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EditorsPatricia Shanley

Margaret CymerysMurilo Serra

Gabriel Medina

IllustratorsSilvia CordeiroMiguel Imbiriba

Published by theFood and Agriculture Organization o the United Nations,

the Center or International Forestry Research andPeople and Plants International

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The designations employed and the presentation o material in this publication do not imply theexpression o any opinion whatsoever on the part o the Food and Agriculture Organization o theUnited Nations (FAO) concerning the legal status o any country, territory, city or area or o itsauthorities, or concerning the delimitation o its rontiers or boundaries. The mention o speci iccompanies or products o manu acturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply thatthese have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in pre erence to others o a similar nature that arenot mentioned. The views expressed herein are those o the authors and do not necessarily representthose o FAO.

ISB

All rights reserved. FAO encourages reproduction and dissemination o material in this in ormationproduct. Non-commercial uses will be authorized ree o charge, upon request. Reproduction orresale or other commercial purposes, including educational purposes, may incur ees. Applications orpermission to reproduce or disseminate FAO copyright material, and all queries concerning rights andlicences, should be addressed by e-mail to copyright@ ao.org or to the Chie , Publishing Policy andSupport Branch, O ice o Knowledge Exchange, Research and Extension, FAO, Viale delle Terme diCaracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy

© FAO, CIFOR and PPI 2011 (English edition)This edition is a revised and updated version o the original Portuguese edition.

© CIFOR and IMAZON, 2005 (Portuguese edition)

N 978-92-5-107007-9

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“I have never planted here; I am guarding these woods.There is piquia in this orest.I am protecting it or my children and grandchildren.”

Senhor Braz Traditional Healer

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Production o the English version o this book was made possible by support rom the Food andAgriculture Organization o the United Nations, People and Plants International, the Center

or International Forestry Research and the Melza M. and Frank T. Barr Foundation. Generoussupport towards research and collaboration in Brazil came rom the Overbrook Foundation,Tinker Foundation, Christensen Fund and Woods & Wayside International. Research whichgave rise to an earlier edition o this book in Portuguese was supported by: the Institute o Manand the Environment (IMAZON); The Woods Hole Research Center; USAID; InternationalCenter or Research on Women (ICRW); the International Development Research Center(IDRC); the Educational Foundation o America; Earth Love Fund; Rain orest Alliance; and

IUCN Netherlands.

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v

Dedicated

To the people o the Amazonwho are nourished by the

ruits and plants o the orest.

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COVER OF THE 2010 PORTUGUESE VERSION(available rom www.mma.gov.br/estruturas/sb _agrobio/_publicacao/89_publicacao08072011032100.pd

or www.ci or.org/nc/online-library/browse/view-publication/publication/1732.html)

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This book eatures the uncommon quality o bringing together original scienti icknowledge on ruits and use ul plants o the Amazon orest and the sensibility to detectthe deep interaction between li e, traditional knowledge o our orests and olk culture.With its language at the same time accessible, pleasant and practical, the book has becomea vehicle to disseminate in ormation that is undamental to the uture o the Amazon andto bring alive the dream o a development model that is economically and socially air, andