, the

reliability of this procedure can be compromised,leading to misidentification of flies. In addition,the screening of many thousands of individualflies on a daily basis under a fluorescent micro-scope is extremely labour intensive. A geneticmarker called ‘Sargent’ that produces an extrastripe on the fly was developed as a replacementfor the fluorescent dye. Field cage tests in 2001to assess mating competitiveness produced goodresults and the marker is now being massreared.

Several components of medfly SIT implementa-tion may be improved by the ability to introducegenes into the insect by way of transgenic tech-nology. This technology is now available for themedfly and, following collaboration with theUnited States Department of Agriculture, aseries of transgenic medfly lines were gener-ated. These are marked with a fluorescentprotein and are being used to monitor keyaspects of strain stability and fitness in relationto the use of transgenic technology in SIT.

The extensive use of field cages in the qualityassurance of mass produced fruit flies hasencouraged its use in tsetse. Field cage testswere carried out to evaluate the effect of variousradiation and handling procedures of the matingability of mass reared tsetse. In addition,mating compatibility assessment of differentpopulations of the same species of tsetse werecarried out. The field cage system appears to beeminently suitable as a quality control proce-dure for tsetse. Standard operating protocols forthis quality assurance procedure, as well as forall the other procedures involved in tsetse massrearing, have been prepared.

F O O D A N D E N V I R O N M E N T A LP R O T E C T I O N

The Agency has assisted in the development ofinternational standards and analytical capacitybuilding to ensure the safety and quality of foodin international trade. A notable advance in thisrespect was the progress made in the proposed‘Revised Draft Codex General Standard for Irra-diated Foods’ at the 24th session of the CodexAlimentarius Commission, held in July. TheCommission also accepted a proposed draft‘International Code of Practice for Radiation



Processing’. Adoption of the revised CodexGeneral Standards for Irradiated Foods, with nomaximum limit on absorbed dose, by theCommission at its 2003 session will bolsterconsumer confidence and facilitate internationaltrade. It would also harmonize regulations onirradiation as a food process in Member States.In addition, ‘Guidelines for the Single Labora-tory Validation of Analytical Methods for TraceLevel Concentrations of Organic Chemicals’were endorsed by the Codex Committee forMethods of Analysis and Sampling at its 23rdsession in February. The guidelines were thenincorporated into the good laboratory practicesdocument by the 33rd session of the CodexCommittee on Pesticide Residues in April. It isexpected that it will be adopted as a Codex Stan-dard at the 25th session of the Codex Alimen-tarius Commission in 2003.

On the basis of data generated by CRPs, andrecognizing the potential of irradiation for elim-inating insect pests of quarantine importancein fresh horticultural commodities in interna-tional trade, the third session of the ICPM, thestandard setting body of the IPPC, agreed todevelop an international standard on irradia-tion as a phytosanitary treatment. An IPPCWorking Group for this purpose was convenedin November and a draft international standardwas developed for further elaboration by theICPM. A Guideline on Certification of FoodIrradiated other than for PhytosanitaryPurposes, drafted earlier by food control offi-cials and plant quarantine officials in Asia andthe Pacific, was endorsed for submission to theCodex Alimentarius Commission for its consid-eration.

Having completed its mandate of developingpolicy guidelines for the Agency, FAO and WHO,the International Consultative Group on Food

Irradiation (ICGFI) decided at its 18th annualmeeting in Rome in October to phase out itsactivities by May 2004. A new organization withthe strong involvement of the private sector,especially the food industry, and with emphasison the implementation of irradiation as amethod to enhance food safety, security andtrade, is expected to succeed ICGFI.

To strengthen agricultural countermeasures inthe event of nuclear accidents, simple androbust methods for analysing the uptake ofradionuclides from specific soil types and fordetermining radionuclide transfer factors inmodel plants were developed through a CRP. Inaddition, a new CRP on the introduction of qual-ity assurance/quality control principles in theanalysis of pesticide products was initiated. TheCRP is expected to facilitate the control of pesti-cide products by elaborating a multi-analyteprocedure that is more cost effective and simplerto implement for Member States.

Mycotoxins are a group of naturally and biologi-cally active substances that are toxic to humansand animals and are not widely regulated ininternational trade. To help national foodcontrol authorities in developing countries tostrengthen their analytical capacity for myco-toxin assessment in food and feed, a regionalFAO–IAEA–WHO training workshop was heldin Cairo in December 2001. The emphasis of theworkshop was to develop quality assuranceprocedures for mycotoxin analysis to enablenational food control laboratories to meet safetyrequirements in the international food trade.The workshop provided the participants withthe criteria and tools for meeting ISO 17025requirements, which is a necessary step in seek-ing accreditation in mycotoxin analysis so thattheir results are accepted by regulatory agenciesand their trading partners.



HUMAN HEALTH


To enhance the capabilities of developingMember States to address important healthproblems through the development and appli-cation of nuclear and related techniques inareas where they confer advantages in compar-ison with conventional techniques or by them-selves constitute the conventional technique.


• Medical services were developed to detect and manage infectious diseases through in vivo and invitro nuclear medicine techniques.

• The initial phase of the first thematic CRP in nuclear medicine was completed.

• Analyses and projects were directed at the evaluation of the economics of the radiation therapyof cancer.

• A new instrumentation Code of Practice for dosimetry was developed and published.

• Stable isotope techniques for the prevention of degenerative disease were applied.




1. Nuclear Medicine: $1 636 6142. Applied Radiation Biology and Radiotherapy:

$710 6973. Dosimetry and Medical Radiation Physics:

$1 429 2404. Nutritional and Health Related Environmental

Studies: $1 733 744

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N U C L E A R M E D I C I N E

A priority during the year was the developmentof diagnostic methods and treatment proce-dures for coronary artery disease, liver cancer,thyroid cancer, bacterial infection, and infec-tious and childhood diseases. For example, atoxicology study of rhenium-188 Lipiodol forthe treatment of liver cancer was completedafter holding workshops in Colombia, Singa-pore and Viet Nam. The study formed theinitial part of the Agency’s first ‘thematic CRP’in nuclear medicine, launched in 2000, onmanaging liver cancer using radionuclidemethods with a special emphasis on trans-arte-rial radioconjugate therapy and internaldosimetry. The key feature of a thematic CRPis the pairing of an identical number ofresearch agreement and research contractholders, with each pair supervising a researchfellow working towards a doctorate or similaradvanced degree in the same area as the CRP.The main benefit is to broaden the base ofresearch in the area under study. Under thisnew CRP, ten researchers from ten developingcountries are pursuing post-graduate trainingand education.

Tele-imaging and tele-maintenance via theInternet are innovative and cost effective meth-ods of linking and repairing nuclear medicineimaging systems (such as gamma cameras andsingle photon emission computed tomography(SPECT) imaging) in developing countries. Thefirst trial of the new technology was conductedwith the linking of 38 gamma cameras andSPECT systems at various sites in Africa, andin Bolivia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Myanmar, Slove-nia and Sri Lanka. Making full use of theexpertise in these countries, this promisingtechnology resulted in the repair of 12 gammacameras and SPECT systems without the needfor expert service missions, and a significantreduction in the downtime of these vitalmedical diagnostic instruments from severalmonths to several days. This scheme hasprompted WHO to seek the Agency’s expertisefor quality control and personnel trainingefforts, and for the coverage of medical instru-ments in general.

A critical part of the Agency’s human healthprogramme is the application of nuclear and

related techniques in the treatment of cancerand infectious diseases. A regional technical co-operation project successfully applied animmunoradiometric assay of the hepatitis Cantibody in Latin America that resulted in thescreening of 18 691 subjects and the detection of270 positive cases. Another project producedindigenous, high quality antibodies to alpha-fetoprotein for the detection of liver cancer. Thisproject was carried out in co-operation withAlgeria, Argentina, Brazil, Egypt, India, Indone-sia, Malaysia and Mongolia. And a projectinvolving a regional screening network forneonatal hypothyroidism in East Asia resultedin the rescue of 360 babies from mental retarda-tion out of a total of 1.3 million babies that werescreened. To sustain local expertise in the appli-cation of radioimmunoassay to neonatal screen-ing, interactive multimedia teaching softwarewas developed. In Africa, 77 682 tests for thedetection of tumour markers were carried out in17 countries. The number of cancer casesdetected/monitored was significant, rangingfrom 24 to 50% of the patients investigated. Theproject also contributed to the training of 20clinical laboratory science graduates in tumourmarker assays.

The Agency seeks to maximize the impact of itsactivities by working with other internationalorganizations working in the same area. Oneinstance involved WHO and the transfer ofmolecular isotope based tests to Member States.For example, tests for the detection of drugresistant malaria and tuberculosis (TB) werevalidated. With these tests results can beobtained in two to three days as opposed toconventional methods that take 28 days formalaria and a minimum of five weeks for TB.Practical use was made of this technology inMali where, during an epidemic, results werequickly provided to the control programmemanager showing 75% resistance to the anti-malarial drug chloroquine and none to Fansidar.The latter was used for effective control of theepidemic. In Latin America, similar technologywas used to establish less invasive diagnosis oftegumentary leishmaniasis. An antibody basedtest suitable for screening for Chagas’ disease inblood banks using an optimal mixture of recom-binant antigens resulted in improved diagnosticaccuracy as compared with conventional sero-logy.

H U M A N H E A LT H


A P P L I E D R A D I A T I O N B I O L O G YA N D R A D I O T H E R A P Y

Several analyses and projects were directed atthe evaluation of the economics of radiationtherapy of cancer. It became evident that highdose rate brachytherapy technology hasexpanded rapidly in Member States, with aconcomitant reduction in low dose rate for mostapplications.

Models to derive the cost of cancer treatmentusing brachytherapy and cobalt and Linacteletherapy in different countries were devel-oped and implemented. These take into accountthe utilization of the equipment, the salaries ofall personnel, building costs and the duration ofa working day to derive a cost per treatmentusing any of these modalities.

A randomized clinical trial of the treatment ofcervical cancer using a new radiation sensitizerversus radiotherapy alone was concluded involv-ing 333 patients from four countries. The studydemonstrated a significant improvement in thecontrol rate and survival in patients whoreceived the hypoxic cell sensitizer at the sametime as radiotherapy. This is the first positiveresult reported with this group of sensitizers.

D O S I M E T R Y A N D M E D I C A LR A D I A T I O N P H Y S I C S

The Agency is the only organization thatprovides for developing Member States a link tointernational standards for measuring radiationand the quality assurance techniques necessaryfor the calibration of radiation therapymachines and industrial radiation facilities (seeBox 1).

With regard to international standards for radi-ation measurements, the Code of Practice (CoP)for dosimetry based on direct calibration usingstandards of absorbed dose to water, developedand published by the Agency in 2000 as Techni-cal Reports Series No. 398, was endorsed byWHO, PAHO and ESTRO. In addition, severalcountries adopted it as the basis for their deter-mination of absorbed dose to water, making itthe only internationally accepted CoP. Previ-ously, codes for dosimetry were based on stan-dards of air kerma, which introduced a layer ofcomplication that became unnecessary whenPrimary Standards Dosimetry Laboratoriesbegan disseminating radiation measurementstandards of absorbed dose to water determinedcalorimetrically. Secondary Standards Dosi-metry Laboratories in Member States will



BOX 1. HELPING MEMBER STATES TO MAINTAIN QUALITY ASSURANCE IN RADIATIONTREATMENT PLANNING SYSTEMS

Medical physicists from the Agency participated in the investigation of two serious incidents involving theoverexposure of patients undergoing radiation treatment for cancer. In the first incident, in Panama, thesystem used to plan radiotherapy treatments gave an incorrect value of the calculated exposure timewhich was not checked by manual calculation. Of the 28 overexposed patients, 12 subsequently died. Inorder to assist Member States with the commissioning and quality assurance of their treatment planningsystems, a meeting utilizing the services of consultants was convened to establish guidelines for the useof Agency experts conducting on-site review visits for such systems. In the second incident, whichoccurred in Poland, an electrical power outage appears to have precipitated multiple failures of a linearaccelerator involving both its beam output monitor and its safety interlock system. Unfortunately, theresulting large increase in beam output was not detected prior to resuming patient therapy. This resultedin the overexposure of five patients. The Agency’s role was to investigate the cause of such incidents inorder to inform users of similar equipment of the inherent dangers involved. ■

benefit by having access to a system of dosime-try that is inherently simpler than earlier ones.

In the area of industrial applications, 20% of the50 cobalt-60 beam audits that were performedfor Member States through the InternationalDose Assurance Service (IDAS) exceeded theacceptance limit of 5%, indicating the impor-tance of this service. At the request of FAO,eight cobalt-60 beam calibrations were checkedusing IDAS dosimeters for participants of a CRPon the quality assurance of mass produced andreleased fruit flies. This assistance in dosimetricmeasurements will help the participants tostandardize their irradiation technique.

The IAEA/WHO thermoluminescence dosimetry(TLD) postal dose audit service monitored thecalibration of more than 400 radiotherapybeams at hospitals worldwide. The dosimeterreturn rate exceeded 95%, indicating a signifi-cant commitment to the service, but 20% of theresults exceeded the 5% acceptance limit.Historically, it has been observed that as labora-tories participate in the service, their overallperformance improves, pointing to the value ofthis service for Member States.

N U T R I T I O N A L A N D H E A L T HR E L A T E D E N V I R O N M E N T A LS T U D I E S

The first thematic CRP on nutrition on isotopicand complementary tools for the study ofmicronutrient status and interactions in devel-oping country populations exposed to multiplenutritional deficiencies was launched. The aimis to devise approaches for a sustainable focuson micronutrient malnutrition in chronicallymalnourished populations by evaluatingmicronutrient interactions, and to supportcapacity building in the area of food and nutri-tion in developing countries. Eight doctoralfellows will be able to acquire higher leveldegrees in food and nutrition as a result of thisCRP.

A CRP that ended in 2001 studied the use ofstable isotopic techniques in the prevention ofdegenerative diseases (obesity and ‘non-insulindependent diabetes’) in developing countries.

Important results of this CRP were the estab-lishment of standard protocols for body composi-tion and physical activity measurements, andthe suggestion to use total body fat distributionpatterns as predictors of the evolution of insulinresistance syndrome.

The doubly labelled water technique for investi-gating human body composition was furtherrefined in a CRP that studied measurements ofdietary energy intakes in women and men. Theresults of this CRP, together with those obtainedfrom a regional Latin American technical co-operation project, contributed to the formulationof new recommendations by the JointWHO–FAO–United Nations University ExpertConsultation on Energy in Human Nutrition.These recommendations are, for the first time,based on measured data on energy metabolismin children and adult populations from develop-ing countries.

A technical co-operation project provided guid-ance to Senegal, for its national nutrition plancampaign, on the use of isotopic methods toquantify the transfer of breast milk from themother to the baby. The results are being usedto optimize planning for food supplements forthe baby that is being weaned. In another tech-nical co-operation project, measurement of theeffectiveness of multinutrient supplementationwas undertaken in several Asian countries.Regional training courses, group training and aworkshop for policy makers were key activitiesin this project. In particular, the results fromstudies on wheat flour (in Indonesia) helpedpolicy makers and industry to choose the bestfortificant(s) for greater effectiveness of nationalprogrammes.

In the area of environmental health, a CRPassessed the levels and health effects of airborneparticulate matter (APM) in the mining, metalrefining and metal working industries usingnuclear and related analytical techniques. As aresult, strategies and techniques were devel-oped for sampling work place APM and humantissues and/or fluids. In related work, a regionaltechnical co-operation project for Latin Americagenerated reliable compositional data sets forthe PM10 (particulate matter of 10 micrometrediameter) and PM

2.5fractions of APM in Buenos

Aires, São Paulo, Santiago de Chile and Mexico



City, all of which suffer from high levels of airpollution. The levels of toxic heavy metals wereaccurately determined during critical (cold, hot,dry and humid) periods of the year.

The Agency’s database on Natural MatrixReference Materials (http://www.iaea.org/programmes/nahunet/e4/nmrm/index.htm)was updated and now contains over 26 000values (mass fraction or concentration) for 750different measurements and 2163 referencematerials produced by 59 producers from 22countries. In 2001, the database was extendedto include organic constituents, in particularorganic macro- and micronutrients.

Attention has recently been focused on theconsequences of the military use of depleteduranium (DU) on the environment and localcivilian populations. In addition to participationin 2000 in a UNEP sampling mission to evaluatethe situation with respect to DU in Kosovo, theAgency’s Laboratories at Seibersdorf providedanalytical results for total and isotopic uraniumanalysis (i.e. verification of the origin of theuranium). The Agency organized a scientificseminar and training course in September — inco-operation with UNEP and WHO, and withfinancial support from Germany, Italy andSwitzerland — on ‘Depleted Uranium in theEnvironment’. The seminar and course providedup to date information on the detection, meas-urement, assessment of risks and potentialhealth effects from the use of DU armour pierc-ing ammunition or by its use in civilian applica-tions (e.g. radiation shielding or as aircraftcounterweights). The training course was heldjointly at the Agency’s Laboratories at Seibers-dorf and at the Karlsruhe Training Centre,Germany, and also involved the Institute for

Radiation Protection in Neuherberg, whichprovided assistance on environmental modellingand radioecological aspects of DU, WismutGmbH, which reported on decontaminationissues and site restoration technologies, and theGerman Army, which supported the field stud-ies.

The Agency was requested by Kuwait to assistin an assessment of the post-Gulf War contami-nation of the environment by DU and to verifyKuwaiti national results. The SeibersdorfLaboratories analysed 30 samples containingair filters, water, DU (armour piercing) pene-trators and soil from various regions of Kuwait.A report summarizing the results is beingprepared. Further field sampling is to takeplace in 2002.

The Agency’s Network of Analytical Laborato-ries Monitoring Environmental Radioactivity(ALMERA) network was established to provideaccurate and precise environmental radioactiv-ity measurements in the event of a nuclear inci-dent. Member States nominate laboratorieswhich are required to demonstrate their analyt-ical competence by participation in regularAgency proficiency tests (Table I). The first suchtest of the ALMERA network was completed inMay and a report summarizing the results is inpreparation.

Human health and environmental monitoringdata are completely dependent on the quality ofthe primary analytical measurements. As partof its ongoing task to assist laboratories inMember States to evaluate and develop theiranalytical capabilities for environmentalradioactivity monitoring, a phosphogypsumcandidate reference material was characterized



TABLE I. PARTICIPATION IN ALMERA PROFICIENCY TESTS

Target laboratories Matrix No. of sets dispatched No. of results reported

a + b spectroscopy Soil 56 44

g spectroscopy Soil 74 49

for its primordial radionuclide content(uranium, thorium, radium-226 and lead/polo-nium-210). The Agency’s Laboratories atSeibersdorf collected approximately 600 kg ofthe material, which is now available for prepa-ration as a candidate reference material. Simi-larly, a total of 13 water samples were preparedas part of a proficiency test on the determinationof radium-226/-228 and uranium-234/-235/-238in natural waters. Samples from five naturalwater sources were collected in Austria andPoland. The remaining eight sample waterswere prepared by spiking de-ionized water withknown levels of these primordial radionuclidesto simulate a range of low and high salinitywaters. In this way, the Agency was able to eval-uate the effectiveness of participants’ proce-dures in dealing with a range of water types,from groundwaters to waste waters, within theframework of the proficiency test.

Neutron activation analysis is a versatile toolthat can be used for the direct analysis of thetrace element content of solid samples. TheAgency’s Laboratories at Seibersdorf wasinvolved in establishing a neutron activationanalysis facility at the KFKI reactor inBudapest to replace the irradiation facility afterthe Austrian ASTRA reactor was closed in July1999. In addition, discussions took placeconcerning modifications to the KFKI reactor toenable it to accept the installation of a fastpneumatic transfer system supplied by theAgency. Such a system permits the analysis of arange of analytes (activation products) thathave short half-lives, and permits short irradia-tion times which can enhance the capabilities ofthe technique. Based on test irradiations, it wasdecided that the installation of the Agency’s fastpneumatic system should proceed, with fundingallocated in 2002.



MARINE ENVIRONMENT AND WATER RESOURCES


To develop and foster the ability of MemberStates to gain knowledge of the temporal andspatial trends of radioactivity in the oceans andof the controlling processes, and to use isotopicand other technologies to quantify and evalu-ate marine pollution; and to integrate appro-priate isotope and nuclear techniques in theplanning and resource management of fresh-water resources and gain a better understand-ing of human induced hydroclimatic impact onthe water cycle and its interaction with otherenvironmental systems.


• Several new techniques — including continuous in situ radioactivity monitoring — and facilitiessuch as an underground counting laboratory and advanced aquaria for radioecological studies,were developed in the marine environment area. These provide significantly improved methodsfor the detection and study of both nuclear and non-nuclear marine pollutants in the laboratoryand the field.

• In water resources management, the Agency assessed the present status and future directionsfor isotope applications in water cycle modelling, groundwater sustainability and the impacts ofclimate change on water resources.

• Efforts were made to link the Agency’s R&D and technical co-operation activities to water sectorprogrammes of the UN and bilateral agencies.

• A course was set up with Agency assistance on isotope hydrology in a post-graduate universityprogramme on water resources engineering.

• The Agency was invited to be the UN system’s lead organization to mark World Water Day inMarch 2002, in recognition of the impact of its programme of work in water resources.




1. Measurement and Assessment of Radionuclides in the Marine Environment: $1 396 810

2. Transfer of Radionuclides in the Marine Environment: $877 078

3. Monitoring and Study of Marine Pollution: $515 828

4. Development and Management of Water Resources: $2 455 158

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M E A S U R E M E N T A N D A S S E S S -M E N T O F R A D I O N U C L I D E S I NT H E M A R I N E E N V I R O N M E N T

In a project on ‘Research on Worldwide MarineRadioactivity’ (MARS) that ended in 2001,radionuclide data for sea water, sediment andbiota were gathered during nine seagoingsampling expeditions organized by the Agency,through IAEA-MEL, and by its Member States.Eight anthropogenic radionuclides were chosenas the most abundant and representative in themarine environment, with the highest potentialcontribution to radiation doses to humans viaseafood. The results indicate that the seas mostaffected by such radionuclides have been theIrish, Baltic, Black and North Seas. The datawere added to the Global Marine RadioactivityDatabase (GLOMARD) and will be used as aninternational reference source on the averagelevels of anthropogenic radionuclides in themarine environment so that any contributionsfrom nuclear reprocessing plants, nuclear powerstations, former radioactive waste dumpingsites, former nuclear weapons test sites andpossible nuclear accidents on land or in the seacan be identified. The MARS project wassupported by extrabudgetary funding by theGovernment of Japan.

A new technique for the investigation of radio-nuclides in the marine environment was devel-oped at IAEA-MEL. Based on a state of the artunderwater stationary gamma ray monitor withsatellite data transmission, this technique canbe used effectively for both short and long termmonitoring of open seas, coastal areas, riversand lakes. In specific cases, it can replacesporadic sampling campaigns and laboriousanalytical measurements in the laboratory as itcan report real-time data, search for temporalchanges and develop time series on radionuclideconcentrations. In a joint operation with theRadiological Protection Institute of Ireland, themonitor, after being tested in Monaco Bay, wasdeployed in the northwestern Irish Sea.

Another innovation was the development, in co-operation with laboratories in Australia,Canada, France, Japan and the USA, of newradiochemical techniques for accelerator massspectrometry (AMS). The new techniques can beused to analyse long lived radionuclides in the

marine environment and have changed thefocus of radionuclide analysis from countingradioactive decays to counting the number ofatoms in a sample. The advantage of the lattermethod is its combination of exceptional sensi-tivity with minimum sample size, opening newfrontiers in the study of oceanic processes usingradionuclides as tracers.

An underground counting laboratory wasconstructed at IAEA-MEL for the analysis ofradionuclides in marine samples at very lowlevels, with automated data acquisition andprocessing. Built using extrabudgetary supportfrom the Governments of Monaco and Japan,the laboratory is situated 30 metres of waterequivalent below the surface, where the flux ofcosmic ray nucleons is reduced by about tenthousand times. Spectrometers operating in thelaboratory in different coincidence–anticoinci-dence modes permit the analyses of ultra lowconcentrations of a wide range of short andmedium lived radionuclides. This has importantfinancial implications as the time needed forsampling work at sea can be considerablyreduced. Valuable information can thus beobtained for assessing environmental radionu-clide contamination caused by authorizedradioactive discharges, accidental releases orterrorist actions.

The Agency’s Analytical Quality ControlServices (AQCS) programme continues to assistMember State laboratories in their qualityassurance/quality control work (Fig. 1). High-lights in 2001 include: preparation of a seawater

M A R I N E E N V I RO N M E N T A N D W AT E R R E S O U R C E S


FIG. 1. Geographical distribution of the 184 laborato-ries participating in AQCS activities for radionuclidesin the marine environment.

Western

Europe

49%

Asia

9%

Central and

South

America

7%

North

America

9% Eastern

Europe

18%

Australia

3%Africa

4%Middle East

1%

sample from the Mediterranean Sea (IAEA-418)for a new intercomparison run; preparation of anew intercomparison seabed sediment samplefrom the Irish Sea (IAEA-385); and completionof a regional intercomparison exercise for theBlack Sea countries within the framework of atechnical co-operation project and a regionalproficiency test for the Baltic Sea countries.

As part of a regional technical co-operation pro-ject on the assessment of the contamination ofthe south Mediterranean Sea by radionuclides,heavy metals and organic compounds, a cruisewas organized in coastal waters off Algeria.Seawater, sediment and biota samples werecollected and several high resolution profiles ofphysical and chemical parameters, such astemperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen inthe water column, were obtained. Based on thelead-210 chronology and the analysis of heavymetals in the sediment samples, it wasconcluded that concentrations of heavy metalsin sediments in the southwest Mediterraneanhave been decreasing in recent years.

T R A N S F E R O F R A D I O N U C L I D E S I N T H EM A R I N E E N V I R O N M E N T

Nuclear techniques can improve understandingof the processes involved in transferringradionuclides and conventional contaminantsthrough coastal marine environments. The focusin 2001 at IAEA-MEL was on tropical ecosys-tems: radiotracer experiments were carried outto investigate the bioaccumulation and reten-tion of radionuclides and toxic heavy metals inkey marine biota from tropical coastal environ-ments. For economically important marinespecies like tropical mussels and oysters, thetype of food ingested (different species of phyto-plankton) was not found to be a predominantcontrolling factor in radionuclide and toxicmetal accumulation, though salinity signifi-cantly altered bioaccumulation processes, withconsiderably higher uptake rates occurring atthe lower salinities typically found in estuarineareas.

With the installation of new aquaria mainte-nance techniques at IAEA-MEL, the medium tolong term culturing of tropical species with low

mortality rates was successfully achieved. Thishas facilitated the study, for example, of theradioecology of the very fragile giant clamTridacna, which lives in association with symbi-otic microscopic algae (zooxanthellae) incorpo-rated in the clam’s tissues. It was found thatthese edible tropical bivalves readily bioconcen-trate radionuclides and toxic metals, and thatphotosynthetic algae living in their tissues arelikely to be responsible for a large part of thebioaccumulation of metallic contaminants inthese clams.

The same aquaria maintenance expertise wasused in another study that examined the trophictransfer of radionuclides and heavy metals, andtheir subsequent retention in three species oftropical fish which live in or near estuaries andtolerate a wide range of salinities. Among thecontaminants investigated, only the ingestedradionuclide caesium-134 was efficiently assim-ilated and retained, mainly in the edible flesh ofthese fish. In contrast, the ingested heavymetals cadmium-109 and americium-241remained totally asso-ciated with the foodduring gut transit and were not incorporatedinto the fish tissues. The contaminant assimila-tion rate and subsequent retention of theseradionuclides and metals in the organs of thefish were found to depend more on the elementconsidered than on fish species or age. However,the retention efficiency of the heavy metalscobalt-57, silver-110m and zinc-65 differedsignificantly among species, suggesting a possi-ble influence of digestive metabolism of the fishon the pollutant turnover rate in their tissues, afactor that should be taken into account whenselecting species for fish farming.

Radiotracer experiments demonstrated thatsome marine organisms are able to retain accu-mulated pollutants for a very long time, makingthem very useful long term bioindicators ofcontamination that occurred several yearsearlier. One of these species, the common Euro-pean crab Pachygrapsus marmoratus, wasobserved to have the ability to literally ‘trap’ alarge proportion (more than 50%) of silver-110mingested with its food. The results of testsperformed in collaboration with several MemberState laboratories suggest that this sequestra-tion process involves the precipitation of silveras a non-toxic compound, and that such



metabolic trapping of this toxic metal may be ageneral feature among marine crustaceans.

In coastal zones, estuarine areas receive some ofthe highest inputs of anthropogenic contamina-tion by trace metals. In areas where aquacul-ture is taking place, this situation has a poten-tially large socioeconomic impact, since manycultured bivalves like oysters are known to read-ily concentrate heavy metals from their environ-ment, particularly the highly toxic contami-nants cadmium, copper, zinc and mercury. Acollaborative project funded by various Frenchorganizations, such as the Ministry of Agricul-ture and Fisheries and the Ministry of Research,and involving the National Centre of ScientificResearch, the Faculty of Sciences of NantesUniversity and IAEA-MEL, was undertaken todevelop radiotracer methodologies for determin-ing the behaviour and fate of cadmium incommercial oysters originating from a cadmiumcontaminated estuary and those living in a cleanarea where cadmium contamination levels arelow. The findings are of potential significancebecause they have led to the identification ofadaptive cellular mechanisms, which help theorganisms to ‘adjust’ to ambient cadmiumcontamination, and can also be used in thedetermination of the regulatory thresholds ofcadmium concentrations in oysters.

Radiotracer studies are useful in placingconstraints on the degree to which elementratios can be used as proxies to determinepalaeoclimates. In this respect, strontium is anelement of particular interest because of itsinvolvement in biogeochemical calcificationprocesses in marine organisms. For example, intropical areas corals have aragonite–carbonateskeletons which contain relatively high amountsof strontium. Because the strontium/calciumratio is thought to vary with seawater tempera-ture, the ratio in coral skeletons has beenproposed as a proxy for reconstructing pasttemperatures, a hypothesis based on the obser-vation that there is a temperature dependenceof strontium partitioning between sea water andcoral skeleton. A collaborative project betweenIAEA-MEL and the Scientific Centre of Monacoused radioactive strontium as a tracer andfound that the incorporation of strontium isinversely correlated with the rate of calcifica-tion. Thus, in the natural environment the

incorporation of strontium in corals shoulddepend on both the calcification rate and seasurface temperature. These findings suggestthat specific metabolic interactions betweenstrontium and calcium can alter the ratio, andthis fact should be taken into account in palaeo-climate studies which use the ratio to infer pasttemperature regimes.

Natural radionuclides are important tools intracing processes that govern carbon dioxidesequestration in the ocean and the role it playsin climate change. A new study using nucleartechniques to measure annual carbon exportfrom surface waters was begun in the Mediter-ranean Sea near Monaco. Thorium-234, a shortlived radionuclide which is produced continu-ously in sea water at a nearly uniform rate fromthe decay of uranium-238, becomes rapidlyattached to carbon rich particles and is removedfrom surface waters with the sinking particu-lates. This preferential removal creates a dise-quilibrium between both radionuclides that isused, in conjunction with the measured organiccarbon/thorium-234 ratio in the sinking parti-cles, to estimate carbon export in the ocean.Measurements of the radionuclide profilesshowed a significantly higher removal ofdissolved thorium-234 in the upper 200 m in theearly summer as compared with the spring.Furthermore, time series observations indicatedthat organic carbon fluxes derived from radionu-clide concentrations were significantly differentfrom the fluxes measured directly with sedimenttraps on a short time-scale (one to two days), butbecame very similar when data were integratedover a longer period of time (one to four weeks).Precise information on the downward carbonflux can be used to assess carbon dioxideremoval from the upper ocean, a parameter thatcontrols the transport of this greenhouse gasbetween the atmosphere and the ocean.

M O N I T O R I N G A N D S T U D Y O FM A R I N E P O L L U T I O N

Techniques using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) provide isotopicdata that can complement conventional marinepollution studies. Lead isotopes have beenroutinely examined by ICP-MS for pollutionmonitoring programmes to provide source



information. In one application, sedimentsamples were evaluated for uranium and rela-tively high lead-206 concentrations to assessnutrient loading from phosphate rich fertilizers,which are generally associated with naturaluranium. In another application of the samestudy, the measured lead isotope ratio wasfound to be the same as that used in leadedpetrol from Morocco. Plutonium isotope dataacross depth gradients at a variety of locationshave provided crucial information for assessingthe fate and transport of plutonium in themarine environment. A pollution assessmentproject in the Caspian Sea examined uraniumisotopes, unequivocally showing a differentisotopic composition in the Caspian Sea fromthat found in the Black Sea and the PersianGulf. More data are being gathered to drawconclusions on the significance of these findings.

Quality assurance programmes assist nationallaboratories in Member States and regionallaboratory networks in obtaining reliable datafor a range of non-radioactive marine pollutants(Fig. 2). Such assistance comprises intercompar-ison exercises, proficiency testing and trainingcourses. Most notably, IAEA-MEL continues tobe one of the few producers of marine referencematerials. One sample, fish homogenate (IAEA-406), was certified following an intercomparisonexercise in 2000 and introduced as a referencematerial for chlorinated pesticides, polychlori-nated biphenyl (PCB) and petroleum hydrocar-bons (PHs). Similarly, a sediment referencematerial (IAEA-405) for heavy metals andmethylmercury was produced. In addition,IAEA-MEL prepared a pair of bivalve samplesfor ROPME (the Regional Organisation for theProtection of the Marine Environment) and twosediment materials for the Caspian Environ-ment Programme.

Contaminant screening provides information onenvironmental quality that can be used incoastal zone management. A project thatscreened for trace inorganic and organiccontaminants was undertaken in coastal areasin Oman in collaboration with ROPME. Gener-ally the concentrations of organic contaminantsin the waters and sediments were insignificant.With respect to biota, organochlorinatedcompounds, including those of agrochemicalorigin, were found at quite low levels. The only

bivalves showing some indication of oil contam-ination were the pearl oysters from Mirbat insouthern Oman. As regards metals, of particularnote were the extremely high cadmium concen-trations in the livers of spangled emperor fishfrom southern Oman, the highest such cadmiumconcentrations yet reported. While anthro-pogenic contamination cannot be ruled out, theapparent enhancement may be due to food chaintransfer of high levels of cadmium brought intothe surface waters through the strong upwellingof nutrient rich waters that was occurringduring the sampling period.

The Caspian Environment Programme (CEP) isan intergovernmental undertaking of the fiveCaspian littoral States, namely Azerbaijan, theIslamic Republic of Iran, Kazakhstan, the Russ-ian Federation and Turkmenistan. IAEA-MELcollaborated with CEP on contaminant screen-ing projects in Azerbaijan and the IslamicRepublic of Iran in investigating a range oforganic and inorganic pollutants in marine sedi-ments from the coastal zone of the Caspian Sea.Petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations in Azer-baijan were quite high by global standards atsome locations, notably to the south of BakuBay. Recent inputs were recognized at a numberof sites based on the weathering index. Whereasthe polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) andPCB concentrations never exceeded sedimentquality guideline values, numerous locations inthe coastal zone of Azerbaijan had elevatedconcentrations of DDT related compounds,demonstrating the importance of organochlo-



FIG. 2. The number of samples sent and the partici-pants in two intercomparison exercises for organiccontaminants: IAEA-406 (fish homogenate) in 2000and IAEA-417 (sediment) in 2001.

0

50

100

150

200

250

Samples sent No. of results No. ofcountries

IAEA-406

IAEA-417

rinated compounds derived from agriculturalsources. With respect to metals, arsenic,chromium and nickel concentrations were quitehigh at several locations, but probably reflectedhigh background levels. In contrast, anthro-pogenic inputs most likely accounted for theelevated copper and mercury concentrations insome hot spots. In the Islamic Republic of Iran,the PHs were weathered rather than freshinputs and their concentrations in the marinesediments were generally lower than thosefound in Azerbaijan and were not especiallyhigh by global standards. Agrochemicals causedcontamination of DDT at several sites and endo-sulfan sulfate exhibited a hot spot at one loca-tion. PAH and PCB levels were not sufficientlyhigh to be of concern. Arsenic, chromium, copperand nickel concentrations were high, but proba-bly of natural origin. Similarly, there was noevidence of cadmium, lead, mercury and silverpollution.

D E V E L O P M E N T A N D M A N A G E -M E N T O F W A T E R R E S O U R C E S

Submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) is animportant component of the continental fresh-water balance and may be a significant source of

nutrient and pollutant loading in coastal zones(Fig. 3). A new CRP was started on the applica-tion of isotope and nuclear techniques for moni-toring SGD. As part of this CRP, a pilot study onSGD characterization was conducted off theSicilian coast in co-operation with the Univer-sity of Palermo, Italy, UNESCO’s InternationalHydrological Programme (IHP) and the Inter-governmental Oceanographic Commission(IOC).

The IAEA/WMO Global Network for Isotopes inPrecipitation (GNIP) is the primary database forisotope applications in hydrological and climatestudies. Isotope monitoring of river water, whichintegrates the spatial and temporal variabilityof precipitation and hydrology on a catchmentscale, greatly enhances the use of GNIP dataand provides a robust new tool for evaluatingthe effects of climate change and land usepatterns on water resources, as well as for devel-oping integrated watershed management strate-gies. A CRP was initiated to formulate designparameters of such a global network for isotopesin rivers (GNIR) and will be implemented inclose collaboration with WMO and UNESCO, as well as with international scientificprogrammes focused on continental scale waterbalance.



FIG. 3. Schematic representation of the submarine groundwater discharge process.

SUBMARINE DISCHARGEOF FRESH GROUNDWATER

SEA WATER

SHALLOW AQUIFER

DEEP CONFINED AQUIFER

FRESH GROUNDWATER

AQUITARD

BRACKISH WATER

FRESH GROUNDWATER

LAND

WATERTABLE

DEEP SEDIMENTS

SEA LEVEL

Nearly half of all fresh water for domestic useand irrigation around the world is derived fromaquifers, linking the sustainability of ground-water resources to sustainable human develop-ment (Fig. 4). However, water resources inmany parts of the world are severely stressed,as witnessed by declining water levels. The roleof isotopes as indicators of groundwatersustainability was reviewed at an AdvisoryGroup meeting held in co-operation withUNESCO. The meeting identified the comple-mentary, but critical, role of isotopes in improv-ing methods for groundwater sustainabilityassessment. Such methods are of great impor-tance, given that current estimates of theworld’s water resources are generally weak asregards groundwater components, and no infor-mation is available as to what proportions ofthe groundwater bodies are renewable or non-renewable. As a follow-up to this meeting, ajoint project with UNESCO was initiated to useextensive isotope data from aquifers worldwide,most which have been collected as part ofAgency projects. The aim is to improve theunderstanding of the global distribution andamounts of non-renewable groundwaters,incorporating this information into a series ofmaps based on the Geographical InformationSystem.

While it is widely accepted that recent globalwarming is largely a product of enhanced green-house gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmos-phere, great uncertainty remains regarding therelationships between specific parameters andclimate phenomena, and regarding the impactsof climate change on the Earth’s water cycle.The scope of change observed in the last fewdecades appears to be unprecedented comparedwith the history of changes in the Earth’sclimate. Understanding the causes of pastclimate changes is, therefore, an important partof climate change research and isotopes are oneof the most important tools to extend the spatialand temporal analysis of relevant climaticprocesses. An international conference organ-ized by the Agency in Vienna in April discussedhow isotopes could be used in environmentalchange studies. State of the art isotope tech-niques and their applications in global climatechange research were reviewed and futureresearch directions were discussed. Noting thatisotopes are an indispensable tool for climatechange research, the conference participantsemphasized that the Agency has played a criti-cal role in facilitating isotope based researchand information dissemination. Moreover, theAgency’s continued support was considerednecessary to enhance the role of isotopes in large



FIG. 4. Global distribution of large aquifers with fossil groundwater.

scale, multi-disciplinary international pro-grammes on climate change research.

One of the accepted mitigation options in theKyoto Protocol for reducing GHG emissions isthe sequestration of carbon dioxide by disposalin geological formations and in the oceans. Areview of the potential role of isotope andnuclear techniques for designing and monitor-ing geological and oceanic carbon dioxidesequestration schemes found that leakage fromdeep underground storage reservoirs was amajor concern for carbon dioxide sequestrationoperations, and monitoring was required toassess the integrity of the storage reservoir.Isotope techniques can be used to monitor thegeological disposal of carbon dioxide in deepaquifers. However, a similar role in oceanicsequestration studies is more difficult, requiringa more precise definition of the problem. Afollow-up activity to demonstrate the use ofisotopes in geological sequestration studies isbeing formulated in co-operation with theAlberta Research Council in Canada.

A new regional technical co-operation projectwas started with the aim of applying isotope

techniques in a Global Environment Facility(GEF) project focusing on the environmentalprotection and sustainable development of theGuarani Aquifer system in Latin America. TheGuarani is a large freshwater aquifer under-lying Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay,and isotopes are expected to provide criticalinput for strengthening the conceptual hydro-logical model of the aquifer. The Guarani projectwas approved for inclusion in the GEF workprogramme in December 2001, with theAgency’s own technical co-operation projectslated to begin in 2002. The World Bank and theOrganization of American States are also partic-ipating in the Guarani project, together withnational institutes.

In another regional techical co-operation proj-ect, significant achievements were made indeveloping and improving the management ofgroundwater resources in southern and easternAfrican countries. For instance, the sources ofnitrate pollution in groundwater supplying thecity of Dodoma, United Republic of Tanzania,were identified by using nitrogen isotopes andthe results are being used to develop criteria for land use restrictions and groundwater



BOX 1. USING ISOTOPE TECHNIQUES TO MORE EFFECTIVELY MANAGE DRINKING WATERRESOURCES

One of the main themes of an Agency technical co-operation project on isotope applications for improveddrinking water resources management is to improve the reliability of results obtained from numericalmodels of groundwater flow and solute transport by using isotope data. Among the highlights of thisproject were the following:

— A better understanding was achieved of groundwater recharge and pollution in the urban aquifersystem near Lahore, in Pakistan, where isotope data showed that the deep aquifer was beingrecharged from the Ravi River. The isotope data were then used to constrain groundwater flowpatterns obtained from numerical modelling. The results have provided a basis for local authoritiesto develop improved groundwater management strategies to reduce pollution of the aquifer, which isthe primary source of drinking water.

— In Shijiazhuang City, China, nitrogen-15 analyses have been used to successfully identify the sourcesof nitrate contamination in groundwater in this densely populated area.

— In the Thung Kula Ronghia region of northeastern Thailand, isotope studies have been used to obtainthe origin, age, recharge mechanism and flow dynamics of groundwater.

— Carbon-14 was used to constrain estimates of groundwater flow rates derived from numerical model-ling. The combined use of isotope data and numerical modelling helped to improve the understand-ing of groundwater flow dynamics in the region. ■

protection. And local authorities in South Africahave indicated that changes will be made to thegroundwater development strategies for theTaaibosch fault zone on the basis of the isotoperesults. These positive developments haveheightened the interest of national authoritiesin Namibia and the United Republic of Tanzaniain using isotope techniques for water resourceassessments. Moreover, major internationaldevelopment projects in the region, such as the“500 Wells” project in Madagascar and the“Watershed Assessment” project in the UnitedRepublic of Tanzania, both sponsored by theWorld Bank, have integrated isotope applica-tions into their programmes.

Agency technical co-operation projects seek topromote the use of nuclear techniques inMember State development efforts. One suchproject succeeded in increasing the integrationof isotope hydrology into water resourcesmanagement practices in China. A highlightwas greater communication and co-operationbetween the various scientific agencies, wheresubstantial capability in isotope hydrologyexists, and the end-user agencies in Chinathrough the formation of a national co-ordina-tion committee on isotope hydrology. Thiscommittee organized a workshop on the applica-tion of isotope techniques in water resourcesassessment and management in China andpublished its proceedings in English, with thesupport of the Agency, as a special issue of thejournal Science in China. As a result of thisincreased awareness, the Agency is currentlyassisting various ministries in applying isotopetechniques to groundwater resources assess-ment and management projects in northwestChina. High priority is being given to the rela-tively large Erdos and Guanzhong groundwaterbasins, which are important regional develop-ment areas being promoted by the centralgovernment. As a follow-on effort, the Agency’stechnical assistance has been requested for inte-grating isotope techniques in managingriver–groundwater interaction in the BlackRiver Basin.

A programme of action for the IAEA–UNESCOJoint International Isotopes in HydrologyProgramme (JIIHP) was formulated at anAgency meeting with seven national representa-tives of IHP. An operational plan was estab-

lished setting out various activities leading upto the First JIIHP Steering Committee meetingthat will be held in June 2002. In addition, themeeting set out a preliminary timetable andidentified priority areas for the integration ofisotope hydrology activities through thenational IHP programmes that will be consid-ered by the Steering Committee.

The urgent need to provide safe, clean drinkingwater to the world’s population is bringingMember States and international organizationstogether in new partnerships that seek to maxi-mize the benefits of their activities. For exam-ple, the Agency participated in the InternationalConference on Freshwater (ICF) organized byGermany. The objective of this conference was tofocus world attention on freshwater issues anddevelop a common approach for the WorldSummit on Sustainable Development in Johan-nesburg in 2002. The Ministerial Declaration atthe ICF called for greater efforts to improve theknowledge base for water resources manage-ment, and for more co-ordinated UN systemactivities in the water sector. Both of these itemsform the basis for much of Agency’s programmein water resources development.

Another interagency effort was a workshoporganized by the UN Economic Commission forEurope that examined the role of isotopes in theprotection of aquifers used for drinking watersupply. The objective is to revise and improvegroundwater monitoring and protection stan-dards in the European Union. One outcome ofthis effort was the decision to develop documen-tation on the use of isotope techniques for thecharacterization of protection zones for incorpo-ration in the updated version of the EuropeanUnion’s groundwater monitoring guidelines.

The Agency has played a major role in buildinga cadre of trained isotope hydrologists world-wide (Fig. 5). In the past, the Agency empha-sized training as continuing education, not aspart of formal education at the university level.As a result, there is a continuing demand forhuman resources development even in countrieswhere the Agency has built capacity in the past.A lack of sufficient academic training for hydro-logists in the use and application of isotope tech-niques has been identified to be one of the majorconstraints that limit the integration of isotope



hydrology in the water sector of many develop-ing countries. To help overcome these obstacles,the Agency provided assistance to the Univer-sity of Roorkee, India, in organizing a semestercourse on isotope hydrology within its post-grad-uate programme on water resources manage-ment. This course is expected to serve as amodel for similar courses in other parts of Asia.In addition, two institutes have been identifiedin Africa where isotope hydrology will be intro-duced into their post-graduate programmes.

In an Agency interlaboratory comparison toevaluate the quality of tritium analysis of watersamples, the performance of less than half of the86 participating laboratories was found to besufficient for isotope hydrology applications interms of accuracy and precision of measure-ments. Nearly one third of the participatinglaboratories had systematic errors in theiranalytical procedures. As a result of their partic-ipation in the exercise, 14 laboratories were ableto identify and rectify internal analytical prob-lems, as demonstrated by improvements inresubmitted results. Moreover, an overallimprovement of 10% was recorded in the sensi-tivity and performance of participating laborato-ries compared with the last tritium interlabora-tory comparison in 1995.

A network of analytical laboratories was estab-lished to assist in performing isotope hydrologyanalyses for technical co-operation projects. Thenetwork seeks to increase the participation ofMember State laboratories in the Agency’s tech-nical co-operation programme while reducing theamount of routine analysis that needs to beperformed. At present, the network includesseven laboratories, four from developing MemberStates. Continuous cross-checking of analyticalresults by the Agency ensures the quality of theservices provided. In addition, the networkensures timely processing of analyses and servesas a means to widen or improve quality assur-ance schemes in Member State laboratories.



FIG. 5. Training courses and workshops offered bythe Agency in isotope hydrology.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

No. of events

Days of activity

No. of participants

APPLICATIONS OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SCIENCES


To enhance the contribution of a wide spectrumof nuclear technologies in meeting the needs ofMember States by: providing up to date nuclearand atomic data; supporting programmesbased on research reactors and particle acceler-ators; improving capabilities in the develop-ment and use of radioisotope and radiationtechnology, radioanalytical measurements andnuclear instrumentation; encouraging environ-mentally friendly technologies based on the useof radiation; and providing a forum for the co-ordination of fusion research worldwide.


• The layout and content of the Agency’s nuclear data web site was improved to provide easieraccess to users for their nuclear data needs. As a consequence, there was a 30% increase inretrievals from the site.

• Research carried out through a CRP resulted in the development of a nuclear data library(WIMS-IAEA) for research reactor calculations.

• An Agency symposium in São Paulo, Brazil, highlighted the role of accelerators for analytical,materials and medical applications.

• Educational kits were provided by the Agency for training in the use and maintenance of nuclearinstrumentation employing microcontrollers and microprocessors.

• Techniques were developed through a recently concluded CRP for the labelling of small peptideswith rhenium-188 for radiopharmaceutical applications.

• The Agency and WHO, in a joint effort, defined good manufacturing practices (GMP) in radio-pharmaceuticals; they will be published as a special section of a WHO manual on GMP for phar-maceuticals.

• The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) Council declared the successfulcompletion of Engineering Design Activities in July 2001. The next phase is under way, andinvolves co-ordinated technical activities among ITER parties under Agency auspices.




1. Nuclear and Atomic Data for Applications: $1 942 099

2. Nuclear Instrumentation: $1 722 1873. Theoretical Physics (contribution): $1 983 0004. Utilization of Research Reactors and Particle

Accelerators: $520 5735. Radioisotopes and Radiation Technology:

$2 139 3486. Nuclear Fusion Research and Plasma Physics

Applications: $515 380

1

2

34

5

6

N U C L E A R A N D A T O M I C D A T AF O R A P P L I C A T I O N S

The results of a CRP that ended in 2001 werepublished in a technical document, ChargedParticle Cross-Section Database for MedicalRadioisotope Production: Diagnostic Radioiso-topes and Monitor Reactions (IAEA-TECDOC-1211). Fully complementing the informationavailable on the Agency’s web site (http://www-nds.iaea.org/medical), the document presentsrecommended cross-sections for 22 beam moni-tor reactions and 26 production reactions ofradioisotopes used in nuclear medicine for diag-nostic purposes. These recommended data aresufficiently accurate to meet the demands of theproduction criteria for high purity diagnosticapplications in single photon emission computedtomography and positron emission tomographyfor biofunctional studies.

The ENDF Verification Support Package(ENDVER) was completed to display thecontents of Evaluated Nuclear Data Files(ENDFs) and compare them with experimentaldata from the Experimental Exchange Format(EXFOR) database. Special features include thecapability to display and compare angulardistributions, energy spectra and double differ-ential cross-sections. This software package hasaided considerably in data verification.

The Atomic and Molecular Data InformationSystem (AMDIS) has been enhanced by theaddition of comprehensive data for physicalsputtering with both angular and energydependence. These new data include fusion rele-vant projectiles impacting on beryllium, carbon,tungsten and related compounds. Furthermore,a comprehensive database for the radiationenhanced sublimation (RES) of carbon andcarbon related compounds was developed andadded to AMDIS. The results of this work,summarized in the Agency publication Atomicand Plasma-Material Interaction Data forFusion, show the dependency of physical sput-tering and RES yields on the temperature of thematerial, incident projectile energy and incidentflux. Version 1.2 of the International Databaseon Irradiated Nuclear Graphites, developed andmaintained through extrabudgetary funding,was also distributed. These databases are ofgreat importance in the design of fusion energy

research machines where the interaction ofplasmas with the reactor wall is critical to thesuccess of the machine.

Efforts to produce an Internet based searchengine for atomic data led to the development ofa prototype version that has undergone exten-sive testing. The initial version of the searchengine, released in December 2001, operates onservers at the Agency, the Weizmann Institute ofScience (Rehevot, Israel) and at theGAPHYOR Data Center of the Centre Nationalde la Recherche Scientifique (Orsay, France).This project was initiated in response to thedifficulties faced by users of atomic and molecu-lar data in easily formulating the correct queryfor a number of different databases. The searchengine permits the user to formulate and passalong one query in the correct form to manydatabases and to have all search results gath-ered for display simultaneously, an approachthat will allow plasma modellers to access manymore data.

The adoption by the Agency of alternative rela-tional database management systems hassubstantially improved the quality of itscomputerized data services. These new methodsof data storage and distribution also complywith the information technology policy of theAgency. In addition, these systems are expectedto have a major impact on the nature, flexibilityand cost of all nuclear data services, includingthe formulation of nuclear reaction databases inmultisystem or multimedia environments thatwill provide a common solution to the handlingof different software and hardware platformsand result in more user friendly access.

Access to the Agency’s nuclear data server forthe Internet (http://www-nds.iaea.org) hasstabilized over 2000–2001 at a level of 15 000queries per year (see Table I and Fig. 1).Nevertheless, the total number of dataretrievals has increased by 30%, due mainly tocustomer requirements for data from thegeneral purpose and special applicationslibraries. The latter are being successfullyformulated and introduced through CRPs.Another noteworthy point is that the number ofqueries from developing countries has continuedto grow in 2001. In addition, the layout anddesign of the web page has been significantly

A P P L I C AT I O N S O F P H Y S I C A L A N D C H E M I C A L S C I E N C E S


improved to ease user access to the data. Newdata libraries have also been added to the site,as well as program packages to verify the evalu-ated data files and for nuclear model calcula-tions

N U C L E A R I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N

In supporting the utilization and maintenanceof instruments used for nuclear applications inMember States, the Agency develops anddisseminates spectrometry software and educa-tional kits for instrument maintenance. Know-ledge and competence are imparted throughtraining courses. For example, the Agency’s soft-ware packages for spectrometry and the relatedreference spectra are now available on its website and can be downloaded by users. In thisconnection, an exercise to compare commerciallyavailable software packages for analysing parti-cle induced X ray emission spectra revealed thatthere is room for improvement in quantifyingresults from low intensity peaks.

Various distance learning tools for the mainte-nance of instruments were developed throughAgency technical co-operation projects. Forexample, a CRP was started to develop modulesfor the troubleshooting of such commonly usedinstruments as radioimmunoassay and liquidscintillator counters, and electrometers. Theaim of the CRP is to develop information



TABLE I. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA SERVICES

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Internet retrievals from the main 23 4276 9581 9642 12 894Agency nuclear databases

Accesses through the Internet to 4400 7443 7757 11 472 16 153other Agency files and information

Telnet based nuclear data retrievals 7350 2700 2180 1387 550

Information on CD-ROMs — 205 420 648 883

Off-line retrievals 1900 1995 2290 2557 2231

FIG. 1. Number of data accesses and retrievals fromthe Agency’s nuclear data web site and from themirror server at the Nuclear and Energy ResearchInstitute (IPEN) in Brazil.

5.9

5.5

20.3

21.25.2

18.1

14.5

12.6

7.8

40.1

35.2

39.4

32.8

5.2

5

2.8

4.6

16.7

14

16.215

17.2

10.2

7.1

9.16.6

7.9 5.2

1997 1998 1999 2000

FormerSoviet Union

EasternEurope

DevelopingCountries

USA+Canada

EuropeanUnion

Japan

Unresolved

Geographical Distribution (%)

2001

6.1

12

6.7

16.9

7.9

3.6

45.4

Average per Month(Number of accesses+retrievals)

USA+

Cana

da

Japa

n

Euro

pean

Unio

n

Form

erSo

viet

Uni

on

East

ern

Euro

pe

Deve

lopi

ngCo

untr

ies

36 25 28 160 13 59121 52 146 404 47 170

248 89 262 508 41 202373 97 222 577 88 264

19971998

19992000

2001 497 146 192 965 127 397

communication technology (ICT) based trainingmodules, including animation and other multi-media techniques, as educational tools toincrease the number of trained technical staff inMember States.

Laboratories participating in the secondResearch Co-ordination Meeting of a CRP on theapplication of nuclear techniques for the identi-fication of anti-personnel land mines reportedadvances in the development of portable detec-tion devices. A hand held sensor based onbackscattered, thermalized neutrons was identi-fied as a promising tool. The Agency’s work inthis area was also presented at a EuropeanCommission meeting in Brussels.

A new CRP on in situ application of the X rayfluorescence (XRF) technique has the objectivesof: developing optimum sampling methodolo-gies; improving performance for field portableXRF spectrometers; and validating quantita-tive procedures for in situ XRF analysis. Theresults will benefit applications in environmen-tal monitoring, mineral exploration, culturalheritage preservation and industrial processcontrol.

The Agency’s Laboratories at Seibersdorfprovided basic technical support for activitiesrelated to the use and maintenance of nuclearinstrumentation in Member States. Key effortsincluded the following:

— Assembling and providing educational kitsfor training on microcontroller and micro-processor based equipment.

— Selecting, testing and implementing ICTbased training materials for basic nuclearelectronics and for the maintenance andrepair of nuclear instruments.

— Establishing a new training station for therepair of printed circuit boards.

— Assessing new radiation detectors for X rayand gamma ray spectrometry.

— Developing instruments for environmentalpollution monitoring, dosimetry and agri-cultural studies.

— Developing a power supply for silicon driftdetectors.

— Assisting in the establishment of regionalcentres for the maintenance and repair ofnuclear instruments.

— Providing technical guidelines to MemberStates on the development and mainte-nance of instruments for nuclear spec-troscopy.

— Assessing the total uncertainty of second-ary target/X ray tube based energy disper-sive XRF spectrometry, following the ISOstandard.

U T I L I Z A T I O N O F R E S E A R C HR E A C T O R S A N D P A R T I C L EA C C E L E R A T O R S

The main result of a recently concluded CRP toupdate the Winfrith Improved MultigroupScheme (WIMS) has been to make available onrequest an updated, multi-group, neutroncross-section library, WIMS-IAEA, along withcalculations for more than 200 benchmarkproblems. This library will improve the corephysics modelling capability at many researchreactors.

In addressing the issue of under-utilizedresearch reactors, the Agency has assistedMember States in preparing utilizationprogrammes tailored to the specific capabilitiesof the reactors. This assistance has taken theform of the publication of three technical docu-ments to guide reactor operators. In addition, autilization plan for a new research reactor inNigeria was developed through a technical co-operation project.

Promoting education and training in nucleartechnology in Member States is a major aspectof the Agency’s technical assistance programme.A report prepared by a Technical Committeepresents an overview of educational opportuni-ties in accelerator technology and its applica-tions. In particular, the report focuses onenhancing information exchange and establish-ing technology transfer mechanisms amongdifferent countries, and identifying trainingopportunities and needs in developing countries.In related work, Agency technical co-operationprojects provided assistance in the procurementof an ion beam accelerator for materials devel-opment and analysis in the Syrian Arab Repub-lic, and Thailand received helped in the opera-tion and use of accelerators for ion implantationand materials analysis.



At a symposium held in São Paulo, Brazil, onthe utilization of accelerators, the different usesof accelerators around the world and the newapplications that lie ahead were reviewed.Target areas for Agency supported collaborativeR&D programmes in the field of acceleratorapplications were also defined. Furthermore,the role of accelerators in nano-technology, envi-ronmental remediation and the sanitation ofmail were considered.

R A D I O I S O T O P E S A N D R A D I A T I O N T E C H N O L O G Y

Receptor imaging of the central nervous system(CNS) has been shown to be very valuable in themanagement of neurological disorders usingradiopharmaceuticals labelled with cyclotronproduced isotopes, namely, carbon-11, fluorine-18 and iodine-123. However these isotopes areexpensive and not readily available. A CNSreceptor imaging agent based on technetium-99m will make such techniques widely availableat an affordable cost. A CRP that ended in 2001studied several approaches to synthesize, char-acterize and evaluate technetium-99m labelledmolecules with potential for CNS receptor imag-ing. Technetium-99m mixed ligand complexeswere prepared and in vitro receptor bindingmethods were developed to determine the recep-tor affinity and specificity of the compounds,followed by in vivo studies in animals. The CRPsucceeded in establishing the radiochemicalapproaches for the preparation and evaluationof technetium-99m CNS receptor agents, whichcould pave the way for developing a suitableradiopharmaceutical.

Radioimmunoassays (RIAs) are widely used inclinical chemistry, but also have applications innon-clinical fields, including veterinary medi-cine, animal reproduction, food processing andthe drug industry. A new CRP was started in2001 to extend the capabilities of national labo-ratories in developing RIA kits for non-clinicalapplications. The goal of the CRP is to focus onRIA kit development for aflotoxin B1 — animportant contaminant in food, atrazine — anenvironmental contaminant, and progesterone— for veterinary applications.

Good manufacturing practices, which have longbeen applied to pharmaceuticals, are also beingincreasingly used for the manufacture of radio-pharmaceuticals. However, there has been aneed for international guidelines, particularlyfor the benefit of developing Member States.The Agency and WHO have jointly preparedsuch guidelines, which were then approved bythe WHO Expert Committee on Specificationsfor Pharmaceutical Preparations in October2001. They will be published as a specialsection of WHO’s GMP Manual for Pharmaceu-ticals.

In a recently concluded CRP, several techniquesto label small peptides with therapeuticradionuclides were investigated. In particular,the peptide lanreotide was labelled withrhenium-188. This labelling technique can alsobe extended to several other peptides andbiomolecules.

The scientific community became aware of thevarying toxicological properties of differentchemical forms of trace elements more thanthirty years ago, when accidental releases ofcertain organometallic compounds causedsevere health problems in populations eatingcrops from affected areas. However, the appro-priate tools for method validation of speciationanalysis, such as natural matrix referencematerials, are not easily available. Nuclearanalytical techniques are particularly wellsuited for method development and validationbecause of their non-destructive nature andtheir ability to use radioisotopes to determinethe fate of compounds and elements. Labelledcompounds can be introduced into biologicaltissues and act as a probe in the same way asnatural analogues. A CRP was thereforestarted in 2001 to validate speciation analysisusing nuclear techniques. The objective is todisseminate improved speciation techniques toMember States affected by impaired elementconcentrations in drinking water, soil ornutrition to monitor the toxic potential to theirpopulation.

Another CRP that started in 2001 had as itsgoal the upgrading of the most popular Agencyreference materials to achieve full traceabilityto the International System of Units forradionuclide concentrations. Five laboratories



and the Agency’s Laboratories at Seibersdorfdeveloped traceable measurement techniquesfor the most important natural radionuclides,fission products and transuranium isotopes innatural matrix materials. Prior to the certifica-tion of the radionuclide concentrations, thehomogeneity of the different batches of refer-ence materials was verified. The measurementresults for evaluation and certification of thematerials are expected in 2002.

One of the tasks of the Agency’s Laboratories atSeibersdorf was to organize intercomparisonsand proficiency tests for CRPs and technical co-operation projects. Two such tests were organ-ized for a project that included samples spikedwith anthropogenic, alpha, beta and gammaemitting radionuclides. In addition, a veryspecialized proficiency test was organized foreight laboratories involving the preparation of48 different samples representing four matrices(milk, vegetation, soil and water) with varyingconcentrations and mixtures of both anthro-pogenic and primordial radionuclides. TheSeibersdorf Laboratories provided technicalsupport to Member State counterpart staff inevaluating, interpreting and preparing the indi-vidual and summary reports as well as certifi-cates for this proficiency test.

In 2001, orders for products from the Agency’sAnalytical Quality Control Services (AQCS)were received from approximately 200customers (Table II).

The training and certification of non-destruc-tive testing (NDT) personnel has significance inany country’s industrialization programme. Tothis end, a revised version of an Agency techni-cal document was prepared (Training Guide-lines in Non-destructive Testing Techniques,2002 Edition, IAEA-TECDOC-628/Rev.1). Thenew version is expected to help end users inMember Sates update their materials andprogrammes. It will also play an important rolein international harmonization efforts in thefield of NDT.

A CRP on the use of radiation processing for thesterilization or decontamination of pharmaceu-ticals and pharmaceutical raw materials wascompleted. The results of various physico-chem-ical and pharmacological studies and tests indi-

cated the possibility of radiation treatment ofdrugs such as cefotaxime, amoxycillin, spyram-icine, tetracyclines, cyclophosphamide andsulphonamides. In the case of trifluorothymi-dine, fluorometholone, deferroxamine and a newpeptide, radiation sterilization was found to bebetter than or equivalent to heat sterilization.The usefulness of radiation processing for thedecontamination of various herbal medicinesand plant extracts was also shown.

Fumes and other gaseous emissions from indus-trial activities often contain toxic volatileorganic compounds (VOCs). These include bydefinition all organic compounds that are detri-mental to the ozone layer and are considered tocontribute to global warming because of theirextremely long atmospheric lifetimes. They alsoinclude organic compounds that are hazardousmaterials, causing headaches, dizziness or sorethroats, and those that are carcinogenic. Usingthe services of consultants, the Agency prepareda report that demonstrated that electron beamtechnology is the most energy efficient treat-ment technology for all VOCs with the exceptionof hydrofluorocarbons. Its key advantage overother technologies is in treating low concentra-tions of VOCs (<1000 ppm), since it does notmerely transfer the waste from one medium toanother (unlike activated carbon adsorption orscrubbing). It was also shown to have greatpromise for the remediation of contaminatedsites and exhaust gases from various industrialapplications.



TABLE II. NUMBER OF AQCS UNITSSOLD IN 2001

Analyte group Number of units sold

Radionuclides 629

Trace elements 257

Methylmercury 17

Organic contaminants 18

Total 921

The technical, economic and environmentaladvantages of the radiation processing of cellu-lose and wood by-products were assessed in astudy. For example, electron beam processing ofcellulose pulps provides a technically andcommercially viable method that can replace theenergy intensive ageing step in conventionalviscose processes. Significant reductions inchemical use and toxic emissions benefit theindustry in terms of reducing manufacturingcosts as well as the pollution associated with theprocess.

A new CRP entitled ‘Integration of ResidenceTime Distribution (RTD) Tracing with Compu-tational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Simulation forIndustrial Process Visualization and Optimiza-tion’ began in 2001. The main objective is todevelop and validate a method for analysingand diagnosing industrial engineeringprocesses using radiotracer experiment andCFD modelling. Experimental protocols andsoftware codes of a combined experimental andcomputational method will be elaborated toobtain reliable quantitative results on processperformance in industrial vessels and processunits to improve and optimize their design andefficiency.

N U C L E A R F U S I O N R E S E A R C H A N D P L A S M A P H Y S I C S A P P L I C A T I O N S

In July 2001, the ITER Council held its finalmeeting at Agency Headquarters to mark thesuccessful completion of the EngineeringDesign Activities carried out by the ITER JointCentral Team and the ITER Parties’ NationalTeams between 1992 and 2001. In preparationfor the construction of ITER, the current ITERParties (Canada, the European Union, Japanand the Russian Federation) have agreed toconduct, under Agency auspices, Co-ordinatedTechnical Activities (CTA) until the end of 2002.One goal is to adapt the final ITER design tosite specific conditions. Thereafter, the JointImplementation (Construction, Operation andDecommissioning) of the ITER Project isexpected to start.

A CRP was started to investigate densemagnetized plasma applications for harnessingnuclear fusion, both as a power source and asan intense radiation source. Dense magnetizedplasmas can be generated by various types ofdevices, including pinches, focuses, plasmaaccelerators, open switches, sparks and hollow



TABLE III. AGENCY TECHNICAL COMMITTEE MEETINGS ON NUCLEAR FUSION

Title Location

Control, data acquisition and remote participation for fusion research Padova, Italy

Research using small fusion devices São Paulo, Brazil

Spherical tori São Jose dos Campos, Brazil

Divertor concepts Aix-en-Provence, France

H-mode physics and transport barriers Tokai, Japan

High average power drivers for inertial fusion energy Kyoto, Japan

Energetic particles in magnetic confinement systems Gothenburg, Sweden

cathode discharges. Magnetized plasmas mayprovide a more efficient route to achievingfusion ignition.

The Agency continued to be a catalyst in fusionresearch and information exchange, with arange of Technical Committee meetings

conducted under its auspices (Table III). At themeeting on H mode physics and transport barri-ers, it was reported that after new divertorswere installed, the Wendelstein 7-AS Stellaratorin Garching, Germany, achieved the highestdensities ever in a magnetic confinement exper-iment (up to ne ~ 4 × 1020 m–3).



The Agency’sProgramme in 2001:Safety

NUCLEAR SAFETY


To achieve and maintain a high level of safetyof nuclear installations under design, construc-tion or operating worldwide by: establishingstandards of safety for the protection of healthincluding standards for research reactors,nuclear power plants and other non-reactornuclear installations; and providing for theapplication of these standards through supportfor the Agency’s technical co-operationprogramme, the rendering of services, thepromotion of education and training, the foster-ing of information exchange and the co-ordina-tion of research and development.


• Three Safety Guides were published, with six more approved and in the process of beingpublished.

• There was continuing, and in many cases increasing, demand for Agency safety review services.The results of these safety reviews demonstrate a general improvement in the safety of nuclearpower plants and implementation of corrective safety measures, and progress in enhancing theeffectiveness and technical capabilities of regulatory bodies.

• An international action plan was developed to improve the safety of research reactors.

• Following up on earlier meetings in 1991 and 1998, an international conference on topical issuesin nuclear safety was held in September (Box 1).


Regular budget expenditure:$5 428 683Extrabudgetary programme expenditure

(not included in chart): $2 235 562

1. Safety Assessment Developments: $1 329 3742. Nuclear Plant Engineering Safety: $1 106 6553. Operational Safety: $1 500 8664. Research Reactor Safety: $696 7235. Regulatory Activities Related to Nuclear Safety:

$773 9986. Safety of Other Installations: $21 067

1

23

4

5 6

S A F E T Y A S S E S S M E N T D E V E L O P M E N T S

The Secretariat began development of safetystandards addressing the safety of non-reactornuclear fuel cycle facilities. Safety Require-ments for fuel cycle and isotope productionfacilities and two Safety Guides covering mixedoxide and uranium fuel production facilitieswere drafted. Publications covering other typesof facility are planned for the coming years.The standards for fuel cycle facilities buildupon the established standards for nuclear

power plants, with the addition of interna-tional consensus requirements and guidanceon specific issues relevant to the different typesof facility.

In light of the increasing use of probabilisticsafety assessment (PSA) by operators and regu-lators to support safety related decisions, theAgency’s activities in this area focused onpromoting improvements in the quality andconsistency of PSAs as a prerequisite for theiruse in decision making. Regulatory reviewguides on level 1, 2 and 3 PSAs were developed

N U C L E A R S A F E T Y


BOX 1. BUILDING AN INTERNATIONAL CONSENSUS ON KEY ISSUES IN NUCLEAR SAFETY

In 1991, the Agency organized an international conference on the safety of nuclear power, with a particu-lar focus on developing a strategy for the future. As a follow-up, another conference was held in 1998 todiscuss various topical issues in nuclear, radiation and radioactive waste safety. Substantial progress hassince been made by Member States in enhancing the safety of their nuclear power plants. However, thereare still areas of concern, for example research reactor safety and the safety of other facilities in thenuclear fuel cycle.

In response, the Agency convened a conference in September 2001 to study the following “topicalissues”:

— Risk informed decision making,— Influence of external factors on safety,— Safety of fuel cycle facilities,— Safety of research reactors,— Safety performance indicators.

There was broad agreement at the conference that, where the capability exists, risk informed decisionmaking can be a significant enhancement to nuclear safety and safety focus. With regard to externalfactors, it was noted that in cases where the achievement of strong business performance was recognizedto be a natural result of strong safety performance, market liberalization could enhance safety. For fuelcycle facilities, the conference felt that development of the appropriate safety standards was a pre-requisite to the provision of safety services to Member States. Turning to research reactor safety, therewas agreement that the organizations responsible for these reactors should develop strategic plans ontheir future utilization to help in making decisions on whether or not to terminate operations or decom-mission reactors in extended shutdown. The Agency was requested to place greater emphasis on helpingcountries to build their national infrastructure for education and training programmes. There was recogni-tion that while research reactors are currently under-utilized, they could become valuable resources fortraining and practical experience, especially if they were used to support regional centres for educationand training. Finally, a three tier approach was considered for the development of a possible frameworkfor safety performance indicators, focusing first on the needs of the nuclear facility, then on the regula-tory bodies and later on the public. There was consensus that the Agency should continue its work toensure that definitions of safety indicators allow their effective use for nuclear power plants, researchreactors and other nuclear fuel cycle facilities. ■

in co-operation with the OECD NEA, advice andtraining were provided on achieving quality andconsistency of PSAs, and PSA intercomparisonexercises were conducted for WWER-1000 andPHWR reactors. Substantial progress was alsomade on a technical document on methods,requirements and applications of PSA for riskinformed decision making, which will bepublished in 2002.

To support Member States in their developmentand use of PSA, the Agency conducted workshopsand training activities, including risk monitors (aplant specific real-time analysis tool) and a level2 PSA. Six International Probabilistic SafetyAssessment Review Team (IPSART) missionswere conducted to review PSAs and to provideguidance on the use of the results. Although theresults of these reviews are dependent on theindividual studies, in general the weak areasrelate to the estimation of initiating eventfrequencies, identification and modelling ofhuman errors and common cause failures, andthe completeness of information and the screen-ing process for fire analysis. Common weak-nesses were also identified in technical qualityassurance processes for PSAs and in the prepa-ration of supporting documentation.

The new Review of Accident ManagementProgrammes (RAMP) service aims to assistMember States in the development and imple-mentation of effective plant specific accidentmanagement programmes consistent with theAgency’s safety standards. A pilot missionvisited the Krško nuclear power plant in Slove-nia in November 2001. The objective was toreview the comprehensiveness, consistency andquality of the accident management programmefor the plant, including material and humanresources, interrelation with other plant activi-ties and emergency arrangements, and the qual-ifications and training of plant personnel. Themission found that the programme had beensuccessfully developed and largely implementedin accordance with Agency guidance and goodinternational practice. The mission team identi-fied a number of positive features, and alsomade recommendations on areas in whichimprovements could be made. The lessonslearned during the pilot mission will be used infurther improving the review methodology andguidelines for this service.

An extrabudgetary programme on the safety ofnuclear installations continued to provide assis-tance to China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philip-pines, Thailand and Viet Nam, with contribu-tions from France, Germany, Japan, the Repub-lic of Korea, Spain and the USA. The objective isto strengthen safety infrastructure and thesafety of nuclear power plants and researchreactors in the region, and in particular todevelop human resources and enhance the tech-nical capabilities of regulatory authorities andsupporting organizations. In China expertmissions visited the newly constructed TianwanNuclear Power Plant (a WWER-1000 design),reviewing the design with regard to severe acci-dent mitigation, the reactor protection systemand the control room, and validation and verifi-cation of the safety software. The reviews,intended to serve as training for the Chineseorganizations, involved experts from Russianand German companies that are designing theinstrumentation and control and other systemsfor the nuclear power plant. Safety AnalysisReports for research reactors in Malaysia, Thai-land and Viet Nam were reviewed with the aimof improving their scope and technical quality.And a pre-International Regulatory ReviewTeam mission visited Thailand to review thepractices of the regulatory body and makerecommendations to strengthen and enhance itseffectiveness.

N U C L E A R P L A N T E N G I N E E R I N G S A F E T Y

A Safety Guide, Safety Assessment and Verifica-tion for Nuclear Power Plants, was published in2001, the second in a series of Guides support-ing the new Safety Requirements for designpublished in 2000. Another Safety Guide,Instrumentation and Control Systems Importantto Safety in Nuclear Power Plants, is in theprocess of being published; nine other SafetyGuides on design safety are being prepared.

Design safety review services have gainedmomentum recently in relation to both newdesigns and existing nuclear power plants. Anumber of projects are under way within whichsuch reviews have been conducted. Under atechnical co-operation project, the PreliminarySafety Analysis Report (PSAR) for the Bushehr



Nuclear Power Plant in the Islamic Republic ofIran is being reviewed. The design of this plantis unique: the civil engineering structures froma partially built PWR are being used to house aWWER-1000 reactor. The structures have alsobeen repaired after suffering war damage. Inaddition to this support to the operator, anothertechnical co-operation project is supporting theregulator: six meetings were held with the regu-latory body in 2001 — in Tehran, Moscow andVienna — providing advice on atomic law,reviewing various parts of the PSAR and theenvironmental impact assessment report, andreviewing the regulatory body’s trainingprogramme. In addition, an Iranian delegateparticipated as an observer in an OperationalSafety Review Team (OSART) mission, and aworkshop on accident analysis was conducted.

A design safety review of the LWR project for theDemocratic People’s Republic of Korea wasconducted by the Agency in June 2001 at therequest of the Korean Peninsula Energy Devel-opment Organization (KEDO). The reviewcovered all aspects of the siting and design ofthe plant, and was aimed at verifying thecompliance of the design with the Agency’ssafety standards and international practices.Comments and recommendations for improvingthe safety of the plant and its documentationwere also made. Two teams in parallel reviewedthe PSAR and the assessment of the site, includ-ing the radiological environmental impact andthe external hazards. The design is based on theproven technology and performance of the refer-ence design (Ulchin 3 and 4 in the Republic ofKorea), and includes the most recent designimprovements made for Ulchin 5 and 6. TheKumho site was found to have no characteristicsthat would make it unacceptable from a nuclearor radiological safety point of view. However,some recommendations were made in a numberof areas, including further investigation of theseismic situation.

The final design safety review mission of 2001was to the Temelin nuclear power plant in theCzech Republic, in November 2001, to reviewthe resolution of safety issues identified whenthe Agency conducted a similar review in 1996.The expert mission addressed both the Agencyissues and those raised in recent years by otherparties. Because of the recent OSART mission to

Temelin, the review did not include the issuesrelated to operational safety. The expertsconcluded that most of the design safety issuesidentified as being relevant to reactors of thegeneric Temelin design had been addressed andresolved, and that work is nearing completionon the few remaining issues. The judgement ofthese experts was that these issues would notpreclude the safe operation of Temelin.

A technical document (IAEA-TECDOC-1235)published in 2001 addresses the safety andlicensing aspects of nuclear plants coupled withseawater desalination plants and the basis forthe safety assessment of such plants. It alsoproposes a general approach for the preparationof safety requirements for reactors with specialsafety features or of a smaller size as comparedwith nuclear power plants. This approach isaimed at generating the safety design require-ments for any kind of nuclear reactor startingfrom those for nuclear power plants.

Seismic safety review services continue toaddress both the application of the seismic re-evaluation of existing nuclear power plants andmore general siting projects, including facilitiesother than power plants. A mission to the Arme-nia Nuclear Power Plant in May gave advice onthe second phase of a seismic reevaluationprogramme for the plant, including the possiblerole of PSA in the programme.

A series of reports on the assessment andmanagement of ageing of major nuclear powerplant components important to safety wascompleted when a technical document (IAEA-TECDOC-1197) covering CANDU reactor assem-blies was published. The series documentscurrent practices for the assessment of safetymargins (fitness for service) and the inspection,monitoring and mitigation of ageing degradationof selected components of CANDU reactors,BWRs, PWRs (including Soviet designedWWERs). These practices are intended to ensurethe safe operation of nuclear power plants andalso provide a common technical basis fordialogue between plant operators and regulatorswhen dealing with age related licensing issues.

Intergranular stress corrosion cracking in stain-less steel pipes is a safety issue for BWRs. Anextrabudgetary programme on the mitigation of



such cracking in the austenitic stainless steelpiping of RBMK reactors assists countries oper-ating such reactors in establishing effectivemitigation programmes through technologytransfer, training and guidance. The programmeis entering its final phase. The main achieve-ments in 2001 included: adaptation of sizingprocedures for ultrasonic testing to RBMKs;training of RBMK operators on advanced ultra-sonic testing; development of an ultrasonic test-ing qualification procedure for a pilot study;development of a risk based inspection systemfor the Ignalina nuclear power plant in Lithua-nia; transfer of technology and training onrepair techniques; and formulation of guidanceon improving water chemistry monitoring andcontrol.

O P E R A T I O N A L S A F E T Y

Two Safety Guides were published in 2001supporting the Safety Requirements for theoperation of nuclear power plants, published in2000. The new Guides discuss modifications tonuclear power plants and the operating organi-zation. Three other Safety Guides in the opera-tional safety area will be published in 2002, andfour others are being prepared.

The Agency’s operational safety review servicesare being improved to better meet current andfuture challenges identified by the MemberStates using these services. More requests havebeen received from utilities and regulatoryorganizations to provide methodologies for theself-assessment of management processes andsafety culture, and there has been greaterdemand for assistance in areas identified byassessments as needing improvement.

The general impression gathered from OSARTmissions is that managers are committed toimproving the operational safety and reliabilityof their plants. The missions identified severalexamples of good practices, and also maderecommendations and suggestions to improveoperational safety. The results of each missionare made available to the nuclear industry andtheir regulatory authorities through a databasecalled OSMIR. Follow-up missions in recentyears confirm that operational safety servicessuch as OSART are helping Member States

achieve and maintain a high level of safetyperformance. On average, the rate of resolutionof and compliance with the Agency’s recommen-dations has improved over the last five yearsfrom 80% to over 90%.

Recently, the Agency, in consultation withMember States, developed the Peer Review ofOperational Safety Performance ExperienceReview processes, known as PROSPER. Guide-lines for the PROSPER service were finalizedduring the year. Another service, the SafetyCulture Enhancement Programme (SCEP),supports Member States in their efforts todevelop a sound safety culture in their organiza-tions. The SCEP services can be tailored to theneeds of a particular organization, where theymay want support only in certain steps of theprocess. The ongoing SCEP support to Elec-tronuclear, in Brazil, has served as a basis forthe continued development of these services.Based on the experience gained, guidance isbeing developed on how to implement such aprogramme. Full scope SCEP support has alsobeen initiated for the Laguna Verde NuclearPower Plant in Mexico, and for the fuel cyclefacilities in Industrias Nucleares do Brazil.

R E S E A R C H R E A C T O R S A F E T Y

In response to a resolution from the 2000General Conference, the Secretariat’s proposalfor an international research reactor safetyenhancement plan aimed at strengthening thesafety, monitoring of safety and regulatorysupervision of research reactors worldwide wasendorsed by the Board of Governors. This plancalls on the Agency to:

— Conduct a survey of research reactor safetyin Member States;

— Prepare a code of conduct on the safety ofresearch reactors with a view to establish-ing the desirable attributes for manage-ment of safety;

— Explore possible means to strengthen thesystem for monitoring the safety of researchreactors, taking account of the experience oforganizations working in other fields.

The number of requests to conduct IntegratedSafety Assessment of Research Reactors



(INSARR) missions is increasing. During 2001,a mission to Greece reviewed operational safetyaspects of the GRR-1 (“Demokritos”) researchreactor and concluded that: the reactor is gener-ally in good condition and is being operatedsafely; and the operating organization has thehuman and financial resources to keep the facil-ity running well. A number of good practiceswere identified, and recommendations weremade to address several weaknesses and oppor-tunities for improvement. A mission to Australiain May–June 2001 reviewed the PSAR for theReplacement Research Reactor to be built atLucas Heights (to replace the existing HIFARresearch reactor at the same site). This was afollow-up to a 1998 review by the Agency of theenvironmental impact statement for the reactor.It was noted that all of the recommendationsmade then had been addressed in the PSAR.Recommendations for further improvementwere made, but the review generally concludedthat the PSAR reflected the design accuratelyand effectively, had been prepared using Agencysafety standards, reflected current good interna-tional practices and provided an adequate basisfor licensing purposes.

The Agency has a particular responsibility forthe safety of research reactors under Project andSupply Agreements with Member States.General Conference Resolution GC(44)/RES/14requested the Secretariat to continue to closelymonitor research reactors subject to such agree-ments. Accordingly, seven safety reviewmissions visited research reactors during theyear.

The Incident Reporting System for ResearchReactors (IRSRR) has 31 participating coun-tries, representing a large majority of the

research reactors in the world. In November, thesecond meeting of IRSRR national co-ordinatorswas held in Lisbon. A pilot version of incidentreporting software for the system was demon-strated, and the participants presented reportsof incidents for inclusion in the database. Aworkshop on human performance was also partof the meeting.

R E G U L A T O R Y A C T I V I T I E SR E L A T E D T O N U C L E A RS A F E T Y

The Agency’s International Regulatory ReviewTeam (IRRT) service studies the effectiveness ofregulatory bodies and exchanges informationand experience. Many of the recommendationsfor improvement made during IRRT missionsare specific to the particular national circum-stances. However, some issues of more generalinterest are also raised. A review of the recom-mendations and suggestions from seven fullscope IRRT mission reports identified areaswhere more effort to improve regulatory effec-tiveness was recommended (Fig. 1).

The Incident Reporting System (IRS), operatedjointly with the OECD NEA, exchanges infor-mation on unusual events at nuclear powerplants, and seeks to increase the awareness ofactual and potential safety problems. As Fig. 2shows, participating countries submitted 76reports in 2001. This number is, for the secondconsecutive year, at the lower end of theexpected range. A questionnaire to IRS co-ordi-nators will try to identify possible problems inreporting, following which the Secretariat willprepare recommendation for the participatingcountries.

Two IRS topical studies — on incidents causedby loss of corporate knowledge and memory, andon events indicating non-compliance with opera-tional limits and conditions (OLCs) — werecompleted. The first study provided findings inparticular subject areas. More generally, theprocedure for analysing events helped to gener-ate ideas for improvement in the areas of: iden-tifying and using event information to avoid lossof knowledge; using event information to ensurebetter learning from other events; and reducingrecurring events, especially by enabling



FIG. 1. Distribution of recommendations from sevenfull scope IRRT missions.

Inspection andenforcement

22%

Review andassessment

12%Authorization

process7%

Organization24%

Authority, responsibilitiesand functions ofregulatory body

8%

Legislative andgovernmentalresponsibilities

14%

Emergencypreparedness

9%

Regulationsand guides

4%

comparison between different events. Thesecond study found that the majority of eventswere related to human factors deficiencies andprocedural inadequacies rather than to deficien-cies in the OLCs themselves. Other findingshighlighted the importance of functional testingafter maintenance to ensure that equipment isrestored to an operable status, of explicitly high-

lighting OLC values in procedures and provid-ing visual indications of OLCs on monitoringinstrumentation, and of operators taking adher-ence to OLCs seriously. It was recognized,however, that competitive pressures mayencourage operators to perform closer to limits,which may result in an increased number ofevents of this type in the future.



FIG. 2. Number of events reported to the IRS, 1980–2001.

0

50

100

150

200

250

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

50

97

201

155171

231

148161

178169

181

122

177

116

87

113

143

96

132119

76 76

Years

IRS

rep

ort

s

RADIATION SAFETY


To establish, in consultation and — whereappropriate — in collaboration with the compe-tent organs of the United Nations and with thespecialized agencies concerned, standards ofsafety for the protection of health, includingstandards relating to radiological protection,radiation source safety, radioactive materialssecurity and the safe transport of radioactivematerials; to provide for the application ofthose standards through, inter alia, support forthe Agency’s technical co-operationprogramme, the rendering of services, thepromotion of education and training, the foster-ing of information exchange and the co-ordina-tion of research and development — all in thefield of radiation safety; to service the EarlyNotification and Assistance Conventions; andto ensure an appropriate level of radiationsafety in the Agency’s own operations.


• The action plan on the safety of radiation sources and the security of radioactive materials wasupdated to take account of recommendations from an Agency conference of national regulatorsheld in Buenos Aires in December 2000.

• An Agency conference on the radiological protection of patients, held in Málaga, Spain, recom-mended that a group of experts be convened to develop an international action plan in this area.

• Proposals for changes to the Agency’s Transport Regulations were agreed, with an updatededition of the Regulations planned for issue in 2003.

• The framework for responding to nuclear and radiological emergencies was reviewed by repre-sentatives of competent authorities from Member States.

• The achievements of the Agency’s technical co-operation Model Project on upgrading radiationprotection infrastructure were reviewed. As a result of this review, the project was split into two,with one part concentrating on the most basic infrastructure elements and the other on the moreadvanced milestones.

• A new Occupational Radiation Protection Appraisal Service was launched and the first reviewwas conducted.




1. Radiation Protection: $1 340 4552. Safety of Radiation Sources and Security of

Radioactive Material: $843 5073. Safe Transport of Radioactive Material:

$574 4424. Radiation Emergencies: $566 6495. Operational Services for Radiation Monitoring

and Protection: $350 804

1

23

4

5

R A D I A T I O N P R O T E C T I O N

A technical document published in 2001, Assess-ment by Peer Review of the Effectiveness of aRegulatory Programme for Radiation Safety(IAEA-TECDOC-1217), sets out a methodologyby which the status of a regulatory programmefor radiation safety can be assessed so thatareas where improvements are necessary oruseful can be identified. The methodology wasinitially developed in 1997–1999, and wassubsequently refined on the basis of experiencegained during Agency peer review missions in1999 and 2000. In 2001, Radiation Safety Regu-latory Infrastructure (RSRI) peer reviewmissions visited Niger, Philippines, Thailandand Venezuela.

The technical co-operation Model Project onupgrading radiation protection infrastructurewas initiated in 1995 with the aim of assistingMember States in establishing the infrastruc-ture elements regarded as prerequisites forimplementing the requirements of the Interna-tional Basic Safety Standards for Protectionagainst Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety ofRadiation Sources (BSS). In November, theSecretariat reported to the Board of Governorson the implementation of the Model Projectbetween 1995 and 2001. The levels of attain-ment among the 52 participating States of mile-stone 1, the basic legal and regulatory infra-structure for the control of radiation sources,and milestone 2, a system for controlling occu-pational radiation exposure, were much lowerthan originally expected. Although various diffi-culties had been foreseen, the time needed toovercome them was in some cases underesti-mated. The Secretariat has informed the parti-cipating Member States that new technical co-operation projects involving the use of radiationsources would be proposed to the Board ofGovernors as fully funded projects only afterStates have attained these two milestones. Inthis regard, new technical co-operation projectswere started in 2001 to assist Member States inreaching these milestones. One project each inEurope, Latin America, Africa, West Asia, andEast Asia and the Pacific addresses milestones 1and 2, while the others relate to milestones 3–5(systems for controlling medical exposure andpublic exposure, and for emergency prepared-

ness and response). In addition, 29 otherMember States have requested assistancethrough these new projects.

Medical practice involving the use of ionizingradiation accounts for about 95% of humanexposure from human made sources of radia-tion. Furthermore, accidents during medicaltreatment with radiation continue to occuroccasionally, with severe and sometimes fatalconsequences. A conference on the radiologicalprotection of patients in diagnostic and inter-ventional radiology, nuclear medicine and radio-therapy, held in Málaga, Spain, in March,confirmed that there was scope for reducing theradiological risks involved in both diagnosticand therapeutic uses of radiation without reduc-ing the medical benefits. The conference’s over-all conclusion was that the “relevant interna-tional organizations should convene a group ofexperts, including experts from professionalsocieties and regulatory bodies, to formulate anaction plan based on the findings of theconference for future work relating to the radio-logical protection of patients.” The Board ofGovernors and General Conference endorsedthis conclusion; the action plan will be devel-oped in 2002.

Under the terms of the Convention on Assis-tance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident orRadiological Emergency, Member States canrequest the Agency to provide support and assis-tance, and conduct follow-up investigations inthe event of a radiological accident. In response,the Agency published a report entitled Investi-gation of an Accidental Exposure of Radiother-apy Patients in Panama. Compiled by a team ofexperts, the report contains the assessment of aradiological accident that led to the serious over-exposure of 28 radiotherapy patients inPanama. From August 2000 to February 2001,as the result of a calculational error in the dataentry of a treatment plan, patients were treatedwith doses up to 100% higher than thoseprescribed. The report evaluates the dosesincurred, provides a medical evaluation of theaffected patients’ prognosis and treatment, andpresents a number of findings, conclusions andlessons to be learned. The Agency also issuedadvisory material for Member States describingthe causes of the accident.

R A D I AT I O N S A F E T Y


S A F E T Y O F R A D I A T I O NS O U R C E S A N D S E C U R I T Y O FR A D I O A C T I V E M A T E R I A L

At the request of the Board of Governors, theAgency’s ‘Action Plan for the Safety and Secu-rity of Radiation Sources’ was revised, takinginto consideration the findings of an Agencyconference on ‘National Regulatory Authoritieswith Competence in the Safety of RadiationSources and the Security of Radioactive Materi-als’, which was held in Buenos Aires in Decem-ber 2000. As well as adjusting or emphasizingongoing activities, a number of additional taskswere added. Several of these are aimed atimproving the exchange of information andexperience on various topics covered by theaction plan between the Agency, regulatorybodies, source manufacturers and suppliers,and users of sources. Other new tasks empha-size the promotion of self-assessment of protec-tion arrangements/infrastructure by States andmutual assistance between States, review ofthe use of the Agency’s system for categorizingsources, more guidance and assistance toMember States on locating orphan sources andresponding to emergencies, and rationalizationof the Agency’s databases on radiation sourcesand events. “As a highest priority”, the revisedaction plan calls on the Agency to “explore thepossibility of developing and implementing auniversal system of labelling such that anymember of the public is immediately aware ofthe dangers associated with hazardous radia-tion sources”. It should be emphasized that theplan continues to focus on measures to preventand respond to the unintended absence or lossof control over radiation sources. Althoughsome of these measures might also contribute topreventing or responding to malicious actsinvolving radiation sources, the proper consid-eration of this latter issue calls for differentexpertise and measures, and should be treatedseparately.

In April, the Secretariat organized the FirstAfrica Workshop on the Establishment of aLegal Framework Governing Radiation Protec-tion, the Safety of Radiation Sources and theSafe Management of Radioactive Waste in AddisAbaba. The workshop adopted a “Common Posi-tion”, in which the participants called upon theAgency to “create a forum for African countries

to consider the Code of Conduct on the Safetyand Security of Radioactive Sources and give ita legally binding effect so that the safe andpeaceful use of nuclear technology is notcompromised”. The main elements of theCommon Position were taken into account indrawing up the revised action plan for the safetyand security of radiation sources referred to inthe previous paragraph.

S A F E T R A N S P O R T O FR A D I O A C T I V E M A T E R I A L

In accordance with the review cycle for theAgency’s Transport Regulations, a panelmeeting in November 2001 recommended thepublication of a revised version of the Regula-tions in 2003 as the ‘1996 Edition (As Amended2003)’. The amendments in this new version willthen be incorporated into the mode specificregulations of other international organizationswith effect from 2005.

TranSAS (Transport Safety Appraisal Service)was established by the Agency in 1999 toprovide, at the request of a Member State, anappraisal of that State’s national implementa-tion of the Agency’s Transport Regulations. Thefirst TranSAS mission was to Slovenia and wascompleted in 1999. Requests for furtherTranSAS missions were received from Brazil in2000 and from Panama, Turkey and the UnitedKingdom in 2001. Pre-TranSAS missions toBrazil, Turkey and the United Kingdom hadbeen completed by the end of 2001, and fullTranSAS missions to all three countries areplanned for 2002 (the mission to Panama isexpected to be carried out in 2003).

The final report of a CRP on the severity, proba-bility and risk of accidents during the maritimetransport of radioactive material was publishedin 2001. The report, prepared by the partici-pants from the five Member States, providesestimates of the frequencies of ship collisionsand ship fires. Models of ship collisions led tothe conclusion that even if crush forces wereapplied to a flask due to deep penetration of thehold, the forces would be relieved by the collapseof ship structures rather than that of the flask(Fig. 1). With regard to fires, shipboard testsand analytical modelling indicated that a fire



was not likely to spread to a hold containingradioactive material. If a fire did reach the hold,it was unlikely to burn at a sufficiently hightemperature or for long enough to cause therelease of radioactive material from a Type Bflask. Finally, illustrative analyses indicatedthat neither the loss of a flask into the ocean northe release of radioactive material to the atmos-phere as the result of a severe ship collision thatinitiated a severe fire would be likely to subjectexposed individuals to radiation doses that weresignificant by comparison with normal back-ground doses.

R A D I A T I O N E M E R G E N C I E S

In response to requests for assistance under theConvention on Assistance in the Case of aNuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency,missions were sent to Panama and Poland inrelation to accidents involving radiotherapypatients. In each case the Agency advised on themedical treatment of the victims, assisted inassessing the causes and consequences of theaccidents and ensured that the equipmentinvolved in the accidents was in a safe andsecure condition.

Safety Requirements on preparedness andresponse to a nuclear or radiological emergency

were endorsed by the Commission on SafetyStandards and, if approved by the Board ofGovernors, will be published in 2002. TheRequirements are sponsored by the Agency,FAO, ILO, OECD NEA, UN OCHA, PAHO andWHO.

In May 2001, the Agency participated in aninternational nuclear emergency exercise,JINEX 1. Involving 55 States and jointly spon-sored and co-ordinated by the Agency, the Euro-pean Commission, OECD NEA, WHO andWMO, the exercise was based on a hypotheticalaccident at the Gravelines nuclear power plantin northern France. The main objectives of theexercise were to: test existing national andinternational procedures and arrangements forresponding to a nuclear emergency; co-ordinatethe release of information; and assess the effec-tiveness of advisory and decision making mech-anisms.

The Secretariat held a ‘First Meeting of Repre-sentatives of the National Competent Authori-ties’, identified under the Convention on EarlyNotification of a Nuclear Accident and the Assis-tance Convention, to evaluate the effectivenessof arrangements given in the latest edition ofthe Emergency Notification and Assistance Tech-nical Operations Manual (ENATOM), and toidentify problems that should be resolved before



FIG. 1. Modelling of ship collisions (left) has indicated that the magnitude of crush forces that radioactive mate-rial packages transported by sea are likely to be subjected during even the most severe ship-to-ship collisions islimited by the strength of the side structure of the transporting vessel. The graphic on the right shows the undam-aged container emerging from the side of a ship.

Rigid shells

Rigidshells

Rigid shells

Elastic bricks

Bulkhead

Elastic-plasic shells

Rigidbricks

the next edition is issued in December 2002. Themeeting suggested a number of operationalchanges to the system described in ENATOM,provided detailed comments on the ENATOMdocumentation and recommended a number ofactions to be considered by the Secretariat indeveloping its future plans for strengtheningand harmonizing international emergencypreparedness and response arrangements fornuclear and radiological emergencies.

O P E R A T I O N A L S E R V I C E S F O R R A D I A T I O N M O N I T O R I N GA N D P R O T E C T I O N

A new Occupational Radiation ProtectionAppraisal Service (ORPAS) was developed to‘audit’, against the Agency’s relevant radiationsafety standards, the regulatory and practicalimplementation of occupational radiation protec-tion arrangements in the requesting MemberState. The key objectives of the appraisal are to:provide the host country with an objectiveassessment of the provisions for occupationalradiation protection; identify the strengths inthe host country that are unique and worthbringing to the attention of others; promote theuse of self-assessment by the host country; iden-tify areas where performance should beimproved to meet international standards; andmake recommendations on actions to be taken toachieve such improvements. The first appraisalwas carried out in Slovenia in July.

Quality management has become an importantissue not only in Member State laboratories, butalso in those operated by the Agency. In thisconnection, quality management documentationwas prepared for the Agency’s radiation moni-toring and protection services. The material isconsistent with the relevant ISO standards andAgency safety standards, and comprises thepolicy, scope, objectives, technical procedures,work instructions and checklists applicable tothe Agency’s operational activities in this area.It also provides guidance on the mechanismsand procedures for reviewing and assessing theeffectiveness of protection and safety measuresof the services rendered.

The organization of regional ALARA (as low asreasonably achievable) networks was initiated

with the purpose of providing forums for infor-mation exchange on current practical experi-ence in occupational exposure control. ALARAnetworks will assist Member States participat-ing in the Model Project on upgrading radiationprotection infrastructure in meeting therequirements of milestone 2 on occupationalradiation control.

Exposure to natural radiation sources is esti-mated to account for more than 80% of theannual collective dose worldwide from occupa-tional exposure (uranium mining excluded). Anexpert committee prepared a report on theassessment of occupational protection conditionsin work places with high levels of exposure tonatural radiation to provide further guidance tothe Agency on priority areas for its work. Theexperts recommended that the highest prioritybe placed on developing safety reports for anumber of specific industrial sectors where natu-ral radioactive materials may cause a problem,and on developing detailed guidance on the iden-tification of work places with potentially highradon levels and the necessary remedial actions.

An international intercomparison of measure-ments of the activity of gamma emittingradionuclides in human urine samples found nomajor inconsistencies in the activity valuesmeasured, but some inconsistencies wereobserved in the uncertainty calculations. Over-all, the results showed that occupational moni-toring assessment in the case of an intake ofgamma emitters and measurement of urinesamples is highly satisfactory.

In an ARCAL project on the promotion ofnuclear science and technology in Latin Americaand the Caribbean, two intercomparisons werecarried out. One related to measurements ofambient dose equivalent with radiation protec-tion survey equipment. The results of this inter-comparison showed that the majority of theequipment performed within a 10% deviation,but it also revealed the inadequacy of legalrequirements for equipment calibration and alack of calibration facilities in the region. Theother project focused on measurement of theactivity of radionuclides in food and environ-mental samples. Nine laboratories reportedresults and performed well in the determinationof gamma activity, although some inconsisten-



cies were found in the uncertainty calculationsof the activity values.

External experts conducted a peer review of theAgency’s radiation monitoring and protectionservices. The goal was to help improve the rele-vance, effectiveness, efficiency and impact ofexisting projects and formulate better projects

for the future. The experts recognized theimportance of the Country Radiation and WasteSafety Profiles, acknowledging them as a usefultool for prioritizing and optimizing the use oflimited Agency resources. However, they identi-fied some concerns related to the ownership andmaintenance of the profiles that are beingaddressed.




RADIOACTIVE WASTE SAFETY


To establish safety standards covering themanagement of solid radioactive wastes, thecontrol of discharges of radioactive materialsinto the environment, and the restoration ofenvironments with radioactive residues frompast events and activities; to provide for theapplication of those standards through supportfor the Agency’s technical co-operationprogramme; to service the London Convention1972 and the Joint Convention; and to supportthe Global Programme of Action for Protectionof the Marine Environment from Land-basedActivities.


• Safety standards were published on the decommissioning of nuclear fuel cycle facilities, andprogress was made in the establishment of new consensus standards on geological disposal.

• Recommendations from the Agency’s international conference on the safety of radioactive wastemanagement, held in 2000 in Córdoba, Spain, were incorporated into the Agency’s work plan forthe future.

• Together with the OECD NEA, the Agency organized a peer review of the performance assess-ment being developed for a proposed waste disposal site at Yucca Mountain, in Nevada, USA.



1. Safety of Disposable Radioactive Waste: $622 264

2. Safety of Radioactive Discharges: $581 2013. Safety of Radioactive Residues: $502 525

1

2

3

S A F E T Y O F D I S P O S A B L ER A D I O A C T I V E W A S T E

A specialists meeting in June on the geologicaldisposal of radioactive waste addressed anumber of topics on which consensus still needsto be developed so that Agency safety standardson the subject can be finalized. These included:a common framework for radioactive wastedisposal; demonstrating compliance with safetycriteria; safety indicators (in addition to doseand risk); reference critical groups and bio-spheres; assessment of human intrusion;reversibility and retrievability; and monitoringand institutional control. The meeting helped toclarify and document the areas of agreementthat could be reflected in safety standards, andthe outstanding issues.

At the request of the General Conference in2000, the Agency prepared a report assessingthe implications of the conclusions and recom-mendations from a 2000 conference on thesafety of radioactive waste management on theAgency’s programme of work. The report wasfinalized by taking account of comments duringthe March 2001 session of the Board of Gover-nors and consultations with Member States, andwas endorsed by the General Conference inSeptember. The report highlights seven actions:develop a common framework for the disposal ofdifferent types of radioactive waste; assess thesafety implications of the extended storage ofradioactive waste; promptly develop safety stan-dards for geological disposal; develop an inter-nationally accepted and harmonized approachfor controlling the removal of materials andsites from the regulatory system; develop aprogramme to ensure adequate application ofthe Agency’s waste safety standards; exploreways to ensure that information, knowledge andskills concerning radioactive waste manage-ment are made available to future generations;and develop a programme of work aimed ataddressing the broader social dimensions ofradioactive waste management.

Following its peer review of the biospherecomponent of the United States Department ofEnergy’s (DOE’s) performance assessment of theplanned high level waste repository at YuccaMountain, Nevada, the Agency was requestedby the DOE to conduct, in co-operation with the

OECD NEA, a peer review of the Yucca Moun-tain Total System Performance Assessmentsupporting the site recommendation process(TSPA-SR). The primary objective was to reviewand critically analyse the performance assess-ment methodology and rationale used by theDOE in order to: identify consistencies andinconsistencies with international recommenda-tions, standards and practices; provide a state-ment regarding the adequacy of the overallperformance assessment approach for support-ing the site recommendation decision; andprovide recommendations for technical andother improvements. The international reviewteam assembled by the Agency and the OECDNEA stated that “Overall … the implementedperformance assessment approach provides anadequate basis for supporting a statement onlikely compliance within the regulatory period of10 000 years and, accordingly, for the site recom-mendation decision”. However, based on “agrowing international consensus”, the team alsostressed that “understanding of the repositorysystem and how it provides for safety should beemphasized more in future iterations, bothduring and beyond the regulatory period”. Inthis regard, the team made recommendations ontechnical issues that the DOE should considerfor future assessments.

An expert team visited Lithuania in May at therequest of the local regulatory body to reviewsafety analysis reports (SARs) relating toradioactive waste management facilities at theIgnalina nuclear power plant. The teamreviewed the assumptions, analyses and conclu-sions underlying the safety case presented inthe two SARs, concluding that the documentswere excellent examples of a preliminary SAR.However, a number of improvements were felt tobe necessary before they could be consideredfinal SARs. The team also indicated the kinds ofiterative discussions that would have to takeplace between the regulator and the operator tofinalize the documents.

S A F E T Y O F R A D I O A C T I V ED I S C H A R G E S

A new publication, Generic Models for Use inAssessing the Impact of Discharges of Radioac-tive Substances to the Environment (Safety


R A D I OAC T I V E W A S T E S A F E T Y

Reports Series No. 19), describes an approachfor assessing doses to members of the public aspart of an environmental impact analysis ofpredictive radioactive discharges. This isachieved by using screening models thatdescribe environmental processes in mathemat-ical terms, producing a quantitative result. Thereport supports a Safety Guide on this subjectand supersedes an earlier safety series publica-tion.

In its role as the competent international organ-ization on matters related to radioactive mate-rials in the context of the London Convention1972, the Agency published a report summariz-ing the accidents that have occurred at seainvolving radioactive materials (IAEA-TECDOC-1242). The report was accepted at the22nd Consultative Meeting of the ContractingParties to the Convention. The Agency is alsodeveloping guidance for Contracting Parties onhow to determine when materials being consid-ered for disposal at sea are exempt from theConvention on radiological grounds.

Radiation protection has historically focused onthe protection of people, but an increasingnumber of Member States have expressed inter-est in the protection of the environment as well.A meeting organized by the Agency in Novemberprovided an opportunity for both informationexchange on appropriate regulatory andresearch developments, and also discussion ofmany of the issues being addressed as part ofthe development of guidance. The meetingconcluded that a system for the protection of theenvironment (or biotic components of it) fromthe effects of ionizing radiation should take intoaccount the current state of knowledge, butshould not be restricted by it. Additionalresearch priorities were identified, includingdevelopment of a better understanding of themechanisms by which radiation exposurerelates to protection endpoints and relevantdose–response relationships, and an appropri-ate definition of quantities and units.

S A F E T Y O F R A D I O A C T I V ER E S I D U E S

In Resolution GC(44)/RES/15 in 2000, the Secre-tariat was requested “to develop … during the

next two years … radiological criteria for long-lived radionuclides in commodities, particularlyfoodstuffs and wood”. Development of thesecriteria — intervention exemption levels — has,because of the complexity of the existing systemof exemption, clearance and generic actionlevels, proved to be technically difficult andcontroversial. All of these levels can be regardedas defining the lower boundary of the scope ofcertain aspects of regulatory control. However,because of the differences between theseaspects, and between different approaches toderiving the relevant levels, there are severalsets of values. A Technical Committee meetingin July expressed concern that this could lead toconfusion and contradiction in the implementa-tion and enforcement of regulations. Workcontinued during the year, in consultation withthe Radiation Safety Standards Committee andthe Waste Safety Standards Committee, withthe aim of developing a coherent system ofradionuclide specific levels for defining thescope of regulatory standards which would, atthe same time, respond to the resolution.

Under another technical co-operation project, amission visited Gabon in June to evaluate theremediation programme for the closure of auranium mining site. This was a follow-up to apreliminary radiological assessment of the envi-ronmental impact at the site in 1999 that high-lighted some problems, in particular for thewater downstream of the site. The mission teamfound that about 80% of the remediation workhad been completed, with the remaining work tobe finished by the end of 2002. The radiologicalcondition of the air and of the water down-stream of the site had improved considerablysince 1999. The team concluded that the reme-diation programme was acceptable, but certainimprovements were necessary to ensure theprotection of the public and of the environmentin the medium and long term.

A former uranium mining and milling facility inTajikistan, where the majority of the tailingshave not been stabilized or remediated andrepresent a potential source of radiation expo-sure for the local population and for neighbour-ing countries, was visited by a technical co-oper-ation mission. In this case, the situation had notimproved since a previous visit in 1999. Theteam provided field instruction on proper




monitoring techniques and procedures for iden-tifying areas affected by tailings, and recom-mended the development of a remediation planas a priority.

In September, at the request of the KuwaitiGovernment and in co-operation with UNEPand WHO, the Agency organized a fact-findingmission to Kuwait. The team of experts visitedmost of the sites identified by the Kuwaitiauthorities as having been affected or poten-tially affected by depleted uranium (DU)residues, agreed on the methodology for theassessment which will be part of the study, andformulated a plan for the sampling campaignscheduled for early 2002. The Agency alsocontinued to co-operate with UNEP’s investiga-tions into the consequences of the use of DU inKosovo.

A Safety Guide on the decommissioning ofnuclear fuel cycle facilities was published. Itapplies to facilities such as: surface processingfacilities for the mining and milling of uraniumand thorium; uranium conversion and enrich-ment facilities; fuel fabrication facilities; spentfuel storage facilities away from the reactor;reprocessing facilities; and storage, treatment

and conditioning facilities for radioactivewaste. This is the last in a set of three SafetyGuides on decommissioning, supporting theSafety Requirements publication PredisposalManagement of Radioactive Waste, IncludingDecommissioning, issued in 2000. (SafetyGuides on the decommissioning of nuclearpower plants and research reactors and ofmedical, industrial and research facilities werepublished in 1999.)

As part of a technical co-operation project toassist Kazakhstan in decommissioning the BN-350 fast reactor, the Agency organized aTechnical Committee meeting at the Dounreaysite of the United Kingdom Atomic EnergyAuthority (UKAEA) in June. An importantobjective of the meeting was to pass on the expe-rience of UKAEA personnel in decommissioningthe Dounreay Fast Reactor and Prototype FastReactor to the Kazakh participants. A majorfocus of the presentations made by the UKAEAwas the handling and disposal of sodium and itsresidues, an issue of specific concern for thedecommissioning of sodium cooled fast reactors.The Agency is also providing assistance toLithuania in decommissioning Ignalina, and toUkraine for Chernobyl units 1–3.



CO-ORDINATION OF SAFETY ACTIVITIES


To ensure technical consistency in the Agency’ssafety related functions (revision and develop-ment of safety standards, servicing safetyconventions, safety information exchange andsupport to safety activities in the technical co-operation programme), as well as coherencewith corresponding safety activities carried outby Member States and other internationalorganizations.


• Five safety standards were published, with 16 others approved and in the process of beingpublished.

• Through the technical co-operation programme, the Agency implemented numerous projects inthe areas of nuclear, radiation and waste safety.

• Assistance was provided in the form of training courses, workshops, fellowships and scientificvisits and training for safety professionals in Member States.

• A long term strategy was developed for the Agency’s education and training programmes aimedat promoting self-sustaining training capabilities in Member States.



1. Safety Policies and Standards: $876 1042. Safety Conventions: $516 4613. Safety Information Exchange: $590 3224. Support to the Technical Co-operation

Programme: $439 018

1

2

3

4

S A F E T Y P O L I C I E S A N D S T A N D A R D S

To facilitate use of the Agency’s safety standardsin Member States, the full texts of recentlypublished standards were posted on theAgency’s web site for the first time in 2001 (located at http://www.iaea.org/ns/CoordiNet/safetypubs/inclSStandardsPub-lished.htm). Five revised or new Safety Guideswere published (see Box 1), and 16 other SafetyGuides have been approved and are in theprocess of being published. The Safety Require-ments publication Preparedness and Responsefor a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency (co-sponsored by FAO, ILO, OECD/NEA, UNOCHA, PAHO and WHO) was endorsed by theCommission on Safety Standards (CSS) andsubmitted to the Board of Governors forapproval. A summary of the current status of allthe safety standards is available at the web sitehttp://www.iaea.org/ns/committees/css/STATUS.PDF. Detailed information on the activitiesof the various Safety Standards Committees andthe CSS is also available at this site.

The Agency’s current safety standards on qual-ity assurance for nuclear installations (a Codeand 14 Safety Guides) were issued together onCD-ROM. The electronic version enables theuser to search for and access any topic directlythrough the contents list and by keywordsearches.

For several years the Agency has organized PeerDiscussions on Regulatory Practices, a forum inwhich senior regulators can exchange informa-tion and experiences on current issues. Thetopic for the 2001 round of discussions was‘Quality Management of the Nuclear RegulatoryBody’. The Agency published a report by theregulators, summarizing the discussions andgiving 21 examples of good practices.

The Agency provides the Secretariat for theInternational Nuclear Safety Advisory Group(INSAG), which advises the Director General onnuclear, radiation and radioactive waste safetyfrom a global perspective. In 2001, INSAGapproved a Note on Maintaining Knowledge,Training and Infrastructure for Research andDevelopment in Nuclear Safety, which wasdistributed in interim form at the Agency’sGeneral Conference in September, and a reporton Key Practical Issues in Strengthening SafetyCulture. Both documents will be published bythe Agency in 2002.

S A F E T Y C O N V E N T I O N S

The Joint Convention on the Safety of SpentFuel Management and on the Safety of Radio-active Waste Management entered into force on18 June 2001. A preparatory meeting was heldin December 2001 at which the ContractingParties adopted the rules of procedure and


C O - O R D I N AT I O N O F S A F E T Y AC T I V I T I E S

BOX 1. SAFETY STANDARDS PUBLISHED IN 2001

Safety GuidesSafety Standards

Series No.

● Building competence in radiation protection and the safe use of RS-G-1.4radiation sources (co-sponsored by ILO, PAHO and WHO)

● Decommissioning of nuclear fuel cycle facilities WS-G-2.4

● Modifications to nuclear power plants NS-G-2.3

● Safety assessment and verification for nuclear power plants NS-G-1.2

● The operating organization for nuclear power plants NS-G-2.4

financial rules, as well as guidelines regardingthe review process and the form and structure ofnational reports.

An organizational meeting was held in Septem-ber for the second Review Meeting of Contract-ing Parties to the Convention on Nuclear Safety,which will take place in April 2002. The meetingdecided on the composition of the six countrygroups in which national reports will bediscussed during the Review Meeting, andselected the officers for the meeting and thecountry groups.

S A F E T Y I N F O R M A T I O NE X C H A N G E

The International Nuclear Event Scale (INES)is used by 60 countries to facilitate rapidcommunication to the media and the public onthe safety significance of events at all nuclearinstallations associated with the civil nuclearindustry, including events involving the use ofradiation sources and the transport of radioac-tive material (Fig. 1). In 2001, a new edition ofthe INES User’s Manual was published incorpo-rating experience gained from applying the 1992



BOX 2. SAFETY STANDARDS APPROVED AND IN THE PROCESS OF BEING PUBLISHED

Safety GuidesSafety Standards

Series No.

● Advisory material for the Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material TS-G-1.1

● Core management and fuel handling in nuclear power plants NS-G-2.5

● Dispersion of radioactive material in air and water and consideration of NS-G-3.2the population distribution in site evaluation for nuclear power plants

● Documentation for use in regulating nuclear facilities GS-G-1.4

● External human induced events in site evaluation for nuclear power plants NS-G-3.1

● Instrumentation and control systems important to safety in nuclear power plants NS-G-1.3

● Maintenance, surveillance and in-service inspection in nuclear power plants NS-G-2.6

● Management of radioactive waste from the mining and milling of ores WS-G-1.2

● Organization and staffing of the regulatory body for nuclear facilities GS-G-1.1

● Planning and preparing for emergency response to transport accidents involving radioactive material TS-G-1.2

● Predisposal management of high level radioactive waste WS-G-2.6

● Predisposal management of low and intermediate level radioactive waste WS-G-2.5

● Radiation protection and radioactive waste management in the operation of NS-G-2.7nuclear power plants

● Radiological protection for medical exposure to ionizing radiation (co-sponsored by PAHO and WHO) RS-G-1.5

● Regulatory inspection of nuclear facilities and enforcement by the regulatory body GS-G-1.3

● Review and assessment of nuclear facilities by the regulatory body GS-G-1.2

version of the scale and clarification of variousissues raised during that period. A total of 28events were reported in 2001, of which 6 wererated at level 0, 8 at level 1 and 14 at level 2.

In co-operation with the OECD NEA and theWorld Association of Nuclear Operators(WANO), the Agency developed a NuclearEvents Web-based System (NEWS) to helpdisseminate information on events to partici-pants in Member States more quickly and easily.The system underwent a one year trial begin-ning early in 2001 and is expected to go into fulloperation early in 2002. The success of thesystem will ultimately depend upon the readi-ness of participants to disseminate informationon events quickly.

S U P P O R T T O T H E T E C H N I C A LC O - O P E R A T I O N P R O G R A M M E

During 2001, approximately 150 technical co-operation projects were supported, correspon-

ding to an adjusted budget of about $18 million,in the areas of nuclear, radiation, transport andwaste safety. In addition, about 110 trainingcourses, workshops and seminars were held,most organized through the technical co-opera-tion programme, but some also a part of theextrabudgetary programmes on the Safety ofNuclear Installations in the South East Asia,Pacific and Far East Countries, and on Mitiga-tion of Intergranular Stress Corrosion Crackingin RBMK Reactors. The bulk of the trainingactivities in radiation and waste safety wereorganized within the framework of the technicalco-operation Model Project on upgrading radia-tion protection infrastructure.

Regional technical co-operation projects, includ-ing training courses, can be made more effectiveby consolidating objectives common to anumber of Member States. In this regard, train-ing courses in nuclear safety were held inFrance (for the Europe region) and in the USA(under the Extrabudgetary Programme on theSafety of Nuclear Installations in the SouthEast Asia, Pacific and Far East Countries).Post-graduate educational courses in radiationprotection and the safety of radiation sourceswere held in South Africa (for the Africa region)and in Malaysia (for the East Asia region), anda post-graduate diploma course on radiationprotection (in Arabic) was held in the SyrianArab Republic. The regular post-graduateeducational course in radiation protection andnuclear safety (in Spanish) was held inArgentina.

Two Advisory Group meetings were held oneducation and training in nuclear safety and inradiation and waste safety. The recommenda-tions of the Advisory Groups were used todevelop a strategy for the Agency’s activities insupport of education and training. There is agap between the knowledge needed in MemberStates and the ability of the Agency to providetraining. Therefore, as a complement to itseducational and training courses, the Agency isconcentrating on helping Member States toestablish sustainable national education andtraining programmes that are consistent withinternational safety standards. An essentialelement of this effort is the development ofmodel training curriculums that can be used intraining the trainers who will ultimately



FIG. 1. The International Nuclear Event Scale.

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

MAJOR ACCIDENT

SERIOUS ACCIDENT

SERIOUS INCIDENT

INCIDENT

ANOMALY

DEVIATION

INCIDENT

ACCIDENT

ACCIDENT WITHOUT SIGNIFICANTOFF-SITE RISK

BELOW SCALENO SAFETY SIGNIFICANCE

ACCIDENT WITH OFF-SITE RISK


implement the national programmes. Othermeasures to be adopted include: greater use ofdistance learning to complement more tradi-tional training; development of modular train-ing material, which allows flexibility in thechoice of material; increasing the use of andaccess to computer based material; and asystematic approach to the establishment ofregional and national training centres and tothe development of a network of such centres. Anew feature of the Agency’s training activities isthe provision of advisory services to MemberStates wishing to evaluate their national train-

ing needs, and to organize and assist with therequired training, or peer reviews of existingnational programmes.

A pilot project was launched in 2001 to test theAgency’s model programme for the training ofregulatory staff for nuclear facilities in selectedMember States (currently Pakistan, the Russ-ian Federation and Slovakia, with the likelyfuture addition of Brazil). The programme usesa systematic competency framework to deter-mine the training needed and to identify gaps inexisting national programmes.


The Agency’sProgramme in 2001:Verification

SAFEGUARDS


To provide the international community,through the application of the Agency’s safe-guards system, with independent assurancethat States are complying with their safe-guards commitments.

T H E S A F E G U A R D SS T A T E M E N T F O R 2 0 0 1

In fulfilling the safeguards obligations of theAgency in 2001, the Secretariat — having eval-uated all the information acquired in imple-menting safeguards agreements and all otherinformation available to the Agency — found noindication of diversion of nuclear materialplaced under safeguards nor of misuse of facilities, equipment or non-nuclear material placed undersafeguards. On this basis, the Secretariat concluded that, in 2001, the nuclear material and otheritems placed under safeguards remained in peaceful nuclear activities or were otherwise adequatelyaccounted for.

Notwithstanding the conclusion above, the Agency is still unable to verify the correctness andcompleteness of the initial report of nuclear material made by the Democratic People’s Republic ofKorea (DPRK) and is, therefore, unable to conclude that all nuclear material subject to safeguardshas been declared. The DPRK remains in non-compliance with its safeguards agreement, which is inforce and binding. In 2001, the Agency maintained a continuous inspector presence in Nyongbyon tomonitor the freeze of the DPRK’s graphite moderated reactors and related facilities.

From 1991 to 1998, the Agency’s safeguards activities in Iraq under the comprehensive safeguardsagreement concluded pursuant to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)were implemented as part of the activities carried out by the Agency in that State pursuant to UnitedNations Security Council Resolution 687 and related resolutions. Since December 1998, the Agencyhas not been in a position to implement its Security Council mandated activities in Iraq. Pursuant toits safeguards agreement with Iraq, for the year 2001 the Agency conducted a physical inventory veri-fication of the nuclear material placed under safeguards in Iraq and verified the presence of thenuclear material in question.

In 2001, with regard to nine States, the Secretariat — having evaluated all the information obtainedthrough activities pursuant to these States’ comprehensive safeguards agreements and additionalprotocols, and all other information available to the Agency — found no indication of undeclarednuclear material or activities in those States. On this basis, and taking into account the conclusionreferred to in the first paragraph of this statement, the Secretariat concluded that all nuclear mate-rial in those States had been placed under safeguards and remained in peaceful nuclear activities orwas otherwise adequately accounted for. In the case of the other 16 States with comprehensive safe-guards agreements and additional protocols in force, the Agency’s evaluations for drawing such aconclusion are in progress.


Regular budget expenditure: $69 970 800Extrabudgetary programme expenditure (not included in chart): $15 172 034

1. Operations: $53 117 9082. Development and Support: $14 764 9573. Management: $2 087 935

1

2

3


• A comprehensive safeguards agreementpursuant to the Treaty on the Non-Prolifer-ation of Nuclear weapons (NPT) enteredinto force for the Lao People’s DemocraticRepublic. An exchange of letters betweenthe Agency and Colombia entered into forcewhich provides that Colombia’s safeguardsagreement concluded pursuant to theTreaty of Tlatelolco satisfies the require-ments of Colombia under the NPT. Compre-hensive safeguards agreements pursuant tothe NPT with Andorra and Oman weresigned and one for Niger was approved bythe Board of Governors.

• Since the approval in 1997 of the ModelAdditional Protocol, activities related to thenegotiation and implementation of addi-tional protocols have significantlyincreased. In 2001, protocols additional tosafeguards agreements came into force forBangladesh, Ecuador, Latvia, Panama,Peru and Turkey. In addition, Andorra,Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mongolia and Nige-ria signed protocols additional to their safe-guards agreements. Of the European Union(EU) non-nuclear-weapon States (NNWSs),Austria and Portugal notified the Agencythat the additional protocol had been rati-fied by their respective governments, bring-ing the total number of EU NNWSs havingratified additional protocols to eight(Austria, Finland, Germany, Greece,Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and Sweden).The United Kingdom indicated that it hadcompleted all internal preparations forentry into force of the protocol between it,the Agency and Euratom.

• By the end of 2001, additional protocols for61 States had been approved by the Boardof Governors and subsequently signed.Twenty-four such protocols were in forcewith Australia, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh,Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Ecuador, theHoly See, Hungary, Indonesia, Japan,Jordan, Latvia, Lithuania, Monaco, NewZealand, Norway, Panama, Peru, Poland,Romania, Slovenia, Turkey and Uzbekistan(see Fig. 1). Furthermore, an additionalprotocol with Ghana was being imple-

mented provisionally pending entry intoforce. Measures foreseen under the ModelAdditional Protocol were implemented inTaiwan, China.

• The development of a conceptual frame-work for integrated safeguards wascompleted as a priority item. This frame-work comprises the set of safeguardsconcepts, approaches, guidelines and crite-ria that govern the design, implementationand evaluation of integrated safeguards.When applied, it will ensure that there isconsistent, non-discriminatory implemen-tation of integrated safeguards in Stateswith similar types of facility and fuel cycle.

— Model integrated safeguardsapproaches were developed for threemore generic facility types: for LWRswith mixed oxide (MOX) fuel, for on-load refuelled reactors; and for fabrica-tion plants for depleted, natural andlow enriched uranium (LEU) fuel. Inaddition, the Agency refined the inte-grated safeguards approaches forLWRs without MOX fuel, for researchreactors and for spent fuel storagefacilities that had been developed in

S A F E G UA R D S


FIG. 1. Number of States with additional protocols inforce. (In addition, in Ghana an additional protocol isbeing applied provisionally since June 1998.Measures foreseen under the Model Additional Proto-col were also applied in Taiwan, China.) In the contextof this report, “significant nuclear activities” means aState that has any amount of nuclear material in afacility or location outside facilities or nuclear materialin excess of the limits in paragraph 37 ofINFCIRC/153.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1998 1999 2000 2001

2

4

12

16

18

24

5

8

3 46

8

For States with significant nuclear activities

For States without significant nuclear activities

2000. Guidelines for the design of anintegrated safeguards approach for aState were developed and are beingused to prepare State level integratedsafeguards approaches for specificStates.

— A significant accomplishment is thefirst implementation of integratedsafeguards in a State, namelyAustralia, beginning in 2001.

• Introduced as a key safeguards strengthen-ing measure in the mid-1990s, the evalua-tion of information on a State’s nuclearprogramme for safeguards purposes is nowan integral part of the process of derivingconclusions about the non-diversion ofdeclared nuclear material and, whereappropriate, about the absence of unde-clared nuclear material and activities inthat State.

— The information available to theAgency for analysing a State’s nuclearactivities has increased steadily owingto: the growing number of Statesproviding declarations pursuant toadditional protocols; increased accessto nuclear sites, including complemen-tary access; information collectionthrough the use of additional opensources and software; exploitation ofnew technologies such as commercialsatellite imagery; and informationvoluntarily provided by MemberStates.

— The Agency allocated substantialresources to meet the new require-ments emerging from increased infor-mation collection, analysis and evalua-tion activities, such as the review ofdeclarations1 pursuant to additionalprotocols and the preparation andreview of State evaluation reports.Forty-one State evaluation reports2

were prepared by the Agency for thepurpose of drawing safeguards conclu-sions for 2001 compared with 32 for2000 and 17 for 1999 (see Box 1 andFig. 2). In addition, there was comple-mentary access (see Fig. 3) to confirmthe absence of undeclared nuclearmaterial and activities in 13 States.During 2001, seven States submittedtheir initial declarations, pursuant toArticles 2 and 3 of their additionalprotocols, to the Agency for review.

S A F E G UA R D S


1 The Model Protocol Additional to Safeguards Agreements (INFCIRC/540 (Corr.)), approved by the Board of Governorsin May 1997, provides for a State to declare information about all its activities related to the use of nuclear materialto the Agency. Furthermore, it provides for expanded physical access (complementary access) for Agency inspectors toconfirm the State’s declarations

2 In addition, one evaluation report was prepared for Taiwan, China.

FIG. 2. State evaluation reports (completed andreviewed).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

5

58

18

5

12

12

24

23

41

32

17

12

Years (beginning March – end February)

Reports which include evaluationsof additional protocol declarations

FIG. 3. Complementary access (CA), 1998–2001.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

3

88

108

1998 1999 2000 2001

CA

• The first phase of the development of soft-ware to assist in the review and evaluationof additional protocol declarations wascompleted. Regarding the use of satelliteimagery, commercial sources of high resolu-tion imagery were diversified to enhancequality and independence of the informa-tion available to the Agency. Geo-referenceddatasets that enable information to bestored and referenced based on global loca-tion were expanded.

• The ninth symposium on ‘InternationalSafeguards: Verification and Nuclear Mate-rial Security’ was held in Vienna in Octo-ber–November 2001, drawing considerableinterest from the general public and themedia. The topics covered the full spectrumof current nuclear security interests, suchas non-proliferation and nuclear materialsecurity. Taking note of the September 11attacks in the USA, a special session oncombating nuclear terrorism was added.Experts from outside the Agency wereinvited to describe the potential threatsarising from the possibility of nuclearterrorism.

• The Agency spent $70.8 million in regularbudget funds (equivalent to $82.9 million at

an exchange rate of 12.70 AustrianSchillings to the US dollar) on activitiesrelated to nuclear verification and the secu-rity of material, divided between$70 million for the implementation of safe-guards and $0.8 million for the security ofmaterial programme. It should be notedthat 18.3% of all expenditures($15.1 million for safeguards implementa-tion and $0.76 million for the security ofmaterial) came from extrabudgetaryresources. In particular, extrabudgetaryfunds were used for the procurement ofsafeguards equipment required forstrengthening safeguards and to supportMember States, particularly in the areas ofphysical protection and trafficking. In orderto cover staff costs, a significant amount ofmoney originally budgeted for equipmentwas reallocated, leading to an increaseddependence on Member States for extra-budgetary assistance.

O P E R A T I O N S

Safeguards implementation. At the end of2001, safeguards activities were being appliedat 908 facilities in 70 States (and in Taiwan,

S A F E G UA R D S


BOX 1. EVALUATING INFORMATION ON A STATE’S NUCLEAR PROGRAMME — A KEY SAFE-GUARDS STRENGTHENING MEASURE

All information available to the Agency on a State’s nuclear programme is subject to continuous review.State evaluations take place in three stages:

1. Through baseline evaluation of a State’s nuclear programme, a profile is developed against which tocompare and assess new information for safeguards purposes.

2. Further evaluation following the implementation of an additional protocol in a State includes consid-eration of the information contained in the initial declarations of a State pursuant to an additionalprotocol and the results of other activities conducted, as needed, under the additional protocol. Thisevaluation is essential for drawing a conclusion of the absence of undeclared nuclear material andactivities in a State.

3. Continuing evaluation of the State’s nuclear programme, including consideration of updated informa-tion regarding a State, as well as updated declarations and activities conducted pursuant to anadditional protocol. This ongoing evaluation is critical for maintaining the Agency’s ability to regularlyreaffirm its conclusions. ■

China). In addition to the activities mentionedabove, noteworthy activities included the follow-ing:

— A Short Notice Random Inspection schemewas fully implemented at four LEU fuelfabrication facilities in Japan. In thiscontext, short notice inspections wereperformed for the first time at JapaneseLWRs to facilitate the fulfilment of safe-guards criteria for LEU fuel fabricationplants.

— The absence of nuclear material in the coreof an on-load reactor in Japan was verifiedprior to the start of decommissioning.

— The Agency successfully maintained conti-nuity of knowledge on 28 fresh MOX fuelassemblies that had been manufactured inBelgium in 2000, re-packed into containerssuitable for transportation by sea andsubsequently stored in a French facilitythroughout 2000 and shipped to Japan inJanuary 2001.

Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant (RRP). Thesafeguards approach for the new large repro-cessing plant that is being built by JapanNuclear Fuel Ltd (JNFL) was further refined.The plant is expected to start operation in 2005.Specifications for the design, procurement,installation, testing and acceptance of safe-guards equipment and software systems wereproduced. The construction of an On-site Analyt-ical Laboratory (OSL) progressed with theinstallation of glove boxes and hot cells. Agencysupport for the OSL included carrying out taskson analytical instrumentation/methods such ashybrid K-edge densitometry, spectrophotometry,alpha/gamma spectrometry and density meas-urement. In addition, a robotized sample prepa-ration system that had been developed with theassistance of a Member State SupportProgramme (MSSP) was successfully trans-ferred to Japan. In 2001, more than 100 person-days in the field were required for examinationand verification of design information, includingtank calibration. When the plant is in full oper-ation, it is expected to require at least 900person-days of verification in the field per year,which represents an increase of about 10% ofthe total safeguards inspection activities in thefield.

Spent fuel verification. Agency activitiesrelated to the verification of spent fuel and thetransfer of spent fuel to dry storage are continu-ously increasing. Significant transfers of spentfuel to dry storage facilities were undertaken inGermany (involving material that was returnedfrom intermediate storage in the United King-dom), Czech Republic, Belgium, Hungary,Argentina, Canada, India and Switzerland.

Preparations for safeguarding spent fuel trans-fers from the three shut down reactor units atChernobyl to on-site storage began in 2001. Sofar, the design of integrated non-destructiveassay (NDA), a containment/surveillance (C/S)monitoring system for the conditioning and stor-age of spent fuel and user requirements for amonitoring system for the transport of the safe-guarded material within the facility have beencompleted. These preparations required closeco-operation between the US MSSP, Ukraine,Framatome and the Agency.

Phase I of a canning campaign in Kazakhstaninvolving the verification of irradiated fuel to becanned for long term storage was completed.The canned fuel is to be maintained under dualC/S measures. Satellite communication equip-ment installed in January was used for aremote monitoring (RM) test which continuedthroughout the year to assess the technical andeconomical feasibility of RM for safeguards atthe Kazakh facility. Video and radiation datawere received successfully at Agency Headquar-ters.

New equipment for the verification of spent fuelwas developed, including:

— An improved Spent Fuel Attribute Testersystem to facilitate the verification ofWWER-1000 spent fuel assemblies withlow burnup and long cooling time. Thesystem was successfully tested in co-opera-tion with the Finnish Support Programme,Ukrainian facilities and the UkrainianGovernment.

— A new type of Fork Detector system for theverification of spent fuel from WWER-1000reactors. This system was successfullytested at a facility in Ukraine and subse-quently put into use during the transfer

S A F E G UA R D S


campaign of spent fuel assemblies from areactor at this facility to dry storage.

Co-operation with regional and Stateauthorities. The Agency made progress innegotiating Subsidiary Arrangements inconnection with safeguards agreements. A newGeneral Part entered into force for Armenia.Revised General Parts entered into force for theCzech Republic, Estonia, the Islamic Republic ofIran, Hungary, Slovakia, Ukraine and theFederal Republic of Yugoslavia. Ten FacilityAttachments entered into force for facilities inArgentina, Armenia, Brazil, the Czech Republic,Japan and Slovenia.

A Memorandum of Understanding between theAgency and the Republic of Korea for enhancedco-operation in safeguards implementation atLWRs was signed in October. Arrangementsinclude: training of State System of Accountingand Control (SSAC) personnel; electronic trans-fer of encrypted operational/accounting data toAgency Headquarters; use of remote datatransmission equipment; joint use of safeguardsequipment; and joint inspection procedures.Successful field trials were conducted involvingthree nuclear sites (one reactor per site); as aresult the scheme was implemented as of Janu-ary 2002.

Substantial contributions were made throughMSSPs to Agency safeguards. The followingStates and organizations have formal supportprogrammes: Argentina, Australia, Belgium,Canada, the European Union, Finland, France,Germany, Hungary, Japan, Netherlands, theRepublic of Korea, the Russian Federation,Sweden, the United Kingdom and the USA.There were 246 MSSP tasks under way address-ing needs identified by the Agency through itsnew R&D programme, which also facilitatedrationalization of the different tasks.

Entry into force of the additional protocol for the13 EU NNWSs will only take place followingratification by all 15 EU States. At the end of2001, ratification by six EU States (Belgium,Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy and Luxem-burg) was still lacking. In preparation for theapproaching additional protocol implementa-tion, an Agency–Euratom working group wasestablished to draft procedures for information

flow, interface arrangements for complementaryaccess and assistance and advice to EU MemberStates in compiling their initial declarations.The Agency continued field trials of elements ofthe additional protocol in Finland and Nether-lands initiated in 2000. These trials areintended to test the individual reporting respon-sibilities of Euratom and Member States.

Activities in nuclear weapon States. Inspec-tions continued to be carried out at plutoniumand high enriched uranium (HEU) storage facil-ities following the decision by the USA in 1993to submit to Agency safeguards nuclear materialspecified as no longer required for militarypurposes (Table I).

The shipment area of a MOX fuel fabricationfacility in France was designated for the verifi-cation of shipment of MOX fuel assemblies toJapan. The designation of this part of the facil-ity for safeguards will permit more effectiveallocation of Agency resources for verificationactivities in Japan.

The possibility of reducing Agency resourcesallocated to safeguarding two plutonium storagefacilities in the United Kingdom was discussedwith State authorities. As a result, an optimizedsafeguards approach has been drawn up, whichincludes the application of dual C/S measures atthe storage facilities together with off-site datareview.

In China, limited frequency unannouncedaccess started in the cascade hall of an enrich-ment plant.

Co-operation with ABACC was intensified,particularly in the form of the common use ofsafeguards equipment installed and owned byABACC and the Agency, and in conducting jointinspection activities at facilities in Argentinaand Brazil.

Trilateral Initiative. Some progress was madetowards the resolution of the legal, technicaland financial issues associated with the verifi-cation of weapons origin and other fissile mate-rial specified by the Russian Federation and theUSA as released from defence programmes. Theverification methodologies for classified forms offissile material, including nuclear weapon

S A F E G UA R D S


components, were agreed at the conceptuallevel, and development work related to specificsystems to be employed in both States was initi-ated. The work under way is shifting from thedevelopment and testing of concepts to theconstruction of specific systems intended for usein specified facilities.

D E V E L O P M E N T A N D S U P P O R T

The first phase of developing software to assistin the review and evaluation of Member Stateadditional protocol declarations was completed.With this software, documents, image reviewresults and other types of data can be trans-ferred electronically and integrated with addi-tional protocol declarations.

Material balance evaluation is an importantcomponent of safeguards implementation. Inorder to describe the statistical methodologyand ensure consistency in the evaluations, a

new guide documenting the material balanceevaluation process within the Agency wasissued. Furthermore, the Agency started devel-opment of software for the quality control ofMember State nuclear material accountingreports to the Agency. The software can be usedby Member States to improve the quality oftheir accounting reports.

The collection and evaluation of both opensource information and information declared byStates was electronically supported for Stateevaluations and the review of safeguards imple-mentation. The open source system wasexpanded to over 3.7 million documents. Newsoftware was introduced to improve the organi-zation of this large quantity of information andto facilitate its analysis.

The Agency’s Satellite Imagery Analysis Labora-tory produced 34 reports documenting analysesof satellite images. The EU Support Programmehas developed Geographical Information

S A F E G UA R D S


TABLE I. VERIFICATION ACTIVITIES IN 2001

1999 2000 2001

Person-days of inspection 10 190 10 264 10 314

Number of new or revised Subsidiary Arrangements negotiated

— General Parts 2 2 9

— Facility Attachments 118 26 10

Nuclear material accountancy measures

Number of nuclear material samples analysed 650 621 831

Number of nuclear material analytical results reported 1356 1401 1747

Number of environmental swipe samples taken 149 224 263

Nuclear material under safeguards (in tonnes)

Plutonium contained in irradiated fuel (including recycled plutonium in fuel elements in reactor cores) 617 654 690

Separated plutonium outside the reactor core 67 72.2 77.5

High enriched uranium 21.2 21.8 20.9

Low enriched uranium 49 408 48 974 50 079

Source material 91 647 91 686 94 940

System (GIS) software for associating satelliteimagery with other information relevant todeclared nuclear sites. Under the GermanMSSP, a system has been developed which canbe applied to the GIS to detect significantchanges over time at declared sites. Altogether,eight MSSPs are involved in the Agency’s acti-vities in satellite imagery analysis.

In 2001, software to support inspection activi-ties in the field was developed and configuredfor 23 facilities. Functions include the on-sitesupport of the examination of accountingrecords and updating of inventories, verificationof the physical inventory, and comparison ofrecords with State reports. In addition, softwarefor data gathering and evaluation to be used intank calibration activities was developed, partof which is now in use at reprocessing facilitiesin Japan.

In order to increase the security of informationwithin the Agency’s safeguards network, thefirewall configuration has been enhanced. Inaddition, current electronic security measureswere evaluated and improvements were initi-ated. Further security measures are in the testphase (e.g. biometric authentication). TheAgency’s secure communications structures forprocessing nuclear material accounting reportshave been expanded to allow the receipt of datafrom several States via e-mail.

With regard to quality assurance, the Agency’ssafeguards software development process wascertified as being compliant with Level II of theCapability Maturity Model for software engi-neering developed by the Software EngineeringInstitute of Carnegie Mellon University in theUSA. The assessment was performed by accred-ited external auditors.

Development and installation of equip-ment. The implementation of remote monitor-ing continued at a reduced rate due to the needto improve its cost effectiveness and reliability.In 2001, solutions were found to reduce the radi-ation susceptibility of the digital camera moduleand, as a result, the replacement of obsolete filmand video surveillance systems resumed. Duringthe year, 62 digital cameras, connected to 32systems, were installed, either replacing ageingand obsolete film and videotape surveillance

units, or as new installations. By the end of theyear, 350 digital cameras were in operation,connected to 206 surveillance systems. Thirty ofthese systems were operating in an RM mode inBelarus, Japan, the Republic of Korea, SouthAfrica, Sweden, Switzerland and Ukraine, andin Taiwan, China.

Among the new equipment developed was aportable digital surveillance system. In addi-tion, a new multi-camera digital surveillancesystem was tested and is expected to be author-ized for inspection use in early 2002. New elec-tronic seals to replace the current VACOSS elec-tronic seals were developed by the German andFrench MSSPs and by a commercial companyfrom the USA. They will be tested in 2002.

More VXI Integrated Fuel Monitor (VIFM)based monitoring systems were installed. Theseplay a key role in the spent fuel monitoring ofon-load refuelled reactors. Presently, 23 VIFMsystems are installed in seven facilities world-wide. In addition, problems regarding reliabilityand usability were resolved.

In support of strengthened safeguards and theimplementation of additional protocols, theFieldspec (HM-5) handheld monitor was author-ized for use. This portable, lightweight, sodiumiodide based instrument can determine the pres-ence of radioactive materials. It is useful forboth inspection verification activities andcomplementary access. It also has direct appli-cation in searches for indications of the illicittrafficking of nuclear material.

The Agency further standardized equipment,thereby reducing the number of equipmenttypes being utilized in the field. Also, animproved preventive maintenance programmefor safeguards equipment was initiated. Signifi-cant preparatory work included analysing main-tenance records in order to establish the servicehistory of each instrument, which serves as thebasis for devising preventive maintenance plansfor each equipment type.

Safeguards analytical laboratories andcapabilities. In the Safeguards AnalyticalLaboratory (SAL) at Seibersdorf and theNetwork of Analytical Laboratories (NWAL),842 samples of nuclear materials and

S A F E G UA R D S


heavy water were analysed and 1769 results forthe material accountancy verification of facilityoperators’ declarations were provided. In addi-tion, 151 samples were measured for other purposes such as for the Agency’s Iraq Action Team under UN Security CouncilResolution 687 and for validation of the in situverification method of uranium mining. In support of Agency activities in relation to theillicit trafficking of nuclear material, SAL provided results of nine samples from an illicit trafficking incident and participated —in collaboration with the Austrian ResearchCenters — in an interlaboratory round robin comparison exercise organized by theInternational Trafficking Working Group involv-ing the characterization of HEU oxide powder.

A major achievement is SAL’s ability to analyseneptunium and curium in spent fuel and highlyradioactive liquid waste samples. Neptuniumanalysis will be used for flowsheet verification offacilities, with the potential to separate neptu-nium to confirm that the facilities are beingoperated as declared. Curium analysis is for thesupport of in situ NDA measurements.

The Clean Laboratory of SAL received 263 envi-ronmental samples, including 20 samples of airfilters, soil, swipes and vegetation from a fieldtrial of air particulate sampling. The staff of theClean Laboratory also collaborated with expertsfrom the Khlopin Radium Institute in St.Petersburg, Russian Federation, and the LosAlamos National Laboratory, in the USA, on thedevelopment of new sample preparation proce-dures. Techniques were developed for the index-ing and relocation of micrometer sized particleswith scanning electron microscopy and second-ary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), permittingboth the elemental and isotopic analysis ofselected particles. SAL also participated in a

round robin exercise on particle analysis withthe Institute for Transuranium Elements, inKarlsruhe, Germany, preparing a number of testsamples to be measured by seven SIMS labora-tories in the NWAL.

A revised and updated version of InternationalTarget Values (ITVs) for uncertainty compo-nents in measurements of nuclear materialswas published. The ITVs reflect the currentstate of measurement capabilities achievable forall major destructive and NDA measurementtechniques used in safeguards verification activ-ities. They are intended for use by facility oper-ators and safeguards organizations as a refer-ence of the quality of measurements achievablein nuclear material accountancy.

Training. The safeguards training curriculumwas enhanced with updated training courses.The 45th and 46th introductory courses onAgency safeguards were organized for 29 newsafeguards inspectors. A new training course forAgency and Euratom inspectors on New Part-nership Arrangements concerning safeguardsfor specific facility types took place in Vienna.Workshops and training on special aspects ofsafeguards, such as nuclear material account-ing, additional protocol related issues and newsafeguards concepts were held with the finan-cial assistance of Member States

With the assistance of the Swedish MSSP, asatellite imagery awareness course designed forinspectors and other Agency users of imagerywas developed and conducted in Vienna.

In preparation for the application of qualitymanagement techniques to all safeguards activ-ities, a workshop on a quality managementsystem was developed and four workshops wereheld.

S A F E G UA R D S


SECURITY OF MATERIAL


To improve Member States’ ability to protectnuclear and other radioactive material,through exchange of information, provision ofstandards and guides, training, expert assis-tance and equipment, from subnational, terror-ist or other illegal activities that could imposea proliferation threat, or could endanger healthand safety; and to detect and respond to suchincidents


• The tragic terrorist attacks that occurred in the USA on 11 September 2001 have resulted inconsiderable attention being focused on assuring the effectiveness of security measures for theprotection of nuclear facilities, nuclear materials and other radioactive materials. Of utmostconcern is the level of protection against terrorist activity and subnational threats.

• The Agency organized an international conference entitled ‘Security of Material: Measures toPrevent, Intercept and Respond to Illicit Uses of Nuclear Material and Radioactive Sources’,which was held in Stockholm in May.

• Responding to a resolution from the General Conference, the Secretariat presented a report,‘Measures to Improve the Security of Nuclear Materials and other Radioactive Materials’, whichincluded a plan of activities for the Agency’s work in this area. This was endorsed by the Boardof Governors, and the General Conference took note of the plan in September.

• The expert meeting to discuss whether there is a need to revise the Convention on the PhysicalProtection of Nuclear Material (CPPNM), convened by the Director General, completed its work,concluding that there “was a clear need to strengthen the international physical protectionregime”. Upon the recommendation of the meeting, an open-ended group of legal and technicalexperts began to prepare a draft amendment to the CPPNM.

• The Board of Governors also endorsed the ‘Physical Protection Objectives and the FundamentalPrinciples’ as a Security Fundamentals document. This endorsement was welcomed by theGeneral Conference.


Regular budget expenditure: $869 058Extrabudgetary programme expenditure


1. Protecting and Controlling Nuclear Material: $316 233

2. Illegal Activities Involving Nuclear and other Radioactive Material: $288 006

3. Protection of other Radioactive Material: $264 819

1

2

3

Note: The headings in this chapter reflect a rearrangement of activities during 2001 in the Agency’sprogramme on the security of nuclear and radioactive material.

• Responding to a resolution from theGeneral Conference in September, whichrequested the Director General to reviewthoroughly the activities and programmesof the Secretariat with a view to strength-ening work relevant to preventing acts ofterrorism involving nuclear materials andother radioactive sources, the DirectorGeneral presented a report to the Board ofGovernors in November. Entitled ‘Protec-tion Against Nuclear Terrorism’, it outlinedthe Secretariat’s response to the resolutionadopted at the General Conference; activi-ties in the field of the security of materialwere a major component of the report.

• In response to requests from MemberStates, the Secretariat continued to organ-ize advisory missions, training courses andworkshops to improve the effectiveness ofmeasures for the security of nuclear andradioactive material. Following the eventsof September, the demand for these servicesincreased greatly.

P R O T E C T I N G A N D C O N T R O L L I N G N U C L E A RM A T E R I A L

Continuing its support to Member States inevaluating their national systems of physicalprotection, the Agency conducted InternationalPhysical Protection Advisory Service (IPPAS)missions to Indonesia and Ukraine. Good prac-tices and recommendations for improving phys-ical protection were provided to the governmentauthorities in these countries. Preparatorymeetings were held with two Member States toconduct missions to follow-up previous IPPASmissions. A fact-finding, broadened IPPASmission, covering the security of nuclear andother radioactive material and evaluating theneed for security arrangements at a nuclearresearch centre, visited Tunisia.

In response to an increased need to incorporatea ‘design basis threat’ (DBT) as part of a Statesystem of physical protection, the Agencyconducted three workshops, in Kazakhstan,Romania and Slovakia, to assist the competentauthorities in those States with the develop-ment and maintenance of a national DBT.

Another workshop to foster regional co-opera-tion in common physical protection issues washeld in Lithuania. A regional training course onthe physical protection of nuclear material andfacilities was held in Brno, Czech Republic.Finally, a new hands-on physical protectiontraining course on the practical aspects of phys-ical protection equipment installation and main-tenance was held in Obninsk, Russian Federa-tion.

Efforts to assist Member States in establishingand implementing norms and guides for nuclearmaterial accountancy and control continued tomake an important contribution to the effectivephysical protection of nuclear material. During2001, close co-operation with several States andregional organizations continued and courseswere held in Argentina and the USA. Assistancewith the application of norms and guides wasalso facilitated through self-assistanceprogrammes using self-assessment question-naires.

A conference entitled ‘Security of Material:Measures to Prevent, Intercept and Respond toIllicit Uses of Nuclear Material and RadioactiveSources’ was held in Stockholm in May. Orga-nized by the Agency in co-operation with theWorld Customs Organization, Interpol and theEuropean Police Office (Europol), it was hostedby the Swedish Government. The conferencefocused on measures to reduce the possibilitiesof illegal activities such as theft, sabotage andillicit trafficking of nuclear materials, and onassociated proliferation and radiation risks. Asummary document which covered observations,summary statements and steps for the futurewas subsequently issued by the Secretariat as anote.

I L L E G A L A C T I V I T I E S I N V O L V I N G N U C L E A R A N D O T H E R R A D I O A C T I V E M A T E R I A L

In the case of a failure in the system of physicalprotection of nuclear material, Member Statesshould be able to detect and identify nuclearmaterial as well as radioactive sources illegallycrossing international borders. In order toenhance Member State capabilities for detecting

S E C U R I T Y O F M AT E R I A L


shipments of radioactive material at bordersand at internal checkpoints, the Agencysponsored courses on a national level for frontline officers in Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan.Additionally, the Agency sponsored a first evermeeting of heads of customs authorities of theNewly Independent States (NIS) in the RussianFederation. It was decided at the meeting thatrepresentatives from each NIS customs author-ity would participate in two train the trainerscourses at the Russian Customs Academy in St.Petersburg. By August, some 60 participantshad graduated from the course.

The Illicit Trafficking Database (ITDB), whichrelies on Member States reporting informationon incidents and seizures, continued to beexpanded. Periodic reports were issued on high-lights and trends in illicit trafficking incidents.Information from the ITDB is also utilized toassist the Agency in its efforts to better informthe public about the threats to nuclear materialsecurity. An improved CD-ROM version of theITDB was released that offers both a report onthe highlights plus data on trends in illicit traf-ficking incidents for use by Member States. In

response to suggestions from the Member StatePoints of Contact, the database software wasmodified to allow for the tracking of additionalattributes of incidents reported, for examplebetter descriptions of the circumstances ofseizures, including the technical properties ofmaterial and criminal attributes.

In related work, analysis of information in theITDB provided a foundation for the internalplanning and prioritization of strengthenedmeasures against nuclear terrorism. This isbecause the ITDB, while containing informationonly on known cases, provides a useful startingpoint for understanding the types and quanti-ties of nuclear materials and radioactive sourcesseized in trafficking, the types of facilities thathave been targets for theft, the kinds of personswho have engaged in trafficking, and what isknown about terrorist interest in nuclear orradiological materials. As a result, the Agencycontinues its efforts to collect post-incidentinformation and reporting, from laboratoryanalysis and forensics to the eventual outcomesof criminal cases in order to increase the useful-ness and effectiveness of the ITDB.

S E C U R I T Y O F M AT E R I A L



To provide credible assurance to the UnitedNations Security Council (UNSC) that Iraq iscomplying with the provisions of UNSC Resolu-tion 687 (1991) and other relevant resolutions,through the implementation of a system of veri-fication able to detect, in a timely manner,prohibited equipment, materials and activities.

In 2001, extrabudgetary programme expendi-tures amounted to $2 503 745.


• Since the end of 1998, in spite of the adop-tion of Resolution 1284 (1999) whichconfirms its mandate in Iraq, the Agencyhas not been in a position to implement itsUNSC mandated activities in Iraq. It couldnot, therefore, provide any assurance thatIraq was in compliance with its obligationsunder these resolutions.

O P E R A T I O N S

During 2001, the Agency was unable to imple-ment its inspection programme as mandated bythe relevant UNSC resolutions. However, itsAction Team has maintained its readiness toresume monitoring activities in Iraq.

Regular contact has been maintained by theAction Team with the United Nations Monitor-ing, Verification and Inspection Commission

(UNMOVIC) since the latter’s establishment inorder to co-ordinate efforts as required underUNSC Resolution 1284 (1999). These contactshave included exchanges on such topics as thedefinition of the logistical support to be providedby UNMOVIC to the Agency, the co-ordination ofresources for the resumption of inspection activ-ities, database and communication require-ments to facilitate operations and the imple-mentation of export–import monitoring.

With the support of several Member States, theAction Team co-ordinated field trials of airparticulate sampling in order to evaluate thecapabilities of such environmental monitoringfor the detection of clandestine activities undervarious operational conditions. Technicalconclusions are expected during 2002.

A N A L Y S I S

Activities were focused on the improvement ofcomputer based inspection and analytical toolsas well as on the detailed analysis of informa-tion accumulated from previous field activitiesand on recent information such as that providedby commercially available satellite imagery.These analytical activities have confirmed thevalidity of the Agency’s technically coherentpicture of Iraq’s past clandestine nuclearprogramme and nuclear related capabilities asof December 1998.

The Action Team revised the list of items andtechnologies to which the export–import mecha-nism, approved by UNSC Resolution 1051(1996), apply.


VERIFICATION IN IRAQ PURSUANT TO UNSC RESOLUTIONS

The Agency’sProgramme in 2001:Management

MANAGEMENT OF TECHNICAL CO-OPERATIONFOR DEVELOPMENT


To strengthen the effectiveness of a technicalco-operation programme that will contribute totangible social and economic benefits toMember States.


• The Secretariat delivered a record $71 million worth of training, expert services, equipment andother assistance to Member States under its technical co-operation programme in 2001 — 7.6%more than in 2000 — despite forced cancellations and postponements of activities in most regionsfollowing the events of 11 September in the USA. This achievement was due in part to the extrahuman resources made possible by the decision of the Board of Governors to allow the Agency touse, as an exceptional measure in 2001, up to $1 million of technical co-operation funds for extrastaff in the Department of Technical Co-operation. In June, the Board recommended increasingthe regular budget allocation for the management of technical co-operation activities, therebyallowing the additional staff to be kept on board.

• The Agency began ‘upstream’ work for the 2003–2004 technical co-operation programme. Thiswas characterized by an emphasis on projects that are supported by a national programme andenjoy government commitment. This approach resulted in noticeably better project requests forthe new programme.

• Technology transfer was the focus of the Scientific Forum at the 2001 regular session of theGeneral Conference. The forum looked at several technical co-operation projects as case studiesand discussed what made these particular projects successful.

• More strategic partnerships were created by the signing of agreements with bilateral donors anda Letter of Intent with the World Bank.

• With the addition of four new States to the Agency, the number of Member States/territoriesbenefiting from technical co-operation activities is now 106.




1. Technical Co-operation Programme: $7 183 563

2. Planning, Co-ordination and Evaluation: $4 344 624

1

2

T E C H N I C A L C O - O P E R A T I O NP R O G R A M M E

Achieving a coherent, results based programmeof technical co-operation requires more thangood project design. It also requires workingwith partner governments and institutions innew ways in order to maximize impact in thelong term. Four management trends stood out in2001:

— First, the Agency increased its support forthe efforts of institutions involved innuclear technology to achieve greater self-sufficiency.

— Second, it bolstered technical co-operationamong developing countries by increasingthe use of information and communicationtechnology in the technical co-operationprogramme.

— Third, recognizing the importance of part-nering with other UN organizations andbilateral and multilateral organizations tomake a greater impact with limitedresources, the Agency made special effortsto identify and work with partners.

— Fourth, it collaborated with large nationaland regional campaigns to strengthen theroots of government commitment.

An increasingly important theme in technologytransfer is the need to develop the self-suffi-ciency of institutions involved with nuclear tech-nology. Part of this theme is that technical co-operation between developing countries is aprecursor to economic co-operation among devel-oping countries.

For example, in South Africa nuclear institu-tions went through a readjustment process tobecome more self-reliant. This successful changehas enabled the country to lead the transforma-tion under an AFRA project in the region byproviding specialized teams to help implementthe necessary changes in the other five partici-pating countries, including income generation,mobilization of funds and quality control. Thisprocess created a new synergy on the continent,which has in turn encouraged other countries(such as Tunisia) to embark on readjustmentprogrammes. Training in modern management,marketing and customer relationships was builtinto the programme for all relevant categories of

personnel. In addition to managers, atomicenergy commissioners were brought together inPretoria to debate strategies for the rationali-zation and integration of scientific programmesinto national development objectives.

Another success in achieving greater self-reliance was recorded in Asia. As a result ofAgency support for technology transfer and theGovernment’s commitment, the commercialrevenue of the Atomic Energy Authority (AEA) ofSri Lanka has grown nearly 100% over the pastten years and now represents approximately35% of the operating budget, including salariesfor the AEA staff. The lack of a central laboratoryfor nuclear research in Sri Lanka was identifiedas the main constraint to developing nucleartechnology and providing services to end users.Demonstrating its commitment, the Governmentapproved $1.3 million to support the AEA in itsefforts to establish a new laboratory complex.Recognizing the national priority, the Agencyassisted the AEA to develop the infrastructurefor the safe application of nuclear technologies.The new laboratory complex is now complete andis offering its services.

Information and communication technology canhelp strengthen technical co-operation betweendeveloping countries. The Nuclear MedicineDepartment at the Yangon General Hospital inMyanmar has three gamma cameras, but thehospital could neither perform regular mainte-nance nor improve the equipment. An expertfrom Sri Lanka, who received Agency training ininstrumentation and maintenance, wasrecruited to assist the hospital in repairing andupgrading one of the gamma cameras using acomputer card developed in Slovenia. Theexpert also trained technicians at the hospital tocommunicate via the Internet with other techni-cians in the world, particularly their counter-parts in Slovenia, to improve the images fromthe camera and receive guidance on regularmaintenance and repair of the device. Thisexample demonstrates the effectiveness ofpromoting co-operation between countries; it isa strategic approach to enhance the effective-ness and sustainability of the technology andregional co-operation.

In related work, following the example of anRCA web site hosted in Malaysia, the Agency

M A N AG E M E N T O F T E C H N I C A L C O - O P E R AT I O N F O R D E V E L O P M E N T


supported the development of web sites forARCAL and AFRA. The ARCAL site is in Span-ish and has already proven to be a very usefuland cost effective communication and informa-tion exchange medium.

Working with other UN organizations, as well asmultilateral organizations and counterpart insti-tutions, gives the Agency’s technical co-operationprogramme — and the funds supporting it — agreater impact on the problems to be solvedusing nuclear technology. Thus, co-ordinationbetween the Agency and the EU is a priority toavoid duplication of efforts or gaps in coverage.European Union experts were invited to partici-pate in regional activities, and joint missionswere undertaken. In 2001, EU authoritiesresponsible for assistance programmes inEurope made it a point to recognize the value ofthe Agency’s planning process. One instance wasin Bulgaria, where the Agency and the KozloduyNuclear Power Plant worked in co-ordinationwith the European Bank for Reconstruction andDevelopment and its Kozloduy InternationalDecommissioning Fund to establish a projectmanagement information and control system tosupport the decommissioning of Units 1 and 2.Another example was in Lithuania, where adetailed work plan for Agency assistance wasdeveloped in early 2001 and the activities co-ordinated with other donors and the EU.Achievements related to the Agency’s assistanceincluded changes in the Government’s infra-structure by creating a new organization forradioactive waste management and increasingthe staff at the Lithuanian nuclear safety regu-latory authority.

In Latin America, Costa Rican authorities areseeking Agency assistance in conjunction withtheir own national campaign to build a cancerinstitute. The Agency was requested to traininstitute personnel to develop a national oncol-ogy programme. To show its commitment to theproject, the counterpart institute is preparing tomake a major extrabudgetary contribution tothe Agency. Assistance has already begunthrough expert missions to define technicalspecifications for equipment, which will bepurchased by the counterpart.

Capitalizing on government commitment bycollaborating with national and regional

campaigns is a key means of increasing theimpact of programmes. For example, Africanleaders participating in the 37th OAU Summitadopted the Pan African Tsetse and Trypanoso-mosis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC) ActionPlan. This campaign focuses on area wideapproaches to tsetse eradication. PATTECprovides an opportunity and a mechanism forthe mandated organizations of the UN system,working with the OAU, to design and implementintervention measures to help combat tsetseinfestation (see Box 1 on the next page). Thecampaign was officially launched inOuagadougou, Burkina Faso, in September2001. The campaign garnered support fromMember States, who endorsed it in majorforums, including the UN Economic and SocialCouncil, FAO, WHO and the Agency’s GeneralConference. Technical support also came fromthe Programme Against African Trypanosomo-sis. Part of the enthusiasm for the campaignstemmed from recent evidence from Zanzibar,United Republic of Tanzania, where, followingthe eradication of tsetse, milk production hastripled, local beef production has doubled andthe number of farmers who fertilize crops withmanure has multiplied fivefold. With Agencyassistance and an extrabudgetary contributionfrom the OPEC Fund, a new environmentconducive to livestock development has beencreated.

Government commitment can also be demon-strated by cost sharing. As an example, a majorcyclotron facility for the production of radionu-clides for medical applications was completed inthe Syrian Arab Republic for which the Govern-ment committed more than $1.5 million.

P L A N N I N G , C O - O R D I N A T I O NA N D E V A L U A T I O N

Upstream work was carried out for the prepara-tion of the 2003–2004 technical co-operationprogramme. In addition to discussions with indi-vidual countries and regional groups to deter-mine their priority needs, an important part ofthis work was the preparation of Thematic Plans.These are one of the three major instruments ofthe Technical Co-operation Strategy and arevalid not only for a single biennium, but for thelonger term. They derive from an assessment of





BOX 1. TSETSE FLY: A BARRIER TO SOCIOECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA

The two figures below combine to make the compelling argument that tsetse flies and trypanosomosisare barriers to Africa’s socioeconomic development. Tsetse flies infest about 10 million km2 of fertile landspread across 37 countries. Most of the countries infested with tsetse flies are heavily indebted poorcountries (HIPCs), as shown in the upper figure. Cattle, which are important for agricultural production,cannot be raised in tsetse infested areas. The distribution of cattle in Africa and the areas infested withtsetse flies are shown in the lower figure. FAO has estimated that Africa loses about $4.5 billion annuallyfrom tsetse transmitted diseases. In addition, WHO has estimated that more than 550 000 people areinfected with sleeping sickness. An estimated 30 000 become infected every year, and over 60 millionpeople living in these countries are at risk of becoming infected with the disease. ■

the potential benefits of nuclear techniques andthe record of past activities and are part of theAgency’s efforts to expand its comparativeadvantage. Two Thematic Plans were completedin 2001, one on coastal zone management andthe other on area wide tsetse control using thesterile insect technique (SIT). While the plan onthe application of SIT is based on many years ofAgency experience in this field, the one on coastalzone management, which has been developed inco-operation with IAEA–MEL in Monaco,supports new Agency initiatives in an area ofgrowing importance for the world’s population.

The trend of increasing financial resources forthe technical co-operation programme continuedduring the year. Total new resources amountedto $71.1 million, up by $3.1 million from 2000.Extrabudgetary resources reached $7.1 million,the highest amount in more than ten years,including government cost sharing of $2.6million, an encouraging trend that showsgovernment commitment to the Agency’s techni-cal co-operation activities. The principle of “rateof attainment” was introduced; this measuresthe ratio of total voluntary payments to theTechnical Co-operation Fund (TCF) against theTCF target for a programme year. MemberStates achieved the rate of attainment of 80%set for the year. Seventy-eight countries madepledges to the TCF for 2001, the highest numberever; to date, however, only 65 have paid all orpart of their pledge. Special efforts will be neces-sary on the part of all Member States to paytheir full target shares in 2002 in order to reach

the rate of attainment of 85% set by the GeneralConference for that year.

The Agency made progress in enhancing TC-PRIDE (Technical Co-operation Project Infor-mation Dissemination Environment), the on-line project information system that providesdetailed real-time data on the budgets andimplementation of the technical co-operationprogramme. New types of reports were addedthat increased its usefulness as a managementtool for Agency staff. There was also a signifi-cant growth in the number of registered usersin Member States, from 76 countries in January2001 to 100 at the end of the year.

As requested by Member States, the Agencycontinues to improve the processes and systemsin its technical co-operation programme. Forexample, a new course management system wasintroduced to improve efficiency when settingup a training course. An internal evaluationreport reviewed specific projects, technologytransfer mechanisms and new trends in thetechnical co-operation programme to give a‘basket’ of indicators for programme success.One innovation was the introduction of partici-patory evaluation. Brazil commenced an evalua-tion of its country programme internally,supported by the Agency. As can be seen fromthe exercises already undertaken, stakeholdersare more inclined to apply the lessons learnedthrough evaluation if they have been personallyinvolved in the process used to derive thoselessons.



POLICY-MAKING, MANAGEMENT AND SUPPORT SERVICES


To achieve optimum levels of efficiency, effec-tiveness and transparency in management andestablish more effective and efficient supportservices.

L E G A L A C T I V I T I E S

The Agency continued to foster the develop-ment of comprehensive basic nuclear energylaws governing radiation protection, nuclearand radiation safety, nuclear liability, safe-guards and physical protection. In particular,13 countries received assistance by means ofwritten comments or advice on specific nationallegislation submitted to the Agency for review.The Agency also provided individual trainingon issues dealing with nuclear legislation atthe request of nine Member States.

Further to the decisions of the Board of Governors at its December 1999 and November 2001 meet-ings related to the implementation of the technical co-operation Model Project on upgrading radia-tion protection infrastructures, priority continued to be given to the provision of legislative assistanceto Member States still required to establish a legislative and regulatory framework for the applica-tion of adequate health and safety standards to Agency projects, including technical co-operation proj-ects. Advice was also provided on:

— The establishment of a legal framework governing radiation protection, the safety of radiationsources and the safe management of radioactive waste (for English speaking African countriesand for Latin American countries).

— The effective implementation of national nuclear energy legislation for countries of EasternEurope.

— Drafting of nuclear legislation for individual Member States.

A new Handbook on Nuclear Energy Legislation was developed by the Agency to assist legislators,government officials, technical experts, lawyers and users in general of nuclear technology in under-standing the basic requirements and procedures of nuclear energy law. The handbook explains theoverall character of nuclear energy law and the process by which it is developed and applied. It alsooffers a summary overview of specific areas involving the use of nuclear materials and techniquessuch as elements of nuclear energy legislation, radiation protection, nuclear and radiation safety,nuclear liability and coverage, non-proliferation and physical protection. It will be published in2002.




1. Executive Management: $2 705 8392. Services for Policy-making Organs: $5 257 9473. Legal Activities, External Relations and

Public Information: $ 5 573 1204. Administration: $9 796 4595. General Services: $19 084 5966. Information Management and Support Services:

$14 207 791

1 23

4

5

6

The issue of the amendment of the Conventionon the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material(CPPNM) continued to be addressed by an open-ended Expert Meeting. In May, the Expert Meet-ing concluded in its report that there was “a clearneed to strengthen the international physicalprotection regime” and that a spectrum of meas-ures should be employed — including the draft-ing of a well defined amendment to strengthenthe CPPNM, to be reviewed by the States Partieswith a view to determining if it should besubmitted to an amendment conference in accor-dance with Article 20 of the CPPNM. In its finalreport, the Expert Meeting stated that the welldefined amendment should address the followingsubjects: extension of the scope to cover, in addi-tion to nuclear material in international nucleartransport, nuclear material in domestic use, stor-age and transport, as well as protection ofnuclear material and facilities from sabotage;the importance of national responsibility forphysical protection; the importance of protectionof confidential information; the Physical Protec-tion Objectives and Fundamental Principles; andDefinitions. The meeting recommended thatother issues should not be included in an amend-ment of the CPPNM, namely, a requirement tosubmit reports to the international communityon the implementation of physical protection; apeer review mechanism; a mandatory applica-tion of INFCIRC/225, e.g. through direct refer-ence and also through “due consideration”;mandatory international oversight of physicalprotection measures; and, nuclear material andnuclear facilities for military use.”

The Director General — in response to therecommendations of the Expert Meeting —convened an open-ended group of legal and tech-nical experts to draft an amendment. This meet-ing, which took place in December and involved43 States and the European Commission,achieved a complete and detailed review of thescope of the potential amendments to theCPPNM. The group will continue its work at asecond meeting in 2002.

P U B L I C I N F O R M A T I O N

Interest in nuclear matters at the global levelremained high throughout the year, and wasparticularly strong after the 11 September

attacks in the USA, when issues such as thephysical protection of nuclear material, illicittrafficking and the possible use by subnationalgroups of unconventional weapons came to thefore. The Agency launched a press campaign on‘Combating Nuclear Terrorism’, which resultedin extensive media coverage for the Agency.

At the same time, the Agency placed increasedemphasis on greater visibility and transparencyand on outreach activities towards its variousconstituencies using a variety of methods. Theseefforts benefited from extrabudgetary supportfrom Member States, notably Japan and theUSA. For example, public service announce-ments of varying lengths on the Agency’s workwere launched on CNN in the second half of theyear. The work of the Agency was also publicizedthrough information seminars held in Indone-sia, Slovenia, the Republic of Korea and SouthAfrica.

The Agency’s WorldAtom web site was furtherenhanced and expanded, resulting in a signifi-cant increase in the number of visits to the site.A notable event in April was multimedia cover-age of the 15th anniversary of the Chernobylaccident. As the lead body in the UN system, theAgency also laid the public information ground-work for the ‘World Water Day’ celebrations inMarch 2002 at the Agency’s Headquarters in theVienna International Centre (VIC). Thisincluded the creation of a dedicated web sitelaunched in December (http://waterday2002.iaea.org/English/index.html).

F I N A N C I A L M A N A G E M E N T

For 2001, the General Conference appropriatedan amount of $230 million for the Agency’sRegular Budget on the basis of an exchange rateof 12.70 Austrian Schillings to one dollar, ofwhich $225.1 million was related to Agencyprogrammes. The latter amount was adjusted to$193.1 million to account for the average UNexchange rate (15.3642 Austrian Schillings toone dollar) actually experienced during the year.

The regular budget for 2001, at an exchangerate of 15.3642 Austrian Schillings to one dollar,amounted to $197.2 million, of which $189.1million was to be financed from contributions by

P O L I C Y - M A K I N G , M A N AG E M E N T A N D S U P P O R T S E RV I C E S


Member States on the basis of the 2001 scale ofassessment, $4.1 million from income fromreimbursable work for others and $4 millionfrom other miscellaneous income.

The actual expenditures for the Agency’s Regu-lar Budget in 2001 amounted to $196.8 million,of which $192.9 million was related to theAgency’s programmes. The unused budget fromthe Agency’s programmes amounted to $0.1million, while the total unused budget was$0.4 million when reimbursable work for otherswas taken into account.

The target for voluntary contributions to theTechnical Co-operation Fund for 2001 wasestablished at $73 million, out of which MemberStates pledged $58 million.

A total of $51.7 million in extrabudgetaryresources were actually available for Agencyprogrammes. This total consisted of $17.7million unused balance carried forward from2000 and $34 million additional extrabudgetaryfunds made available in 2001. The 2001 expen-diture amounted to $26.8 million, of which 55%was spent from US funds, mostly to supportAgency programmes for safeguards activities.About 14% of the 2001 expenditure came fromfunds provided by Japan and were mainly usedto support work on the safety of nuclear instal-lations in countries of South East Asia, thePacific and the Far East. Another 10%, fromfunds provided by European Union countries,basically financed support programmes forAgency safeguards activities. The remaining21% of 2001 expenditures was covered by fundsfrom other donors, and predominantly financedverification activities in Iraq and work in foodand agriculture.

P E R S O N N E L M A N A G E M E N T

In focusing on staff–management relations, theAgency’s management and the Staff Councilagreed to carry out a survey to seek staff feed-back in determining the current workingclimate and assessing the degree of job satisfac-tion and morale. Following the presentation ofthe results to staff and discussion of the surveyat the Senior Management Conference in Janu-

ary 2001, the Director General requested that aworking group be set up to devise an action planto address issues raised in the survey. Thisaction plan, to be implemented in 2002, coversimprovements in the areas of communication,career development, leadership and manage-ment effectiveness, performance managementand corporate identity.

The Agency has undertaken numerous efforts tostreamline recruitment procedures and increasethe representation of staff from four targetgroups: developing countries, underrepresentedand unrepresented Member States, and women.Greater use is also being made of the Internetfor the distribution of vacancy notices. TheDirector General has also created an interna-tional advisory group — comprised of membersdrawn from professional nuclear associations —to advise him and recommend ways in whichgender concerns could be addressed in theAgency’s programme and the representation ofwomen in the Secretariat can be increased.

A major challenge facing the Agency is a projec-tion that 42% of positions in the scientific andtechnical fields that are subject to geographicaldistribution will fall vacant over the next sevenyears. This need for specialized personnel mustbe seen in the light of the diminishing humanresource pool in the nuclear field. While increas-ing its recruitment efforts, the Secretariat alsointends to encourage Member States to includethe Agency in their action plans to ensure theavailability of a qualified work force in thenuclear sector.

At the end of 2001, there were 2205 staffmembers in the Secretariat — 950 in the Profes-sional and higher categories and 1255 in theGeneral Service category. These figures repre-sent 1638 regular, 324 temporary assistance and154 extrabudgetary staff, as well as 64 cost freeexperts and 25 consultants. Ninety-five nation-alities were represented among the 689 staffmembers in posts subject to geographical distri-bution.

I N F O R M A T I O N M A N A G E M E N T

Following a recommendation from the Informa-tion Technology Task Force, the Agency’s central



computer services were moved to the Depart-ment of Management to form the Division ofInformation Technology. Subsequently, thetelecommunications function was also relocatedto this newly established division to promoteintegration and improve planning in the adop-tion of emerging technologies. An inter-depart-mental IT Committee was also set up tostrengthen co-ordination so that appropriate ITsolutions can be implemented efficiently andeffectively throughout the Agency. The Commit-tee will determine priorities and establish ITstandards, including those dealing with secu-rity. In this connection, the migration ofpersonal computers throughout the Secretariatto standard desktop software continued.Increased security will be one of the mainfeatures of this migration.

The tendering, technical evaluation and order-ing process for all IT infrastructure equipmentpurchased from the Equipment ReplacementFund 2000 was completed. The S/390 and Unixservers were upgraded and a major first stepwas taken in the upgrading of the network,which will be completed in phases over the nextseveral years.

A new version of GovAtom, the Agency’srestricted access web site containing documentsof the policy making organs, was developed. Theenhanced version, based on feedback fromMember States and their permanent missions inVienna, features a more user friendly formatwith an improved document search capability. Italso permits the acquisition of documents inlanguages other than English.

L I B R A R Y S E R V I C E S

During the year the Agency devoted consider-able effort to reorganizing the VIC Library inview of the termination of common library serv-ices in 2002. This included: reviewing, evaluat-ing and selecting information resources whichwill be required for the Agency; reducing andreorganizing human and financial resources forthe provision of library services; and providingassistance to the United Nations Office atVienna and CTBTO to ensure smooth continua-tion of library services.

Electronic information resources on the VICLibrary web site VICLNET were updated, withaccess to 216 subscribed electronic journals, 227free Internet journals, 24 databases and 8commercial electronic information services. Inaddition, 32 529 records in the Library’s on-linepublic access catalogue were updated.

Library services to the Member States included:remote access to VICLNet and document deliv-ery services for the staff of permanent missionslocated in Vienna. For institutions in MemberStates, the Library fulfilled 139 requests foraudiovisual and other information materialsfrom the Library’s collections. Regular trainingfor Library users was conducted to promote elec-tronic information services and develop skills intheir use. A total of 61 training courses wereconducted for these purposes.

C O N F E R E N C E A N D P U B L I S H I N G S E R V I C E S

A report on simplified categories of Agencymeetings aimed at rationalizing and reducingtheir number was approved. In related work, acomputer design of an Agency wide meetingsystem was completed, with planning initiatedfor an electronic room reservation system. Theuse of the Agency’s video-conferencing facilitiesincreased from 36 meetings in 1999 and 61 in2000 to 117 in 2001.

Efforts to increase the electronic disseminationof the Agency’s publications led to newagreements being concluded with commercialdistributors for the on-line sale and marketingof selected titles. In addition, the full texts of the latest publications in the SafetyStandards Series were made available free of cost on the Agency’s WorldAtom web site(http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/Books/).Publishing activities included the issue of 182books, reports, journal issues, CD-ROMs,newsletters and leaflets.

The visibility of Agency publications wasenhanced through the production of updatedcatalogues and the display of books at interna-tional book fairs and professional meetings suchas the Annual American Radiation SafetyConference, the 4th Annual European Nuclear



Fuel Management Seminar, the Annual Meetingof the Society of Nuclear Medicine, the AnnualMeeting of the International Federation ofLibrary Associations and Institutions, theFrankfurt International Book Fair, WasteManagement 2001 and the IRPA RegionalCongress on Radiation Research.

With the aim of providing the most efficient andcost effective services to Member States, theAgency decided to outsource the production ofthe Nuclear Fusion journal to the Institute ofPhysics Publishing (IOPP) in the United King-dom, starting with the January 2002 issue.While editorial policy and control will remainthe Agency’s responsibility (including operationof the journal’s editorial office), IOPP willhandle copyediting, layout, printing and distri-bution.

In the area of translations, work continued onthe introduction of computer assisted transla-tion software — designed to improve consistencyand efficiency — and on the development of acentralized terminology database. There was a2% increase in the number of pages translatedas compared with 2000.

The trend of handling more colour productions,but fewer publications continued in 2001. Thenumber of page impressions, as compared with2000, was down by 2.3%. The main reason forthis reduction is the increased emphasis on elec-tronic dissemination of Agency publications.

I N T E R N A T I O N A L N U C L E A RI N F O R M A T I O N S Y S T E M

The International Nuclear Information System(INIS) collects and distributes scientific infor-mation in all areas of nuclear science and tech-nology published in Member States, includingbibliographic data and the full texts of docu-ments — such as reports and dissertations —which are not readily available throughcommercial channels (non-conventional litera-ture (NCL)). The current number of participat-ing members is 122, including 103 countries and19 international organizations.

A total of 69 391 records were added to the data-base, an increase of 3677 records from 2000.

There are now 2 283 882 records in the INISDatabase. This included 6170 bibliographicrecords prepared as voluntary contribution byINIS members (including electronic journalsand 657 records of British Library NCL) and8111 records prepared by the INIS Secretariat(3929 Agency and UN documents, along with4182 electronic records and NCL documentsfrom the British Library).

The Agency signed an agreement with ElsevierScience BV for the acquisition of electronic bibli-ographic records. These will be upgraded toINIS standards and added to the collection ofarticles from core scientific journals. INISmembers from Ireland, Netherlands, the UnitedKingdom and the USA funded this project.

As of the end of 2001, there were 128 paid andfree subscriptions to the INIS Database on theInternet, for a total of 70 068 users, a significantincrease from last year. The INIS Database onCD-ROM had 438 paid and free subscriptions.

The Agency continued its co-operative arrange-ment with the OECD NEA Data Bank. In 2001,366 computer programs (out of 3 594) weredistributed to users in Member States that arenot members of the OECD; eight computerprograms (out of 149) were contributed fromMember States who are not members of theOECD.

Non-conventional literature on CD-ROM isdistributed by the Agency to users in MemberStates. INIS received more NCL documents in2001 than in the previous year: 6757 documentswere added to the NCL collection for a total of290 042 pages, compared with 5083 documents(351 819 pages) in 2000. Of these, 3446 wereimaged by the INIS Clearinghouse for a total of153 384 pages scanned. This represents 29 CD-ROMs, for a total of 189 CD-ROMs since imag-ing began (over 2 300 000 pages).

The percentage of NCL submitted (in relation tothe total NCL bibliographic input) hasdecreased, a trend observed over the last fewyears. NCL has become more difficult to acquirebecause of changes in distribution broughtabout by the Internet. However, this has beencompensated for by an increase in the number ofhyperlinks provided for on-line access.



A total of 1624 NCL CD-ROMs were distributed(paid or free) in 2001. All of these CD-ROMS areduplicated in-house. In addition, the INISClearinghouse distributed 1542 documents inelectronic form to Agency staff and users inMember States.

As part of INIS web services, a Fast ReactorDatabase (http://www-frdb.iaea.org/index.html)and an Accelerator Driven Systems Database(http://www-adsdb.iaea.org/index.cfm) werelaunched. Both databases are part of an Agencyweb site on technology advances in fast reactorsand accelerator driven systems for actinide and

long lived fission product trans-mutation, thatwas launched in June 2001 (http://www.iaea.org/inis/aws/fnss/). Other projects include a direc-tory of nuclear information on the Internet(http://www.iaea.org/inis/ws/index.html),and the Gas Cooled Reactor Knowledge Base(http://www.iaea.org/inis/aws/htgr/).

The Agency makes promotional materials avail-able to INIS Members for use in their countries.In this regard, the INIS Secretariat strength-ened its marketing programme to increase theuse of INIS services, in the process receiving astrong commitment from INIS Liaison Officers.



TABLE A1. ALLOCATION AND UTILIZATION OF REGULAR BUDGET RESOURCES IN 2001

2001 2001 Unusedbudget adjusted 2001 total expenditure (over-

GC(44)/6 budget expended)Programme (at AS 12.70) (at AS Amount % of adjusted budget

15.3642) budget(3) / (2) (2) – (3)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Nuclear Power 4 636 000 4 031 000 4 124 557 102.32% (93 557)Nuclear Fuel Cycle and

Waste Management Technology 5 835 000 5 086 000 5 018 868 98.68% 67 132Comparative Assessment

for Sustainable Energy Development 2 727 000 2 366 000 2 336 980 98.77% 29 020

Subtotal 13 198 000 11 483 000 11 480 405 99.98% 2 595

Food and Agriculture 11 004 000 9 736 000 9 675 594 99.38% 60 406Human Health 6 218 000 5 516 000 5 510 295 99.90% 5 705Marine Environment and Water

Resources 6 020 000 5 205 000 5 244 874 100.77% (39 874)Applications of Physical and

Chemical Sciences 9 834 000 8 826 000 8 822 587 99.96% 3 413

Subtotal 33 076 000 29 283 000 29 253 350 99.90% 29 650

Nuclear Safety 6 224 000 5 339 000 5 428 683 101.68% (89 683)Radiation Safety 3 805 000 3 287 000 3 675 857 111.83% (388 857)Radioactive Waste Safety 2 267 000 1 951 000 1 705 990 87.44% 245 010Co-ordination of Safety Activities 3 054 000 2 655 529 a 2 421 905 91.20% 233 624

Subtotal 15 350 000 13 232 529 13 232 435 100.00% 94

Safeguards 81 890 000 69 937 000 69 970 800 100.05% (33 800)Security of Material 1 093 000 938 000 869 058 92.65% 68 942

Subtotal 82 983 000 70 875 000 70 839 858 99.95% 35 142

Management of Technical Co-operation for Development 13 641 000 11 557 471 a 11 528 187 99.75% 29 284

Subtotal 13 641 000 11 557 471 11 528 187 99.75% 29 284

Policy-making, Management and Support Services:Executive Management 3 064 000 2 612 000 2 705 839 103.59% (93 839)Services for Policy-making Organs 6 237 000 5 342 000 5 257 947 98.43% 84 053Legal Activities, External Relations

and Public Information 7 095 000 6 113 000 5 573 120 91.17% 539 880Administration 12 234 000 10 414 000 9 796 459 94.07% 617 541General Services 23 080 000 19 281 000 19 084 596 98.98% 196 404Information Management

and Support Services 15 135 000 12 867 000 14 207 791 110.42% (1 340 791)

Subtotal 66 845 000 56 629 000 56 625 752 99.99% 3 248

TOTAL – Agency’s Programmes 225 093 000 193 060 000 192 959 987 99.95% 100 013

Reimbursable work for others 4 891 000 4 174 000 3 844 129 92.10% 329 871

TOTAL 229 984 000 197 234 000 196 804 116 99.78% 429 884

a Based on Board of Governor’s Resolution GOV/1999/15, an amount of $34 529 was transferred from the subprogramme“Planning, Co-ordination and Evaluation” to the subprogramme “Safety Conventions” (in the Co-ordination of Safety Activitiesprogramme) to cover the cost of emergency assistance provided to Greece, Panama and Poland.

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TABLE A2. EXTRABUDGETARY FUNDS IN 2001 — RESOURCES AND EXPENDITURES

Extrabudgetary Resources Expenditure Unused balancebudget figures available during as at

Programme GC(44)/6 in 2001 a 2001 31 Dec 2001(2)–(3)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Nuclear Power 686 000 1 209 440 589 175 620 265Nuclear Fuel Cycle and

Waste Management Technology 605 000 1 412 638 609 508 803 130Comparative Assessment for

Sustainable Energy Development 0 134 551 103 460 31 091

Subtotal 1 291 000 2 756 629 1 302 143 1 454 486

Food and Agriculture 2 199 992 3 329 472 2 214 614 1 114 858Food and Agriculture 1 031 008 b 0 0 0Human Health 0 257 096 64 839 192 257Marine Environment

and Water Resources 956 000 1 475 835 867 814 608 021Applications of Physical and

Chemical Sciences 13 000 43 304 20 412 22 892

Subtotal 4 200 000 5 105 707 3 167 679 1 938 028

Nuclear Safety 2 078 000 5 708 581 2 235 562 3 473 019Radiation Safety 100 000 735 483 299 508 435 975Radioactive Waste Safety 250 000 406 053 292 248 113 805Co-ordination of Safety Activities 126 000 296 890 142 178 154 712

Subtotal 2 554 000 7 147 007 2 969 496 4 177 511

Safeguards 6 875 000 30 389 005 15 172 034 15 216 971Security of Material 1 046 000 1 780 404 757 861 1 022 543Verification in Iraq pursuant to

UNSC Resolutions 10 650 000 2 519 033 2 503 745 15 288

Subtotal 18 571 000 34 688 442 18 433 640 16 254 802

Management of Technical Co-operation for Development 310 000 479 255 346 822 132 433

Subtotal 310 000 479 255 346 822 132 433

Policy-making, Management and Support Services:Services for Policy-making Organs 0 4 853 4 853 0Legal Activities, External Relations

and Public Information 805 000 1 453 982 583 755 870 227Administration 0 9 767 8 837 930Information Management and

Support Services 0 15 552 15 052 500

Subtotal 805 000 1 484 154 612 497 871 657

Agency’s Programmes 27 731 000 51 661 194 26 832 277 24 828 917

a The column “Resources Available in 2001” includes cash contributions received as well as the unused balances as at1 January 2001 and cash due from FAO, UNEP and UNOPS for approved activities.

b The FAO budget includes $1 031 008 estimated costs for FAO professional staff working in the Joint FAO/IAEA Division ofNuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture. The salaries of these staff members are paid by FAO and, therefore, are notincluded in columns 2 and 3.

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TABLE A3. TECHNICAL CO-OPERATION DISBURSEMENTS BY AGENCY PROGRAMME AND REGION IN2001

I. Summary of all regions (in thousands of dollars)

East Asia Latin West Global/inter-Programme Africa and the Europe America Asia regional Total

Pacific

A Nuclear Power 195.1 693.5 1538.0 655.2 611.0 164.2 3857.0

B Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Waste Management Technology 413.9 552.4 1032.4 496.3 242.3 516.3 3253.7

C Comparative Assessment for Sustainable Energy Development 247.5 275.6 179.6 87.1 36.0 2.9 828.7

D Food and Agriculture 5496.4 2177.0 692.1 1881.3 1164.8 745.9 12 157.6

E Human Health 5261.3 3716.0 3446.7 2939.6 1115.8 427.1 16 906.5

F Marine Environment and Water Resources 2229.2 1060.9 302.2 974.5 196.5 33.2 4796.4

G Applications of Physical and Chemical Sciences 2224.9 2786.0 1693.5 2197.1 1529.4 141.5 10 572.3

H Nuclear Safety 156.2 765.2 2927.1 575.7 299.5 95.9 4819.6

I Radiation Safety 1236.3 1542.4 2366.6 1909.1 1246.0 59.3 8359.7

J Radioactive Waste Safety 142.3 10.0 629.0 161.3 108.7 65.3 1116.6

K Co-ordination of Safety Activities 22.6 1.7 16.4 164.8 179.4 0.0 384.9

M Security of Material 144.9 0.0 873.7 51.0 0.0 0.0 1069.5

N Management of Technical Co-operation for Development 435.3 674.8 472.4 711.2 107.6 2596.6 4997.9

Q Legal Activities, External Relations and Public Information 71.6 22.8 80.3 32.1 0.0 87.5 294.3

T Information Management and Support Services 8.0 6.0 23.1 70.3 4.1 0.0 111.5

TOTAL 18 285.4 14 284.6 16 273.0 12 906.4 6841.1 4935.7 73 526.2

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II. Distribution by region

Note: Letters denote Agency programmes; they are explained in part I on the previous page.

0% 5%

10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55%

A B D E F G H I J N Q

Interregional: $4935.7

0% 5%

10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55%

A B C D E F G H I J K N

West Asia: $6841.1

0% 5%

10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55%

A B C D E F G H I J K M N Q T

Latin America: $12 906.4

0% 5%

10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55%

A B C D E F G H I J K M N Q T

Europe: $16 273.0

0% 5%

10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55%

A B C D E F G H I N Q

East Asia and the Pacific: $14 284.6

0% 5%

10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

45%

50%

55%

A B C D E F G H I J K M N Q

Africa: $18 285.4

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TABLE A4. ESTIMATED COSTS OF ALTERNATIVE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE POWERGENERATION SECTOR COMPARED WITH BASELINE COAL FIRED STATIONS AND POTENTIALREDUCTIONS IN CARBON EMISSIONS TO 2010 AND 2020 FOR ANNEX I COUNTRIES (source: Third Assessment Report of the IPCC, 2001)

Technology pf+FGD, IGCC CCGT pf+FGD CCGT Nuclear PV and Hydro Wind BIGCCNOx, and +CO2 + CO2 thermal turbinesetc. super- capture capture solar

criticalEnergy source Coal Coal Gas Coal Gas Uranium Solar Water Wind Biofuel

radiation

Generating 4.90 3.6–6.0 4.9–6.9 7.9 6.4–8.4 3.9–8.0 8.7–40.0 4.2–7.8 3.0–8 2.8–7.6costs (cents/kW·h)

Emissions 229 190–198 103–122 40 17 0 0 0 0 0(g C/kW·h)

Cost of carbon Baseline -10–40 0–156 159 71–165 -38–135 175–1400 -31–127 -82–135 -92–117reduction ($/t C)

Reduction Baseline 13 18 2–10 — 30 2 6 51 9potential to 2010, (Mt C/a)

Reduction Baseline 55 103 5–50 — 191 20 37 128 77potential to 2020, (Mt C/a)

Abbreviations: BIGCC: biomass integrated gasification combined cycle; CCGT: combined cycle gas turbine; FGD:flue gas desulphurization; IGCC: integrated gasification combined cycle; pf: pulverized fuel; PV: photovoltaic.

TABLE A5. ESTIMATED COSTS OF ALTERNATIVE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE POWERGENERATION SECTOR COMPARED WITH BASELINE COAL FIRED STATIONS AND POTENTIALREDUCTIONS IN CARBON EMISSIONS TO 2010 AND 2020 FOR NON-ANNEX I COUNTRIES (source: Third Assessment Report of the IPCC, 2001)

Technology pf+FGD, IGCC CCGT pf+FGD CCGT Nuclear PV and Hydro Wind BIGCCNOx, and +CO2 + CO2 thermal turbinesetc. super- capture capture solar

criticalEnergy source Coal Coal Gas Coal Gas Uranium Solar Water Wind Biofuel

radiation

Generating 4.45 3.6–6.0 4.45–6.9 7.45 5.95–8.4 3.9–8.0 8.7–40.0 4.2–7.8 3.0–8 2.8–7.6costs (cents/kW·h)

Emissions 260 190–198 103–122 40 17 0 0 0 0 0(g C/kW·h)

Cost of carbon Baseline -10–200 0–17 136 62–163 -20–77 164–1370 -10–129 -56–137 -63–121reduction ($/t C)

Reduction Baseline 36 20 0 — 36 0.5 20 12 5potential to 2010 (Mt C/a)

Reduction Baseline 58 137 5–50 — 220 8 55 45 13potential to 2020 (Mt C/a)

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TABLE A6. ESTIMATED COSTS OF ALTERNATIVE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE POWERGENERATION SECTOR COMPARED WITH GAS FIRED CCGT POWER STATIONS AND POTENTIAL REDUCTIONS IN CARBON EMISSIONS TO 2010 AND 2020 FOR ANNEX ICOUNTRIES (source: Third Assessment Report of the IPCC, 2001)

Technology CCGT pf+FGD CCGT Nuclear PV and Hydro Wind BIGCC+ CO2 + CO2 thermal turbines

capture capture solar

Energy source Gas Coal Gas Uranium Solar Water Wind Biofuelradiation

Generating costs 3.45 7.6–10.6 4.95 3.9–8.0 8.7–40.0 4.2–7.8 3.0–8 2.8–7.6(cents/kW·h)

Emissions (g C/kW·h) 108 40 17 0 0 0 0 0Cost of carbon Baseline 610–1050 165 46–421 500–3800 66–400 -43–92 -60–224

reduction ($/t C)Reduction potential Baseline — 2–10 62 0.8 3 23 4

to 2010 (Mt C/a)Reduction potential Baseline — 5–50 181 9 18 61 36

to 2020 (Mt C/a)

TABLE A7. ESTIMATED COSTS OF ALTERNATIVE MITIGATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE POWERGENERATION SECTOR COMPARED WITH GAS FIRED CCGT POWER STATIONS ANDPOTENTIAL REDUCTIONS IN CARBON EMISSIONS TO 2010 AND 2020 FOR NON-ANNEX ICOUNTRIES (source: Third Assessment Report of the IPCC, 2001)

Technology CCGT pf+FGD CCGT Nuclear PV and Hydro Wind BIGCC+ CO2 + CO2 thermal turbines

capture capture solar

Energy source Gas Coal Gas Uranium Solar Water Wind Biofuelradiation

Generating costs 3.45 6.9–8.7 4.95 3.9–8.0 8.7–40.0 4.2–7.8 3.0–8 2.8–7.6(cents/kW·h)

Emissions (g C/kW·h) 108 40 17 0 0 0 0 0Cost of carbon Baseline 507–772 165 46–421 500–3800 66–400 -43–92 -60–224

reduction ($/t C)Reduction potential Baseline — 0 10 0.2 9 5 1

to 2010 (Mt C/a)Reduction potential Baseline — 5–50 70 4 26 21 6

to 2020 (Mt C/a)

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TABLE A8. INTERNATIONAL PROBABILISTIC SAFETY ASSESSMENT REVIEW TEAM (IPSART) MISSIONSIN 2001

Review type Nuclear power plant Country

Level 1 follow-up and level 2 PSA Ignalina LithuaniaLevel 1 PSA KANUPP PakistanLevel 1 pre-IPSART Cernavoda RomaniaExternal events and level 2/3 PSA Novovoronezh, unit 5 Russian FederationLevel 1 PSA and hazards Mochovce SlovakiaLevel 1 PSA Zaporozhe Ukraine

TABLE A9. REVIEW OF ACCIDENT MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES (RAMP) IN 2001

Type Location Country

Pilot RAMP Krško Slovenia

TABLE A10. OPERATIONAL SAFETY REVIEW TEAM (OSART) MISSIONS IN 2001

Type Nuclear power plant type Country

Preparatory meeting Angra 2 PWR BrazilOSART follow-up Kozloduy WWER BulgariaPreparatory meeting Pickering PHWR CanadaPre-OSART Lingao PWR ChinaFull OSART Dukovany WWER Czech RepublicFull OSART Temelin WWER Czech RepublicFull OSART Paks WWER Hungary

TABLE A11. PEER REVIEW OF OPERATIONAL SAFETY PERFORMANCE EXPERIENCE (PROSPER)MISSIONS IN 2001

Type Plant/location Country

Introductory mission Metsamor ArmeniaAssistance mission Karachi PakistanPreparatory meeting Cernavoda RomaniaWorkshop Bilibino Russian FederationSeminar VNIIAES Russian Federation

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TABLE A12. SAFETY CULTURE ENHANCEMENT PROGRAMME (SCEP) ACTIVITIES IN 2001

Type Location/nuclear power plant Country

SCEP workshop INB, Rio de Janeiro and Resende BrazilWorkshop for managers on the management Eletronuclear, Rio de Janeiro Brazil

of safety and safety culture and Angra dos ReisSelf-assessment training workshop INB, Rio de Janeiro and Angra dos Reis BrazilRegional workshop on safety culture for Santiago de Chile Chile

non-power nuclear installationsRegional workshop on management Daya Bay China

of safety and safety cultureSafety culture seminar INSTN, Saclay FranceSelf-assessment training workshop Laguna Verde MexicoWorkshop Volgodonsk Russian FederationSafety culture seminar Slovak Technical University, Bratislava SlovakiaRegional workshop on management Piestany Slovakia

of safety and safety culturePresentation on management of safety SGS, Stockholm Sweden

and safety cultureSeminar on management of safety Stockholm Sweden

and safety culture

TABLE A13. ENGINEERING SAFETY REVIEW SERVICE (ESRS) MISSIONS IN 2001

Service Site/plant Country

Ageing safety review Medzamor ArmeniaSeismic safety review follow-up Medzamor ArmeniaSite safety review (preliminary) Rooppur BangladeshPeriodic safety review Qinshan ChinaDesign safety review Tianwan ChinaReview of Agency safety issues Temelin Czech Rep.PSAR review assistance Bushehr Islamic. Rep. of IranDesign safety review Korean Next Generation Reactor Republic of KoreaDocumentation review on

severe accident safety features Tianwan ChinaPSAR review, chapters 9 and 10 Bushehr Islamic Rep. of IranPeriodic safety review Krško SloveniaSeismic safety review Istanbul Turkey

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TABLE A14. INTEGRATED SAFETY OF RESEARCH REACTORS (INSARR) MISSIONS IN 2001

Type Research reactor Country

Pre-INSARR 3MW TRIGA BangladeshPre-INSARR La Reina RR ChilePre-INSARR SPR, NHR, HTR-10 ChinaPre-INSARR GRR-1 GreeceINSARR GRR-1 GreecePre-INSARR TRR-1 Islamic Rep. of IranPre-INSARR 14 MW TRIGA II RomaniaPre-INSARR MNSR RR Syrian Arab Republic

TABLE A15. SAFETY REVIEW MISSIONS IN 2001 TO RESEARCH REACTORS UNDER PROJECT ANDSUPPLY AGREEMENTS

Type Country

Australian Replacement Research Reactor—Review of the Preliminary Safety Analysis Report Australia

Activities to prepare facilities for INSARR ChinaAssistance for the safety review of a newly designed research reactor: MIPR ChinaETRR-2 fact finding mission EgyptFollow-up of a safety project for the research reactors Libyan Arab JamahiriyaAssistance on the commissioning programme and completion of SAR for

the reactor under construction MoroccoFact finding mission Uzbekistan

TABLE A16. INTERNATIONAL REGULATORY REVIEW TEAM (IRRT) MISSIONS IN 2001

Type Country

Full scope Czech RepublicFull scope LithuaniaFull scope MexicoPre-IRRT ThailandFull scope follow-up Ukraine

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TABLE A17. NUMBER OF STATES HAVING SIGNIFICANT NUCLEAR ACTIVITIES AT THE END OF 1999,2000 AND 2001

Number of States1999 2000 2001

States with safeguards applied under NPT or NPT/Tlatelolco agreements 60 60 61States with safeguards applied under Tlatelolco agreements 1 1 0States with safeguards applied pursuant to other comprehensive

safeguards agreements 0 0 0States with safeguards applied under INFCIRC/66/Rev.2-type agreementsa 4 4 4Nuclear weapon States with safeguards applied under voluntary

offer agreements 5 5 5States without any safeguards agreement in force 1 1 1

Total number of States with significant nuclear activitiesb 71 71 71

a Some States with INFCIRC/66/Rev.2-type agreements under which the application of safeguards has not yet beensuspended, although NPT or other comprehensive safeguards agreements have entered into force, are listed under NPTagreements only. Nuclear weapon States with INFCIRC/66/Rev.2-type agreements in force are not included. Safeguards arealso applied to nuclear installations in Taiwan, China.

b According to information available to the Agency for the year in question.

TABLE A18. APPROXIMATE QUANTITIES OF MATERIAL SUBJECT TO AGENCY SAFEGUARDS AT THEEND OF 2001

Quantity of material (t)Comprehensive Nuclear

Type of material safeguards INFCIRC/66b weapon Quantityagreementsa States in SQs

Nuclear materialPlutoniumc contained in irradiated fuel

(including recycled plutonium in fuel elements in reactor cores) 577.5 30 82.9 86 303

Separated plutonium outside reactor cores 13.6 0.1 63.8 9673HEU (equal to or greater than 20% 235U) 10.8 0.1 10 580LEU (less than 20% 235U) 42 993 2922 4164 13 288Source materiald (natural or depleted

uranium and thorium) 81 252 1728 11 960 7294

Non-nuclear materiale

Heavy water 0 479 0 24

Total significant quantities 92 623 4518 20 021 117 162

a Covering safeguards agreements pursuant to NPT and/or Treaty of Tlatelolco and other comprehensive safeguards agree-ments.

b Excluding installations in nuclear weapon States; including installations in Taiwan, China.c The quantity includes an estimated 88.6 t (11 081 SQ) of plutonium in irradiated fuel, which is not yet reported to the

Agency under the reporting procedures agreed to (the non-reported plutonium is contained in irradiated fuel assemblies towhich item accountancy and C/S measures are applied).

d This table does not include material within the terms of subparagraphs 34(a) and (b) of INFCIRC/153 (Corrected).e Non-nuclear material subject to Agency safeguards under INFCIRC/66/Rev.2-type agreements.

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TABLE A19. NUMBER OF FACILITIES UNDER SAFEGUARDS OR CONTAINING SAFEGUARDED MATERIALON 31 DECEMBER 2001

Number of facilities (number of installations)Comprehensive Nuclear

Facility type safeguards INFCIRC/66b weapon Totalagreementsa States

Power reactors 186 (223) 11 (14) 1 (1) 198 (238)Research reactors and critical assemblies 141 (152) 7 (7) 1 (1) 149 (160)Conversion plants 13 (13) 1 (1) — (—) 14 (14)Fuel fabrication plants 38 (39) 3 (3) — (—) 41 (41)Reprocessing plants 5 (5) 1 (1) — (—) 6 (6)Enrichment plants 8 (8) — (—) 2 (4) 10 (12)Separate storage facilities 67 (68) 3 (3) 7 (8) 77 (79)Other facilities 82 (92) 1 (1) 1 (1) 84 (94)

Subtotals 540 (600) 27 (30) 12 (15) 579 (645)Other locations 325 (423) 3 (30) — (—) 328 (453)Non-nuclear installations — (—) 1 (1) — (—) 1 (1)

Totals 865 (1023) 31 (61) 12 (15) 908 (1099)

a Covering safeguards agreements pursuant to NPT and/or Treaty of Tlatelolco and other comprehensive safeguards agree-ments.

b Excluding installations in nuclear weapon States; including installations in Taiwan, China.

Table A20. ADDITIONAL SAFEGUARDS SUPPORT PROVIDED BY STATES AND ORGANIZATIONS

States and organizations representing groups of States States having R&D contractshaving formal support programmes and test programmes

Argentina AustriaAustralia IsraelBelgium LatviaCanada PakistanEuropean Union Russian FederationFinlandFranceGermanyHungaryJapanRepublic of KoreaNetherlandsRussian FederationSwedenUnited KingdomUnited States of America

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TABLE A21. STATUS WITH REGARD TO THE CONCLUSION OF SAFEGUARDS AGREEMENTS ANDADDITIONAL PROTOCOLSa, b (as of 31 December 2001)

Statec SQPd Status of safeguards INFCIRC Additional agreement(s) Protocol status

Afghanistan X In force: 20 February 1978 257Albania In force: 25 March 1988 1 359Algeria In force: 7 January 1997 531Andorra Signed: 9 January 2001 Signed: 9 January 2001 AngolaAntigua and Barbuda X In force: 9 September 1996 2 528Argentina In force: 4 March 1994 3 435Armenia In force: 5 May 1994 455 Signed: 29 September 1997Australia In force: 10 July 1974 217 In force: 12 December 1997Austria Accession: 31 July 1996 4 193 Signed: 22 September 1998 5

Azerbaijan X In force: 29 April 1999 580 In force: 29 November 2000

Bahamas X In force: 12 September 1997 2 544BahrainBangladesh In force: 11 June 1982 301 In force: 30 March 2001Barbados X In force: 14 August 1996 2 527Belarus In force: 2 August 1995 495Belgium In force: 21 February 1977 193 Signed: 22 September 1998Belize X In force: 21 January 1997 2 532BeninBhutan X In force: 24 October 1989 371Bolivia X In force: 6 February 1995 2 465Bosnia and Herzegovina In force: 28 December 1973 6 204BotswanaBrazil In force: 4 March 1994 7 435Brunei Darussalam X In force: 4 November 1987 365Bulgaria In force: 29 February 1972 178 In force: 10 October 2000 Burkina FasoBurundi

Cambodia X In force: 17 December 1999 586Cameroon Signed: 21 May 1992Canada In force: 21 February 1972 164 In force: 8 September 2000

AN N EX


a This annex does not aim at listing all safeguards agreements that the Agency has concluded. Not included areagreements whose application has been suspended in the light of the application of safeguards pursuant toa comprehensive safeguards agreement.

b The Agency also applies safeguards in Taiwan, China under two agreements, INFCIRC/133 and INFCIRC/158,which came into force on 13 October 1969 and 6 December 1971, respectively.

c States in bold type are those which are not party to the NPT and whose safeguards agreements are ofINFCIRC/66-type. States in italics are those which are party to the NPT but have not concluded a safeguardsagreement pursuant to that Treaty; the safeguards agreements referred to are comprehensive safeguardsagreements concluded pursuant to the NPT, unless otherwise indicated. Safeguards agreements marked withan asterisk denote voluntary offer safeguards agreements.

d Operational small quantity protocol (SQP): States with a legal obligation to conclude a comprehensive safe-guards agreement which have nuclear material in quantities not exceeding the limits of paragraph 37 ofINFCIRC/153 and no nuclear material in any facility, have the option to conclude an SQP, thus holding inabeyance the implementation of most of the detailed provisions set out in Part II of a comprehensive safe-guards agreement as long as these conditions continue to apply. Six States meet the conditions for an SQPbut do not have one i.e. Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Côte d’Ivoire, Liechtenstein, Sri Lanka and Tunisia.

TABLE A21. (cont.)


Cape VerdeCentral African RepublicChadChile In force: 5 April 1995 8 476China In force: 18 September 1989 369(*) Signed: 31 December 1998Colombia In force: 22 December 1982 8 306ComorosCongoCosta Rica X In force: 22 November 1979 2 278 Signed: 12 December 2001Côte d’Ivoire In force: 8 September 1983 309Croatia X In force: 19 January 1995 463 In force: 6 July 2000Cuba In force: 5 May 1980 281 Signed: 15 October 1999

In force: 7 October 1983 311Cyprus X In force: 26 January 1973 189 Signed: 29 July 1999Czech Republic In force: 11 September 1997 9 541 Signed: 28 September 1999

Democratic People’s Republic of Korea In force: 10 April 1992 403

Democratic Republic of the Congo In force: 9 November 1972 183

Denmark In force: 21 February 1977 10 193 Signed: 22 September 1998DjiboutiDominica X In force: 3 May 1996 11 513Dominican Republic X In force: 11 October 1973 2 201

Ecuador X In force: 10 March 1975 2 231 In force: 24 October 2001Egypt In force: 30 June 1982 302El Salvador X In force: 22 April 1975 2 232Equatorial Guinea Approved: 13 June 1986EritreaEstonia In force: 24 November 1997 547 Signed: 13 April 2000Ethiopia X In force: 2 December 1977 261Fiji X In force: 22 March 1973 192Finland Accession: 1 October 1995 12 193 Signed: 22 September 1998 5

France In force: 12 September 1981 290 (*) Signed: 22 September 1998Signed: 26 September 2000 13

Gabon Signed: 3 December 1979Gambia X In force: 8 August 1978 277Georgia Signed: 29 September 1997 Signed: 29 September 1997Germany In force: 21 February 1977 14 193 Signed: 22 September 1998 5

Ghana In force: 17 February 1975 226 Signed: 12 June 1998 15

Greece Accession: 17 December 1981 16 193 Signed: 22 September 1998 5

Grenada X In force: 23 July 1996 2 525Guatemala X In force: 1 February 1982 2 299 Signed: 14 December 2001GuineaGuinea-BissauGuyana X In force: 23 May 1997 2 543

Haiti Signed: 6 January 1975 2

Holy See X In force: 1 August 1972 187 In force: 24 September 1998Honduras X In force: 18 April 1975 2 235

Hungary In force: 30 March 1972 174 In force: 4 April 2000

AN N EX


TABLE A21. (cont.)


Iceland X In force: 16 October 1974 215India In force: 30 September 1971 211

In force: 17 November 1977 260In force: 27 September 1988 360In force: 11 October 1989 374In force: 1 March 1994 433

Indonesia In force: 14 July 1980 283 In force: 29 September 1999Iran, Islamic Republic of In force: 15 May 1974 214Iraq In force: 29 February 1972 172Ireland In force: 21 February 1977 193 Signed: 22 September 1998Israel In force: 4 April 1975 249/Add.1Italy In force: 21 February 1977 193 Signed: 22 September 1998

Jamaica In force: 6 November 1978 2 265Japan In force: 2 December 1977 255 In force: 16 December 1999Jordan X In force: 21 February 1978 258 In force: 28 July 1998

Kazakhstan In force: 11 August 1995 504KenyaKiribati X In force: 19 December 1990 390Korea, Republic of In force: 14 November 1975 236 Signed: 21 June 1999Kuwait Signed: 10 May 1999Kyrgyzstan Signed: 18 March 1998

Lao People’s Democratic Republic X In force: 5 April 2001 599

Latvia In force: 21 December 1993 434 In force: 12 July 2001Lebanon X In force: 5 March 1973 191Lesotho X In force: 12 June 1973 199LiberiaLibyan Arab Jamahiriya In force: 8 July 1980 282Liechtenstein In force: 4 October 1979 275Lithuania In force: 15 October 1992 413 In force: 5 July 2000Luxembourg In force: 21 February 1977 193 Signed: 22 September 1998

Madagascar X In force: 14 June 1973 200Malawi X In force: 3 August 1992 409Malaysia In force: 29 February 1972 182Maldives X In force: 2 October 1977 253MaliMalta X In force: 13 November 1990 387Marshall IslandsMauritaniaMauritius X In force: 31 January 1973 190Mexico In force: 14 September 1973 17 197Micronesia, Federated States ofMonaco X In force: 13 June 1996 524 In force: 30 September 1999Mongolia X In force: 5 September 1972 188 Signed: 5 December 2001Morocco X In force: 18 February 1975 228MozambiqueMyanmar X In force: 20 April 1995 477

Namibia X In force: 15 April 1998 551 Signed: 22 March 2000

AN N EX


TABLE A21. (cont.)


Nauru X In force: 13 April 1984 317Nepal X In force: 22 June 1972 186Netherlands In force: 5 June 1975 13 229

In force: 21 February 1977 193 Signed: 22 September 1998 5

New Zealand X In force: 29 February 1972 185 In force: 24 September 1998Nicaragua X In force: 29 December 1976 2 246Niger Approved: 20 March 2001Nigeria X In force: 29 February 1988 358 Signed: 20 September 2001Norway In force: 1 March 1972 177 In force: 16 May 2000

Oman Signed:28 June 2001

Pakistan In force: 5 March 1962 34In force: 17 June 1968 116In force: 17 October 1969 135In force: 18 March 1976 239In force: 2 March 1977 248In force: 10 September 1991 393In force: 24 February 1993 418

Palau, Republic ofPanama X In force: 23 March 1984 18 316 In force: 11 December 2001Papua New Guinea X In force: 13 October 1983 312Paraguay X In force: 20 March 1979 2 279Peru In force: 1 August 1979 2 273 In force: 23 July 2001Philippines In force: 16 October 1974 216 Signed: 30 September 1997Poland In force: 11 October 1972 179 In force: 5 May 2000Portugal Accession: 1 July 1986 19 193 Signed: 22 September 1998 5

Qatar

Moldova, Republic of Signed: 14 June 1996Romania In force: 27 October 1972 180 In force: 7 July 2000Russian Federation In force: 10 June 1985 327* Signed: 22 March 2000Rwanda

St. Kitts and Nevis X In force: 7 May 1996 11 514St. Lucia X In force: 2 February 1990 11 379St. Vincent

and the Grenadines X In force: 8 January 1992 11 400Samoa X In force: 22 January 1979 268San Marino X In force: 21 September 1998 575São Tome and PrincipeSaudi ArabiaSenegal X In force: 14 January 1980 276SeychellesSierra Leone Signed: 10 November 1977Singapore X In force: 18 October 1977 259Slovakia In force: 3 March 1972 20 173 Signed: 27 September 1999Slovenia In force: 1 August 1997 538 In force: 22 August 2000Solomon Islands X In force: 17 June 1993 420SomaliaSouth Africa In force: 16 September 1991 394Spain Accession: 5 April 1989 193 Signed: 22 September 1998 5

AN N EX


AN N EX


TABLE A21. (cont.)


Sri Lanka In force: 6 August 1984 320Sudan X In force: 7 January 1977 245Suriname X In force: 2 February 1979 2 269Swaziland X In force: 28 July 1975 227Sweden Accession: 1 June 1995 21 193 Signed: 22 September 1998 5

Switzerland In force: 6 September 1978 264 Signed: 16 June 2000Syrian Arab Republic In force: 18 May 1992 407

TajikistanThailand In force: 16 May 1974 241The Former Yugoslav

Rep. of Macedonia Signed: 10 October 2000Togo Signed: 29 November 1990Tonga X In force: 18 November 1993 426Trinidad and Tobago X In force: 4 November 1992 2 414Tunisia In force: 13 March 1990 381Turkey In force: 1 September 1981 295 In force: 17 July 2001TurkmenistanTuvalu X In force: 15 March 1991 391

UgandaUkraine In force: 22 January 1998 550 Signed: 15 August 2000United Arab EmiratesUnited Kingdom In force: 14 December 1972 175 22

In force: 14 August 1978 263 (*) Signed: 22 September 1998 5

Approved: September 1992 13

United Republic of Tanzania Signed: 26 August 1992United States of America In force: 9 December 1980 288 (*) Signed: 12 June 1998

In force: 6 April 1989 13 366Uruguay In force: 17 September 1976 2 157 Signed: 29 September 1997Uzbekistan In force: 8 October 1994 508 In force: 21 December 1998

VanuatuVenezuela In force: 11 March 1982 2 300Viet Nam In force: 23 February 1990 376

Yemen, Republic of Signed: 21 September 2000Yugoslavia,

Federal Republic of In force: 28 December 1973 23 204

Zambia X In force: 22 September 1994 456Zimbabwe X In force: 26 June 1995 483

1 Sui generis comprehensive safeguards agreement.2 Safeguards agreement refers to both the Treaty of Tlatelolco and the NPT.3 Date refers to the safeguards agreement concluded between Argentina, Brazil, ABACC and the Agency. On 18

March 1997, upon approval by the Board of Governors, an exchange of letters entered into force betweenArgentina and the Agency confirming that the safeguards agreement satisfied the requirements of Article 13of the Treaty of Tlatelolco and Article III of the NPT to conclude a safeguards agreement with the Agency.

4 The application of safeguards in Austria under the NPT safeguards agreement INFCIRC/156, in force since 23July 1972, was suspended on 31 July 1996, on which date the agreement of 5 April 1973 (INFCIRC/193)between the non-nuclear-weapon States of Euratom, Euratom and the Agency, to which Austria had acceded,entered into force for Austria.

5 The Agency has received notification from the State that it has fulfilled its own internal requirements for entryinto force of the additional protocol concluded with Euratom and the Agency. The additional protocol will enterinto force on the date when the Agency receives written notification from all the States and Euratom that theirrespective requirements for entry into force have been met.

6 The NPT safeguards agreement concluded with the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (INFCIRC/204),which entered into force on 28 December 1973, continues to be applied in Bosnia and Herzegovina to theextent relevant to the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

7 Date refers to the safeguards agreement concluded between Argentina, Brazil, ABACC and the Agency. On 10June 1997, upon approval by the Board of Governors, an exchange of letters entered into force between Braziland the Agency confirming that the safeguards agreement satisfied the requirements of Article 13 of the Treatyof Tlatelolco. On 20 September 1999, upon approval by the Board of Governors, an exchange of lettersentered into force confirming that the safeguards agreement also satisfied the requirements of Article III ofthe NPT.

8 Date refers to a safeguards agreement pursuant to Article 13 of the Treaty of Tlatelolco. Upon approval by theBoard of Governors an exchange of letters entered into force (for Chile on 9 September 1996; for Colombiaon 13 June 2001) confirming that the safeguards agreement satisfied the requirement of Article III of the NPT.

9 The NPT safeguards agreement concluded with the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (INFCIRC/173), whichentered into force on 3 March 1972, continued to be applied in the Czech Republic to the extent relevant tothe territory of the Czech Republic until 11 September 1997, on which date the NPT safeguards agreementconcluded with the Czech Republic entered into force.

10 The NPT safeguards agreement with Denmark (INFCIRC/176), in force since 1 March 1972, has been replacedby the agreement of 5 April 1973 between the non-nuclear-weapon States o f Euratom, Euratom and theAgency (INFCIRC/193) but still applies to the Faroe Islands. Upon Greenland’s secession from Euratom as of31 January 1985, the agreement between the Agency and Denmark (INFCIRC/176) re-entered into force forGreenland.

11 An exchange of letters has entered into force between this state and the Agency confirming that the NPT safe-guards agreement satisfies the obligations of the state under Article 13 of the Treaty of Tlatelolco.

12 The application of safeguards in Finland under the NPT safeguards agreement INFCIRC/155, in force since 9February 1972, was suspended on 1 October 1995, on which date the agreement of 5 April 1973(INFCIRC/193) between the non-nuclear-weapon States of Euratom, Euratom and the Agency, to which Finlandhad acceded, entered into force for Finland.

13 The safeguards agreement referred to is pursuant to Additional Protocol I to the Treaty of Tlatelolco.14 The NPT safeguards agreement of 7 March 1972 concluded with the German Democratic Republic

(INFCIRC/181) is no longer in force with effect from 3 October 1990, on which date the German DemocraticRepublic acceded to the Federal Republic of Germany.

15 Pending entry into force, the additional protocol is applied provisionally in this State.16 The application of safeguards in Greece under the NPT safeguards agreement INFCIRC/166, provisionally in

force since 1 March 1972, was suspended on 17 December 1981, on which date Greece acceded to theagreement of 5 April 1973 (INFCIRC/193) between the non-nuclear-weapon States of Euratom, Euratom andthe Agency.

17 The safeguards agreement referred to was concluded pursuant to both the Treaty of Tlatelolco and the NPT.The application of safeguards under an earlier safeguards agreement pursuant to the Treaty of Tlatelolco,which entered into force on 6 September 1968 (INFCIRC/118), was suspended as of 14 September 1973.

18 Date refers to a safeguards agreement concluded pursuant to Article 13 of the Treaty of Tlatelolco. A safe-guards agreement pursuant to the NPT and the Tlatelolco Treaty was signed on 22 December 1988 but hasnot yet entered into force.

19 The application of safeguards in Portugal under the NPT safeguards agreement INFCIRC/272, in force since14 June 1979, was suspended on 1 July 1986, on which date Portugal acceded to the agreement of 5 April1973 (INFCIRC/193) between the non-nuclear-weapon States of Euratom, Euratom and the Agency.

AN N EX


20 The NPT safeguards agreement concluded with the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (INFCIRC/173), whichentered into force on 3 March 1972, continues be applied in Slovakia to the extent relevant to the territory ofSlovakia. A new NPT safeguards agreement concluded with Slovakia was approved by the Board of Governorson 14 September 1998.

21 The application of safeguards in Sweden under the NPT safeguards agreement INFCIRC/234, in force since14 April 1975, was suspended on 1 June 1995, on which date the agreement of 5 April 1973 (INFCIRC/193)between the non-nuclear-weapon States of Euratom, Euratom and the Agency, to which Sweden had acceded,entered into force for Sweden.

22 Date refers to the INFCIRC/66-type safeguards agreement, concluded between the United Kingdom and theAgency, which remains in force.

23 The NPT safeguards agreement concluded with the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (INFCIRC/204),which entered into force on 28 December 1973, continues to be applied in the Federal Republic of Yugoslaviato the extent relevant to the territory of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

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TABLE A22. PARTICIPATION BY STATES IN MULTILATERAL TREATIES FOR WHICH THE DIRECTOR GENERALIS DEPOSITARY, CONCLUSION OF REVISED SUPPLEMENTARY AGREEMENTS AND ACCEPTANCEOF AMENDMENTS TO ARTICLES VI AND XIV.A OF THE AGENCY’S STATUTE(status as of 31 December 2001)

P&I VC VC/OP CPPNM NOT ASSIST JP NS RADW PVC SUPP RSA VI XIV.A

* Afghanistan Sr Sr S* Albania S* Algeria Sr Sr S S X X

Andorra * Angola

Antigua and Barbuda P* Argentina P P P Pr Pr S P P CS CS S* Armenia P P P P P* Australia P P Pr Pr P S S* Austria Pr P Pr P P* Azerbaijan

Bahamas Bahrain

* Bangladesh P P P SBarbados

* Belarus Pr P Pr Pr Pr P S S S X X* Belgium Pr Pr P P S P S

Belize * Benin

Bhutan * Bolivia P P S* Bosnia and Herzegovina P P P P

Botswana P* Brazil P P P P P P S S

Brunei * Bulgaria Pw P Pw Pw Pw P P P S* Burkina Faso S

Burundi * Cambodia * Cameroon P P S S P S

P&I Agreement on the Privileges and Immunities of the IAEA.VC Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage.VC/OP Optional Protocol Concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes.CPPNM Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material.NOT Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident.ASSIST Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency.JP Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris

Convention.NS Convention on Nuclear Safety.RADW Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of

Radioactive Waste Management.PVC Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (not yet

entered into force).SUPP Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (not yet entered into

force).RSA Revised Supplementary Agreements Concerning the Provision of Technical Assistance

by the IAEA (RSA).VI Acceptance of Amendment to Article VI of the IAEA Statute.XIV.A Acceptance of Amendment to Article XIV.A of the IAEA Statute.

AN N EX


*: Agency Member State; S: Signatory; P: Party; CS: Contracting State; r: existing reservation/declaration; w: withdrawal of previous reservation/declaration.

TABLE A22. (cont.)


* Canada Pr P Pr Sr P P X XCape Verde

* Central African RepublicChad

* Chile Pr Pr P S S P P S* China Pr Pr Pr Pr P S* Colombia P S S S

Comoros Congo

* Costa Rica P P S* Croatia P P P P P P P P S X X* Côte d’Ivoire S S S* Cuba Pr P Pr Pr Pr S S* Cyprus P Pr P P P S* Czech Rep. Pw P P P P P P P S S S

Dem. People’s Rep. of Korea Sr Sr* Dem Rep. of the Congo S S S* Denmark Pr P P S P Pr Pr

Djibouti Dominica

* Dominican Republic S S* Ecuador P P S* Egypt P P Pr Pr P S S* El Salvador S

Equatorial GuineaEritrea

* Estonia P P P P P P S S* Ethiopia S

Fiji * Finland P Pr P Pr P P P X* France Pr Pr Pr S P P X X* Gabon

Gambia * Georgia S* Germany Pr Pr Pr Pr P P P X X* Ghana P S S* Greece P Pr Pr Pr P P P S X X

Grenada * Guatemala Pr P P S

Guinea Guinea-BissauGuyana

* Haiti S S* Holy See P S S X X

Honduras * Hungary Pr P Pw Pw Pw P P P S S* Iceland P S S S* India P Pr Pr Sr* Indonesia Pr Pr Pr Pr S S S S S* Iran, Islamic Rep. of P Pr Pr S

AN N EX



TABLE A22. (cont.)


* Iraq Pr Pr S* Ireland P Pr P Pr P P S X X* Israel Sr Sr Pr Pr S S* Italy Pr Pr Pr Pr P P S S S* Jamaica P S* Japan P P P Pr P X* Jordan Pr P P S S* Kazakhstan P S S S* Kenya S* Korea, Rep. of Pr Pr P Pr P S S X X* Kuwait P

Kyrgyzstan Lao People’s Dem. Rep.

* Latvia P P P P P P P CS S* Lebanon P P P P P S S S S

Lesotho * Liberia * Libyan Arab Jamahiriya P P S* Liechtenstein P P P X X* Lithuania P P P P P P P S S S S X X* Luxembourg Pr Pr P P P P X X* Madagascar S

Malawi * Malaysia Pr Pr S

Maldives * Mali S S P S* Malta S X X* Marshall Islands

Mauritania * Mauritius P Pr Pr S* Mexico Pr P P P P P S

Micronesia * Monaco P Pr Pr S X X* Mongolia Pw Pw Pw Pw S* Morocco Pr S S P P S S P CS CS S X

Mozambique * Myanmar Pr S X X* Namibia S

Nepal * Netherlands P Pr Pr Pr P P P* New Zealand P P Pr* Nicaragua P Pr Pr S S* Niger P P S S S S* Nigeria P P S S* Norway P Pr P Pr P P P

Oman * Pakistan Pr Pr Pr Pr P S X X

Palau * Panama P P P S

Papua New Guinea

AN N EX



TABLE A22. (cont.)


* Paraguay P S S S* Peru P P Pr Pr P S S S S* Philippines P P P P P P S S S S S S* Poland Pw P Pw Pw Pw P P P S S X X* Portugal Pr P S S P S* Qatar S* Rep. of Moldova P P P P P S* Romania Pr P Pr Pr Pr P P P CS CS S X X* Russian Federation Pr S Pr Pr Pr P S

Rwanda St. Kitts and NevisSt. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines P P P PSamoa San Marino São Tome and Principe

* Saudia Arabia Pr Pr S* Senegal S S S

Seychelles * Sierra Leone S S S* Singapore Pr P P P S* Slovakia Pw P P Pr Pr P P P S* Slovenia P P P P P P P P X X

Solomon IslandsSomalia

* South Africa Sr Pr Pr P* Spain P S Pr Pr Pr S P P S* Sri Lanka Pr Pr P S* Sudan P S S S S

Suriname Swaziland

* Sweden P Pr P Pr P P P X X* Switzerland Pr Pr P P S P P X X* Syrian Arab Republic P S S S S* Tajikistan P* Thailand Pr Pr Pr S* The Former Yugoslav Rep.

of Macedonia P P P P STogo Trinidad and Tobago P P

* Tunisia P P P P S S* Turkey Pr Pr Pr Pr S P S

Turkmenistan* Uganda S* Ukraine Pr P P Pr Pr P Pr P S S S

United Arab Emirates Pr Pr S* United Kingdom Pw S S Pr Pr Pr S P P X X* United Rep. of Tanzania S* United States of America P Pr Pr P S S* Uruguay P P P P S S

AN N EX



TABLE A22. (cont.)


* Uzbekistan P SVanuatu

* Venezuela S* Viet Nam P Pr Pr S* Yemen * Yugoslavia, Fed. Rep. of P P S P P P S* Zambia S* Zimbabwe S S S

AN N EX



TABLE A23. CONVENTIONS NEGOTIATED AND ADOPTED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE AGENCY ANDFOR WHICH THE DIRECTOR GENERAL OF THE AGENCY IS DEPOSITARY (STATUS ANDRELEVANT DEVELOPMENTS)

Agreement on the Privileges and Immunities of the IAEA (reproduced in INFCIRC/9/Rev. 2). In 2001, one Stateaccepted the Agreement. By the end of the year, there were 68 Parties.

Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (reproduced in INFCIRC/500). Entered into force on12 November 1977. In 2001, 1 State adhered to the Convention. By the end of the year there were 33 Parties.

Optional Protocol Concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes (reproduced in INFCIRC/500/Add.3).Entered into force on 13 May 1999. In 2001, the status remained unchanged with two Parties.

Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (reproduced in INFCIRC/274/Rev.1). Entered into forceon 8 February 1987. In 2001, one State adhered to the Convention. By the end of the year there were 69 Parties.

Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (reproduced in INFCIRC/335). Entered into force on27 October 1986. In 2001, one State adhered to the Convention. By the end of the year there were 87 Parties.

Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency (reproduced inINFCIRC/336). Entered into force on 26 February 1987. In 2001, one State adhered to the Convention. By theend of the year there were 83 Parties.

Joint Protocol Relating to the Application of the Vienna Convention and the Paris Convention (reproduced inINFCIRC/402). Entered into force on 27 April 1992. In 2001, three States adhered to the Protocol. By the endof the year there were 24 Parties.

Convention on Nuclear Safety (reproduced in INFCIRC/449). Entered into force on 24 October 1996. In 2001,the status remained unchanged with 53 Parties.

Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management(reproduced in INFCIRC/546). Entered into force on 18 June 2001. In 2001, four States adhered to theConvention and one State signed it. By the end of the year there were 27 Parties.

Protocol to Amend the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (reproduced in INFCIRC/566).Opened for signature on 29 September 1997. In 2001, one State adhered to the Protocol and one State signedit. By the end of the year there were 4 Contracting States and 15 Signatories.

Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (reproduced in INFCIRC/567). Opened forsignature on 29 September 1997. In 2001, the status remained unchanged with 3 Contracting States and13 Signatories.

African Regional Co-operative Agreement for Research, Development and Training Related to Nuclear Science andTechnology (AFRA) (Second Extension) (reproduced in INFCIRC/377). Entered into force on 4 April 2000. In 2001,two States adhered to the Agreement. By the end of the year, there were 22 Parties.

Second Agreement to Extend the 1987 Regional Co-operative Agreement for Research, Development and TrainingRelated to Nuclear Science and Technology (RCA) (reproduced in INFCIRC/167/Add. 18). Entered into force on12 June 1997. In 2001, its status remained unchanged with 17 Parties.

Revised Supplementary Agreements Concerning the Provision of Technical Assistance by the IAEA (RSA). In 2001,three States concluded Agreements. By the end of the year 95 States had concluded RSA Agreements.

Co-operation Agreement for the Promotion of Nuclear Science and Technology in Latin America and the Caribbean(ARCAL) (reproduced in INFCIRC/582). Opened for signature on 25 September 1998. In 2001, four Statesadhered to the Agreement and three States signed it. By the end of the year there were 5 Contracting States and17 Signatories.

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TABLE A24. CO-ORDINATED RESEARCH PROJECTS — NEW OR COMPLETED IN 2001

A full list of all current CRPs is available on the Agency’s WorldAtom web site. A printed copy is available, on request, from the Agency’s Division of Public Information.

Nuclear Power

NewEconomic research on, and assessment of, selected nuclear desalination projects and case studiesEvaluation of radiation damage to WWER reactor pressure vessels: Using the IAEA database on reactor pressure

vessel materialsVerification of WWER steam generator tube integrity

CompletedIntercomparison of techniques for pressure tube inspection and diagnosticsOptimization of the coupling of nuclear reactors and desalination systemsPotential of thorium based fuel cycles to constrain plutonium and to reduce long term waste toxicitiesUse of a thorium based fuel cycle in accelerator driven systems (ADSs) to incinerate plutonium and to reduce

long term waste toxicities

Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Waste Management Technology

NewCorrosion of research reactor aluminium-clad spent fuel in water (Phase II) Data processing technologies and diagnostics for water chemistry and corrosion control in nuclear power plants

(DAWAC)Nuclear fuel cycle aspects of the disposition of depleted uranium

CompletedChemical durability and performance assessment of spent fuel and high level waste forms under simulated

repository conditions (extended to 2005)Combined methods of liquid radioactive waste treatmentDecommissioning techniques for research reactorsModelling of transport of radioactive substances in primary circuit of water cooled reactorsTreatment of liquid effluent from uranium mines and mills during and after operation

Comparative Assessment for Sustainable Energy Development

NewCost effectiveness of nuclear power compared to carbon dioxide capture and sequestration from fossil fuel power

plantsHistorical evolution of Indicators of Sustainable Energy Development (ISED) and the use of this information for

designing guidelines for future energy strategies in conformity with the objectives of sustainable development Impact of infrastructural requirements on the competitiveness of nuclear power

CompletedCase studies to assess and compare different energy sources in sustainable energy and electricity supply

strategiesEstimating the external costs associated with electricity generation options in developing countries using

simplified methodologies

Food and Agriculture

NewDevelopment of strategies for the effective monitoring of veterinary drug residues in livestock and livestock

products in developing countriesEnabling technologies for the expansion of the sterile insect technique for the Old and New ScrewwormIntegrated approach for improving small scale market oriented dairy systemsIntegrated soil, water and nutrient management for sustainable rice–wheat cropping systems in AsiaUse of irradiation to ensure hygienic quality of fresh, pre-cut fruits and vegetables and other minimally processed

foods of plant origin

AN N EX


TABLE A24. (cont.)

CompletedAssessment of soil erosion through the use of caesium-137 and related techniques as a basis for soil

conservation, sustainable production and environmental protectionAutomation in tsetse fly mass rearing for use in sterile insect technique programmesCellular biology and biotechnology including mutation techniques for creation of new useful banana genotypesUse of isotope techniques in studies on the management of organic matter and nutrient turnover for increased,

sustainable agricultural production and environmental preservationUse of nuclear and colorimetric techniques for measuring microbial protein supply from local feed resources in

ruminant animals

Human Health

NewApplication of isotopic and nuclear techniques in the study of nutrition pollution interactions and their impact on

the nutritional status of human subjects in developing country populationsComparative assessment of teletherapy modalitiesDevelopment of techniques at Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratories for the dissemination of absorbed

dose to water standardsDevelopment of thermoluminescence dosimetry based quality audits for radiotherapy dosimetry in non-reference

conditionsHarmonization of protocols and procedures in the management of neonatal hydronephrosisIsotopic and complementary tools for the study of micronutrient status and interactions in developing country

populations exposed to multiple nutritional deficienciesRadiopharmaceutical imaging to predict and evaluate the response of breast cancer to neo-adjuvant

chemotherapyUse of nuclear and related analytical techniques in studying human exposure to toxic elements consumed

through foodstuffs contaminated by industrial activities

CompletedClinical application of radiosensitizers in cancer radiotherapyDevelopment and validation of an Internet based clinical and technical study communication system for nuclear

medicineDevelopment of a quality assurance programme for radiation therapy dosimetry in developing countriesDevelopment of an improved serological kit for Chagas diagnosis using radionuclide methodsElectron paramagnetic resonance biodosimetryHuman immunodeficiency virus (HIV) markers in patients treated with radiotherapy for cervical cancer

Applications of Physical and Chemical Sciences

NewAtomic and molecular data for fusion plasma diagnosticsData for molecular processes in edge plasmasDense magnetized plasmasDevelopment of distance learning modules on troubleshooting of nuclear instrumentsIn situ application of the X ray fluorescence technique

CompletedWIMSD library update project

Nuclear Safety

CompletedInvestigation of methodologies for incident analysisRound robin exercise on WWER-440 reactor pressure vessel weld metal irradiation embrittlement and annealing

AN N EX


TABLE A24. (cont.)

Radiation Safety

CompletedDevelopment of radiological basis for the transport safety requirements for low specific activity materials and

surface contaminated objects

AN N EX


TABLE A25. TRAINING COURSES, SEMINARS AND WORKSHOPS IN 2001

Nuclear Power

CoursesKorea International Cooperation Agency/IAEA training course on nuclear power planning and project management

for middle level managers — Republic of KoreaRegional course on mechanical equipment — Republic of KoreaRegional course on modernization of nuclear power plant instrumentation and control systems — GermanyRegional course on optimization of nuclear power plant maintenance programmes — Germany

SeminarStatus and prospects for small and medium sized reactors — Egypt

WorkshopsRegional workshop on ageing management programme for mechanical equipment and instrumentation and

control equipment — HeadquartersRegional workshop on application of the leak-before-break concept — SloveniaRegional workshop on condition monitoring methods and techniques for assessing lifetime — UkraineRegional workshop on configuration management throughout plant service life — Slovenia Regional workshop on data acquisition system and ageing management — RomaniaRegional workshop on the economics of nuclear power plant performance — HungaryRegional workshop on experience in the management of delayed nuclear power projects — SlovakiaRegional workshop on human–machine interface design for the main control room — BrazilRegional workshop on management competencies required for the competitive environment — ChinaRegional workshop on managing human resources during organizational transition — Romania Regional workshop on nuclear power plant maintenance and in-service inspection — ChinaRegional workshop on qualification of in-service inspection systems with special regard to the technical

justification — Czech RepublicRegional workshop on strategies and policies in implementation of nuclear power plant life management

programmes — SloveniaRegional workshop on structural integrity assessment — GermanyRegional workshop on modern instrumentation and control technology for advanced process control systems —

Islamic Republic of IranWorkshop on advanced nuclear power plant simulation — Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical

Physics, TriesteWorkshop on desalination economic evaluation — Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics,

TriesteWorkshop on hybrid nuclear systems for energy production, utilization of actinides and transmutation of long lived

radioactive waste — Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics, TriesteWorkshop on technologies for desalination — Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Trieste


CoursesCourse on implementation of burnup credit in spent fuel management systems — USACourse on nuclear fuel cycle — MoroccoDecommissioning of research reactors and other small nuclear facilities — Republic of KoreaDemonstration of predisposal waste management and procedures — Russian FederationRegional course on management of disused sealed radioactive sources — South Africa

WorkshopComputational workshop and course on implementing burnup credit — USA


CoursesNational group training on energy planning for electricity generation using the Agency’s WASP model — Armenia;

Haiti

AN N EX


TABLE A25. (cont.)

National group training on the Energy and Power Evaluation Program (ENPEP) — SudanNational group training on the IAEA’s model FINPLAN for financial analysis of nuclear power projects — BulgariaNational group training on the use of Model for Analysis of Energy Demand (MAED) — Syrian Arab RepublicRegional course on the Energy and Power Evaluation Program (ENPEP) as an IAEA tool for greenhouse gas (GHG)

abatement cost studies —UkraineRegional course on the use of the Agency’s methodologies and tools in greenhouse gas abatement studies —

Republic of Korea

SeminarsRegional seminar to exchange experiences in conducting national studies on greenhouse gas abatement — Viet

Nam

WorkshopsInterregional workshop on enhanced energy system analysis and planning, incorporating social, economic and

environmental aspects in decision making — USA


CoursesInterregional course on the use of the sterile insect and related techniques for the area wide management of

insect pests — USANational group training in agriculture and related fields — NigeriaNational group training studying the fate of nitrate in soil and water under intensive vegetable production systems

— MauritiusRegional (AFRA) course on improved mutation, in vitro culture and drought screening techniques for the

improvement of African crops — South AfricaRegional course on the application of neutron probe and nitrogen-15 under fertigation — TurkeyRegional Latin America course on fruit fly area wide management — Mexico

WorkshopsFAO/IAEA regional training workshop on mutagenesis, molecular pathology and markers in date palm

improvement — TunisiaFAO/IAEA training workshop on in vitro plant multiplication, selection, mutagenesis and molecular marker studies

in plant improvement — MalaysiaFAO/IAEA training workshop on induced mutations and biotechnology in ornamental plant improvement —

IndonesiaFAO/IAEA workshop on introduction of quality assurance/quality control principles in the analysis of pesticide

products — HungaryFAO/IAEA (RCA) workshop on process control of irradiation as a sanitary and phytosanitary treatment for food —

ChinaFAO/IAEA/WHO regional workshop for Africa and the Near East on development of quality assurance for

mycotoxin analysis of food and feed — EgyptICGFI regional workshop for Latin America on certification of irradiation as a sanitary and phytosanitary treatment

for food — BrazilNational training workshop on disease surveillance, reporting and emergency preparedness systems — PakistanRCA training workshop on in vitro techniques for feed evaluation — IndonesiaRegional training workshop update on technologies for the surveillance of rinderpest freedom — SenegalRegional West Asia workshop on using GIS for SIT data management — AustriaRegional workshop to train trainers on methodologies and use of information communication technology (ICT)

based training materials in animal reproduction and health — United Republic of TanzaniaSouth African Development Community/IAEA technical co-operation workshop on diagnostic kit production and

related quality assurance issues in South African developing countries — ZimbabweSecond FAO/IAEA interregional consultants meeting/workshop on developing standardized training material to

assist FAO/IAEA Member States to establish quality systems for veterinary diagnostic laboratories — SouthAfrica

AN N EX


TABLE A25. (cont.)

Workshop on integrated crop, soil, water and nutrient management in rice based cropping systems with emphasison biofertilizer technologies — Bangladesh

Human Health

CoursesCourse on basic clinical radiobiology (IAEA/ESTRO) — SpainCourse on clinical research in radiation oncology (IAEA/ESTRO) — Turkey Course on dose and monitor unit calculations for high energy photon beams, basic principles and application to

modern techniques (IAEA/ESTRO) — PortugalCourse on evidence based radiation oncology: principles and methods (IAEA/ESTRO) — EgyptCourse on imaging for target volume determination in radiotherapy (IAEA/ESTRO) — PolandCourse on intensity modulated radiation therapy (IAEA/ESTRO) — NetherlandsCourse on modern brachytherapy techniques (IAEA/ESTRO) — France; Slovakia Course on physics for clinical radiotherapy (IAEA/ESTRO) — BelgiumCourse on radiation oncology in the new millennium (RCA/ISRO) — IndiaCourse on radiotherapy treatment planning: Principles and practices (IAEA/ESTRO) — IrelandCourse on the physical aspects of quality assurance in radiotherapy — ArgentinaNational course on basic radioimmunoassay — SudanNational course on radioimmunoassay: Theory, methodology and quality control — Viet NamRegional course on basic nuclear cardiology — EgyptRegional (AFRA) course on brachytherapy — TunisiaRegional course on formulation of immunoradiometric assay for prostatic specific antigen using antibodies from

open sources — Syrian Arab RepublicRegional course on molecular biology techniques in diagnosis of viral hepatitis — UruguayRegional course on nuclear cardiology — Estonia Regional course on nuclear cardiology technicians — AlgeriaRegional course on nuclear oncology — ItalyRegional course on paediatric nuclear medicine for nuclear medicine physicians — CyprusRegional course on radiation oncology: What have we learnt from evidenced based medicine? (RCA/ISRO) —

IndiaRegional (RCA) course on radiobiological and physical aspects of brachytherapy in uterine cervix cancer — JapanRegional course on radionuclide and molecular techniques in the detection of drug resistant malaria — UgandaRegional course on scintimammography, sentinel lymph node detection and intra-operative surgical probe

technology — PakistanSeminar on iron and zinc fortification of wheat flour — IndonesiaRegional course on the operation of tissue banking: First phase — ArgentinaRegional (RCA) course on treatment planning in clinical radiation oncology — Australia

SeminarsNational screening programme for neonatal hypothyroidism: Regional seminar for policy makers and

professionals on congenital hypothyroidism — Philippines

WorkshopsInternational workshop on k0 users — BelgiumInternational workshop on multi-micronutrient deficiency control in the life cycle — PeruNational workshop on neonatal screening for congenital hypothyroidism in Viet Nam — Viet NamNational workshop on nuclear medicine — Colombia National workshop on a service network with tele-imaging and tele-maintenance — BoliviaRegional (AFRA) workshop on evidence based diagnostic radioimmunology — MauritiusRegional management workshop on strategies to enhance utilization of local radiopharmaceuticals — Republic

of KoreaRegional training workshop on atmospheric chemistry and transport — Republic of KoreaRegional training workshop on nuclear cardiology techniques — South AfricaRegional training workshop on paediatric nuclear medicine — Tunisia

AN N EX


TABLE A25. (cont.)

Regional training workshop on quality control of single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) systems — Morocco

Regional training workshop on radionuclide treatment of liver cancer — AustraliaRegional training workshop on review of the distance assistance training programme for nuclear medicine

technologists — South AfricaRegional workshop on application of SPECT techniques in cardiology and oncology for nuclear medicine

technologists — Viet NamRegional workshop on application of the manual of procedures in nuclear nephro-urology and its clinical

applications — MexicoRegional workshop on management of thyroid cancer — PhilippinesRegional workshop on myocardial perfusion scintigraphy using SPECT for nuclear medicine physicians —

IndonesiaRegional workshop on neutron monitoring and dosimetry — Republic of KoreaRegional workshop on quality assurance programme for molecular based diagnosis of infectious diseases —

ThailandRegional (AFRA) workshop on radiation oncology departmental management decision making — South AfricaRegional workshop on traceability of measurements for protection level dosimetry — LatviaRegional workshop on treatment planning — GermanyWorkshop on capacity building in Africa in the area of food and nutrition — South Africa

Marine Environment and Water Resources

CoursesAdvanced regional course on isotope data interpretation — USABasic regional course on the use of methodologies of isotope hydrology — Tunisia MEDPOL course on the analyses of chlorinated pesticides and PCBs in marine samples — MonacoMEDPOL course on the analyses of trace metals in marine samples — MonacoRegional course on groundwater: Evaluation, techniques and management — ColombiaRegional course on isotope hydrology — Namibia

WorkshopRegional workshop for project assessment of isotope applications for improved drinking water resources

management — Republic of Korea


CoursesAccelerator training school 2001 — Indonesia Regional course on fabrication of non-destructive testing test pieces — South AfricaRegional course on surface methods: Level II — Jordan; TunisiaRegional course on ultrasonic testing proficiency of welds — Australia

WorkshopsRegional workshop on neutron beam research — Republic of KoreaWorkshop on nuclear data for science and technology: Accelerator driven waste incineration — Italy

Nuclear Safety

CoursesCourse on advanced ultrasonic testing — Russian Federation; LithuaniaCourse on safety design requirements of nuclear power plants — ChinaGroup training on the introduction of existing regulatory and utility design safety requirements — ChinaRegional basic professional course on nuclear safety — FranceRegional basic professional course on nuclear safety (East Asia and Pacific) — USARegional course for junior operators and regulators on safety and utilization of research reactors — Austria;

SlovakiaRegional course on advanced probabilistic safety assessment (PSA) modelling techniques — United KingdomRegional course on regulatory control of nuclear power plants — Germany

AN N EX


TABLE A25. (cont.)

Regional course on the safety assessment of nuclear power plants — United Kingdom

SeminarsINES seminar — Czech Republic; SlovakiaInternational seminar on horizontal steam generators — FinlandSeminar on automated ultrasonic testing — SpainSeminar on qualification of welding techniques — USASeminar on self-assessment of operational safety performance — Russian Federation

WorkshopsFirst regional workshop on safety analysis and computer code utilization — Republic of KoreaManagement workshop on competencies for competitive environment — ChinaNational workshop on configuration management — ChinaNational workshop on external events in site and design of nuclear power plants — LithuaniaNational workshop on fundamental event analysis techniques — Republic of KoreaNational workshop on operational experience and event analysis techniques — Republic of KoreaNational workshop on self-assessment of operational safety — PakistanRegional training workshop on safety analysis methodology and computer code utilization — Republic of KoreaRegional workshop on accident management — UkraineRegional workshop on ageing of research reactors — BrazilRegional workshop on comparison of thermal hydraulic analyses performed to support WWER-1000 PSAs —

Russian FederationRegional workshop on core calculations — ArgentinaRegional workshop on development of safety analyses reports — SloveniaRegional workshop on emergency preparedness of research reactors — RomaniaRegional workshop on extended shutdown and decommissioning of research reactors — LatviaRegional workshop on fundamental techniques for event analyses — LithuaniaRegional workshop on modernization of protection systems — Mexico; PeruRegional workshop on periodic safety review — BulgariaRegional workshop on RBMK safety issues — LithuaniaRegional workshop on regulatory review of licensee safety performance — USARegional workshop on risk informed regulations — Hungary Regional workshop on safety culture — ChinaRegional workshop on safety culture enhancement programme support — SlovakiaRegional workshop on safety culture for research reactors — ChileRegional workshop on strategies for safe operation — Republic of KoreaRegional workshop on the IAEA nuclear safety standards (safety requirements) — JapanRegional workshop on tools for enhancement of regulatory effectiveness — SloveniaRegional workshop on WWER-1000 design basis documentation management system — Czech RepublicStrengthening safety assessment capabilities of nuclear power plants — UkraineWorkshop for middle and senior managers on harmonization of PSA — SpainWorkshop on ageing of research reactors — ChinaWorkshop on assessing and assuring plant modification safety — SloveniaWorkshop on BWR water chemistry — GermanyWorkshop on challenges to the operator–regulator interface — GermanyWorkshop on check criteria before acceptance for three categories of fast reactor design basis accidents —

ChinaWorkshop on engineering safety assessment of existing nuclear power plants — Russian FederationWorkshop on periodic safety review — BulgariaWorkshop on probabilistic safety assessment for pressurized heavy water reactors — CanadaWorkshop on PSA: A tool to support operational decision making — IndiaWorkshop on regulatory aspects for research reactors — Viet NamWorkshop on regulatory body review and assessment of safety analysis reports — Czech RepublicWorkshop on regulatory requirement for licensing research reactors — MalaysiaWorkshop on requirements for level 2 PSA — China

AN N EX


TABLE A25. (cont.)

Workshop on requisites for establishment of regulatory body, licensing, inspection and enforcement — Viet Nam

Workshop on safe operating envelope for nuclear power plants with pressurized heavy water reactors — CanadaWorkshop on strengthening management of plant operational safety — UkraineWorkshop on Tianwan nuclear power plant reactor protection system and validation and verification of the safety

software — GermanyWorkshop on training staff of a regulatory body based on competency — Brazil

Radiation Safety

CoursesNational course on assistance with preparation of national training courses on radiation protection — BoliviaNational course on assistance with preparation of national training courses on radiation protection for officers in

radiotherapy and nuclear medicine — BoliviaNational course on emergency preparedness and response to radiological emergencies — Costa RicaNational course on emergency response and preparedness — GuatemalaNational course on health surveillance and medical management of overexposed workers — RomaniaNational course on organization and implementation of a national regulatory programme for the control of

radiation sources — Bosnia and HerzegovinaNational course on radiation protection for officers in radiotherapy and nuclear medicine — BoliviaNational course on radiation protection for radiation protection officers — GuatemalaNational course on radiation protection in diagnostic and interventional radiology — LatviaNational course on radiation protection in diagnostic radiology — AlbaniaNational course on radiation protection in diagnostic radiology — Republic of MoldovaNational course on radiation protection in hospitals — Saudi ArabiaNational course on radiation protection in industrial radiography — The Former Yugoslav Republic of MacedoniaNational course on radiation protection in nuclear medicine — LithuaniaNational course on radiation protection in radiotherapy — EstoniaNational course on regulatory control of radiation sources — MaltaPost-graduate educational course in radiation protection and nuclear safety — ArgentinaPost-graduate educational course in radiation protection and safety of radiation — MalaysiaRegional course on assessment of occupational exposure due to external radiation sources — TurkeyRegional course on design, implementation and management of individual monitoring programmes — JapanRegional course on organization and implementation of a national regulatory programme for the control of

radiation sources — Islamic Republic of Iran; SloveniaRegional post-graduate diploma course in radiation protection — Syrian Arab RepublicRegional post-graduate educational course in radiation protection and safety of radiation sources — South AfricaRegional train the trainers course for developing a syllabus/training material for optimization of radiation

protection — Republic of KoreaRegional train the trainers course on medical education for nuclear accident preparedness — Slovenia

SeminarsNational forum on the Basic Safety Standards — ColombiaNational seminar on legislative assistance (experts from URT) — AustriaNational seminar on regulatory framework for nuclear and radiation safety — Nigeria

WorkshopsIAEA–GCC workshop on radiation protection and waste safety infrastructure — BahrainNational train the trainers workshop on diagnosis and biological dose assessment of radiation injuries — ChinaNational workshop in nuclear medicine — Saudi ArabiaNational workshop on planning medical response to radiological accidents — EgyptNational workshop on radiation protection in diagnostic, radiology, radiotherapy and nuclear medicine — JordanRegional training workshop on radiation protection in diagnostic and interventional radiology — FranceRegional workshop on management of occupational radiation exposure during outages, Karachi nuclear power

plant — Pakistan

AN N EX


TABLE A25. (cont.)

Regional workshop on optimization of radiation protection in nuclear power plants for regulatory staff — SpainRegional workshop on the safety of radiation sources and security of radioactive materials — Morocco; ThailandWorkshop on radiation protection for occupationally exposed workers of the IAEA Marine Environment Laboratory

— Monaco

Radioactive Waste Safety

CoursesRegional course on decontamination and decommissioning of research reactors and other small nuclear facilities

— Republic of KoreaRegional course on exposures to the public and their control — BelarusRegional course on sources, assessment, monitoring and control of public exposures — Lithuania

SeminarsExecutive seminar on information/guidance on decommissioning — Lithuania

WorkshopsNational training workshop on rapid measurements of caesium-137 and strontium-90 in food — UkraineRegional workshop on safety assessment methodologies for “RADON” radioactive waste disposal facilities —

Russian Federation

Safeguards

CoursesCourse on implementation of state systems of accounting for and control of nuclear material — USARegional course on state systems of accounting for and control of nuclear material — Argentina; Australia

SeminarsRegional seminar on the protocol additional to nuclear safeguards agreements — PeruSeminar on legislative assistance to representatives from Bulgaria and the Slovak Republic — Headquarters

WorkshopsNational workshop on additional protocol and safeguards implementation — RomaniaWorkshop on IAEA safeguards — JapanWorkshop on IAEA safeguards activities — Russian FederationWorkshop on nuclear material accounting and reporting — UkraineWorkshop on the additional protocol for the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic — Headquarters

Security of Material

CoursesFifth Brno regional course on physical protection system design methodology (IAEA–USDOE) — Czech RepublicRegional course on practical operation of physical protection systems — Russian FederationRegional train the trainers course on combating illicit trafficking of nuclear and/or radioactive materials

(IAEA–Russian Customs Academy) — Russian Federation

SeminarsSubregional workshop–seminar on physical protection — Lithuania

WorkshopsNational design basis threat (DBT) workshop — Kazakhstan; Romania; SlovakiaNational workshop on combating illicit trafficking of nuclear and/or radioactive materials — Azerbaijan;

KazakhstanRegional workshop on physical protection and combating the illegal movement of nuclear material and other

radioactive sources — Argentina

AN N EX


TABLE A25. (cont.)

Policy-making, Management and Support Services

National public information seminar on application of nuclear science and technology for human welfare —Indonesia

Regional public information seminar on peaceful uses of nuclear energy in central and eastern Europe —Slovenia

Regional public information seminar on serving human needs: Nuclear energy and technology for Africa — SouthAfrica

Regional workshop on case studies in nuclear public information — Republic of Korea

AN N EX


TABLE A26. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED IN 2001

Nuclear Power

A systematic approach to human performance improvement in nuclear power plants: Training solutions — IAEA-TECDOC-1204

Assuring the competence of nuclear power plant contractor personnel — IAEA-TECDOC-1232

Country nuclear power profiles: 2001 edition (print and CD-ROM)

Critical experiments and reactor physics calculations for low enriched HTGRs — IAEA-TECDOC-1249

Current status and future development of modular high temperature gas cooled reactor technology — IAEA-TECDOC-1198

Design and evaluation of heat utilization systems for the high temperature engineering test reactor — IAEA-TECDOC-1236

Effective management of nuclear power plant instrumentation and control modernization projects includingdevelopment of a database (proceedings of a specialists meeting) (CD-ROM)

Gas turbine power conversion systems for modular HTGRs — IAEA-TECDOC-1238

Heat transport and afterheat removal for gas cooled reactors under accident conditions — IAEA-TECDOC-1163

Information integration in control rooms and technical offices in nuclear power plants — IAEA-TECDOC-1252

Introduction of nuclear desalination — Technical Reports Series No. 400

Managing change in nuclear utilities — IAEA-TECDOC-1226

Modernization of instrumentation and control in nuclear power plants (proceedings of a regional training course)(CD-ROM)

Nuclear power engineering section newsletter, Vo. 3, No. 1

Nuclear power programme planning: An integrated approach — IAEA-TECDOC-1259

Nuclear power reactors in the world — Reference Data Series No. 2

Operating experience with nuclear power stations in Member States in 1999

Operating experience with nuclear power stations in Member States in 2000

Performance of operating and advanced light water reactor designs — IAEA-TECDOC-1245

Quality assurance for safety in nuclear power plants and other nuclear installations — Safety Series No. 50-C/SG-Q (CD-ROM)

Reactor simulator development workshop material — Training Course Series No. 12

Reference manual on the IAEA JRQ correlation monitor steel for irradiation damage studies — IAEA-TECDOC-1230

Risk management: A tool for improving nuclear power plant performance — IAEA-TECDOC-1209

Safety related design and economic aspects of HTGRs — IAEA-TECDOC-1210

Staffing requirements for future small and medium reactors (SMRs) based on operating experience andprojections — IAEA-TECDOC-1193

Thermohydraulic relationships for advanced water cooled reactors — IAEA-TECDOC-1203


Analysis of uranium supply to 2050 — special publication

Assessment of uranium deposit types and resources: A worldwide perspective — IAEA-TECDOC-1258

Characterization of groundwater flow for near surface disposal facilities — IAEA-TECDOC-1199

Country nuclear fuel cycle profiles — Technical Reports Series No. 404

Design criteria for a worldwide directory of radioactive contaminated sites (DRCS) — IAEA-TECDOC-1251

Handling and processing of radioactive waste from nuclear applications — Technical Reports Series No. 402

Impact of new environmental and safety regulations on uranium exploration, mining, milling and management ofits waste — IAEA-TECDOC-1244

Implementation of burnup credit in spent fuel management systems — IAEA-TECDOC-1241

AN N EX


TABLE A26. (cont.)

Management for the prevention of accidents from disused sealed radioactive sources — IAEA-TECDOC-1205

Manual of acid in situ leach uranium mining technology — IAEA-TECDOC-1239

Methods for the minimization of radioactive waste from decontamination and decommissioning of nuclearfacilities — Technical Reports Series No. 401

Monitoring of geological repositories for high level radioactive waste — IAEA-TECDOC-1208

Multi-purpose container technologies for spent fuel management — IAEA-TECDOC-1192

Nuclear fuel behaviour modelling at high burnup and its experimental support — IAEA-TECDOC-1233

Nuclear graphite waste management (proceedings of a Technical Committee meeting held in Manchester, UnitedKingdom, 18–20 October 1999) — IAEA-NGWM/CD (CD-ROM)

Organization and management for decommissioning of large nuclear facilities — Technical Reports SeriesNo. 399

Performance of engineered barrier materials in near surface disposal facilities for radioactive waste: Results ofa Co-ordinated Research Project — IAEA-TECDOC-1255

Procedures and techniques for closure of near surface disposal facilities for radioactive waste — IAEA-TECDOC-1260

Radioactive waste management status and trends — IAEA/WMDB/ST/1 (CD-ROM)

Seismic design considerations of nuclear fuel cycle facilities — IAEA-TECDOC-1250

Technical considerations in the design of near surface disposal facilities for radioactive waste — IAEA-TECDOC-1256

Technologies for the management of radioactive waste from nuclear power plants and back end nuclear fuel cycleactivities (proceedings of a symposium held in Taejon, Republic of Korea, 30 August–3 September 1999) —C&S Papers Series No. 6 (IAEA-CSP-6/CD)

Use of scientific and technical results from underground research laboratory investigations for the geologicaldisposal of radioactive waste — IAEA-TECDOC-1243

Waste Inventory Record Keeping Systems (WIRKS) for the management and disposal of radioactive waste — IAEA-TECDOC-1222

Waste management research abstracts, Nos 25, 26 (CD-ROM)


Energy, electricity and nuclear power estimates for the period up to 2020: July 2001 — Reference Data SeriesNo. 1

Wien Automatic System Planning (WASP) package: A computer code for power generating system expansionplanning version, WASP-IV — Computer Manual Series No. 16


Animal production and health newsletter, Nos 33, 34

Consumer acceptance and market development of irradiated food in Asia and the Pacific — IAEA-TECDOC-1219

Economic evaluation of three alternative methods for control of the Mediterranean Fruit Fly (Diptera: Tephritidae)in Israel, Jordan Lebanon, Syrian Arab Republic and Territories under the Jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority— IAEA-TECDOC-1265

Food and environmental protection newsletter, Vo. 3, Nos 1, 2

Impact of long term pesticide usage on soil properties using radiotracer techniques — IAEA-TECDOC-1248

Induced mutations in connection with biotechnology for crop improvement in Latin America — IAEA-TECDOC-1216

Insect and pest control newsletter, Nos 56, 57

In vitro techniques for selection of radiation induced mutations adapted to adverse environmental conditions —IAEA-TECDOC-1227

AN N EX


TABLE A26. (cont.)

Irradiation to control Vibrio infection from consumption of raw seafood and fresh produce — IAEA-TECDOC-1213

Mutation breeding newsletter, No. 45

Mutation breeding review, No. 13

Performance indicators for rinderpest surveillance — IAEA-TECDOC-1261

Plant breeding and genetics newsletter, Nos 6, 7

Radioactively labelled DNA probes for crop improvement — IAEA-TECDOC-1253

Radioimmunoassay and related techniques to improve artificial insemination programmes for cattle reared undertropical and subtropical conditions — IAEA-TECDOC-1220

Sesame improvement by induced mutations — IAEA-TECDOC-1195

Soils newsletter, Vols 23, 24

Standardized methods to verify absorbed dose in irradiated food for insect control — IAEA-TECDOC-1201

Use of isotope and radiation methods in soil and water management and crop nutrition — Training Course SeriesNo. 14

Human Health

Absorbed dose determination in external beam radiotherapy: An international Code of Practice for dosimetrybased on standards of absorbed dose to water — Technical Reports Series No. 398

Current status of neutron capture therapy — IAEA-TECDOC-1223

Implementation of microsource high dose rate (mHDR) brachytherapy for developing countries — IAEA-TECDOC-1257

SSDL newsletter, Nos 44, 45

The role of radiotherapy in the management of cancer patients infected by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)— IAEA-TECDOC-1224

Therapeutic applications of radiopharmaceuticals — IAEA-TECDOC-1228

Marine Environment and Water Resources

Isotope based assessment of groundwater renewal in water scarce regions — IAEA-TECDOC-1246

Isotope techniques in water resource investigations in arid and semi-arid regions — IAEA-TECDOC- 1207

New approaches for stable isotope ratio measurements — IAEA-TECDOC-1247

Use of isotope techniques in lake dynamics investigations — IAEA-TECDOC-1206

Water and environment news, Nos 13, 14


Atomic and plasma-material interaction data for fusion, Vols 7, 9

Bulletin on atomic and molecular data for fusion, Nos 60, 61

Charged particle cross-section database for medical radioisotope production: Diagnostic radioisotopes andmonitor reactions — IAEA-TECDOC-1211

CINDA 2000

Compilation and evaluation of fission yield nuclear data — IAEA-TECDOC-1168

Co-ordination of the international network of nuclear structure and decay data evaluators — INDC(NDS)-422

Development of a database for prompt gamma-ray neutron activation analysis — INDC(NDS)-424

Final report of the ITER EDA — ITER EDA Documentation Series No. 21

Fusion energy 2000 — C&S Papers Series No. 8

Guidebook for the fabrication of non-destructive testing (NDT) test specimens — Training Course Series No. 13

International bulletin on atomic and molecular data for fusion, Issue Nos 59, 60

AN N EX


TABLE A26. (cont.)

ITER Council proceedings 2000 — ITER EDA Documentation Series No. 20

ITER CTA newsletter, No. 1

ITER EDA newsletter, Vol. 9, Nos 11, 12; Vol. 10, Nos 2–7

ITER-FEAT outline design report — ITER EDA Documentation Series No. 18

Long term needs for nuclear data development: Texts of papers presented at the Advisory Group meeting —INDC(NDS)-428

Nuclear data newsletter, Nos 31, 32

Nuclear research centres in the 21st century — special publication

Nuclear structure and decay data (NSDD) network — INDC(NDS)-421

Quality aspects of research reactor operations for instrumental neutron activation analysis — IAEA-TECDOC-1218

Radiotracer technology as applied to industry — IAEA-TECDOC-1262

Report on the IAEA consultants’ meeting on the co-ordination of nuclear reaction data centres (technical aspects)— INDC(NDS)-427

Second (final) IAEA Research Co-ordination meeting on charge exchange cross-section data for fusion plasmastudies — INDC(NDS)-426

Second (final) IAEA Research Co-ordination meeting on plasma–material interaction data for mixed plasma facingmaterials in fusion reactors — INDC(NDS)-429

Strategic planning for research reactors — IAEA-TECDOC-1212

Summary of the ITER final design report — ITER EDA Documentation Series No. 22

Summary report of the Advisory Group meeting on long term needs for nuclear data development — INDC(NDS)-423

Summary report of the consultants’ meeting on improvement of the standard cross-sections for light elements— INDC(NDS)-425

Tc-99m labelled peptides for imaging of peripheral receptors — IAEA-TECDOC-1214

Technical basis for the ITER-FEAT outline design — ITER EDA Documentation Series No. 19

The applications of research reactors — IAEA-TECDOC-1234

Use of irradiation for chemical and microbial decontamination of water, wastewater and sludge — IAEA-TECDOC-1225

Use of research reactors for neutron activation analysis — IAEA-TECDOC-1215

X ray fluorescence in the IAEA and its Member States, Newsletter, No. 2

Nuclear Safety

Application of non-destructive testing and in-service inspection to research reactors — IAEA-TECDOC-1263

Applications of probabilistic safety assessment (PSA) for nuclear power plants — IAEA-TECDOC-1200

Assessment and management of ageing of major nuclear power plant components important to safety — IAEA-TECDOC-1197

Mitigation of hydrogen hazards in water colled power reactors — IAEA-TECDOC-1196

Modifications to nuclear power plants — Safety Standards Series No. NS-G-2.3

Quality management of the nuclear regulatory body — PDRP-6

Regulatory review of probabilistic safety assessment (PSA) level 2 — IAEA-TECDOC-1229

Safety aspects of nuclear plants coupled with seawater desalination units — IAEA-TECDOC-1235

Safety assessment and verification for nuclear power plants — Safety Standards Series No. NS-G-1.2

Safety of and regulations for nuclear fuel cycle facilities — IAEA-TECDOC-1221

Seismic evaluation of exisitng nuclear power facilities — IAEA-TECDOC-1202

AN N EX


TABLE A26. (cont.)

The International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) user’s manual, 2001 edition

The operating organization of nuclear power plants — Safety Standards Series No. NS-G-2.4

Training the staff of the regulatory body for nuclear facilities: A competency framework — IAEA-TECDOC-1254

Radiation Safety

An international peer review of the biosphere modelling programme of the US Department of Energy’s YuccaMountain Site Characterization Project — special publication

Arrangements for transition from the 1985 edition (as amended 1990) to the 1996 edition of the IAEA TransportRegulations — IAEA-TECDOC-1194

Arrangements for transition from the 1985 edition (as amended 1990) to the 1996 edition of the IAEA TransportRegulations — IAEA-TECDOC-1194 (Rev. 1)

Assessment by peer review of the effectiveness of a regulatory programme for radiation safety — IAEA-TECDOC-1217

Building competence in radiation protection and the safe use of radiation sources — Safety Standards SeriesNo. RS-G-1.4

Cytogenetic analysis for radiation dose assessment, a manual — Technical Reports Series No. 405

Directory of national competent authorities’ approval certificates for package design, special form material andshipment of radioactive material, 2001 edition — IAEA-TECDOC-1237

Emergency communications with the IAEA Emergency Response Centre — special publication

Generic models for use in assessing the impact of discharges of radioactive substances to the environment —Safety Reports Series No. 19

IAEA Emergency Response Network ERNET — special publication

Inventory of accidents and losses at sea involving radioactive material — IAEA-TECDOC-1242

Investigation of an accidental exposure of radiotherapy patients in Panama: Report of a team of experts, 26May–1 June 2001 — special publication

Joint radiation emergency management plan of the international organizations JPLAN — special publication

National competent authorities responsible for approvals and authorizations in respect of the transport ofradioactive material: List No. 32 (2001 edition)

National regulatory authorities with competence in the safety of radiation sources and the security of radioactivematerials (proceedings of an international conference held in Buenos Aires, 11–15 December 2000) — C&SPapers Series No. 9

ORPGUIDE: Occupational radiation protection, IAEA Safety Standards Series — special publication (CD-ROM)

Present and future environmental impact of the Chernobyl accident — IAEA-TECDOC-1240

Radiological protection of patients in diagnostic and interventional radiology, nuclear medicine and radiotherapy(including CD-ROM) — Proceedings Series

Radiological protection of patients in diagnostic and interventional radiology, nuclear medicine and radiotherapy:Contributed papers (including CD-ROM) — C&S Papers Series No. 7

Restoration of environments with radioactive residues — Proceedings Series

Severity, probability and risk of accidents during maritime transport of radioactive material — IAEA-TECDOC-1231

The criticality accident in Sarov — special publication

Training in radiation protection and the safe use of radiation sources — Safety Reports Series No. 20

Radioactive Waste Safety

Decommissioning of nuclear fuel cycle facilities — Safety Standards Series No. WS-G-2.4

AN N EX


TABLE A26. (cont.)

Co-ordination of Safety Activities

Maintaining knowledge, training and infrastructure for research and development in nuclear safety — INSAG NoteNo. 4

Nuclear safety review for the year 2000

Safeguards

International safeguards: Verification and nuclear material security — Proceedings Series

Policy-making, Management and Support Services

INIS: Authority list for journal titles — INIS Reference Series No. 11

Manual for online retrieval from the INIS database on the internet — INIS Reference Series No. 24

Nuclear Fusion, Vol. 41, Nos 1–12

AN N EX


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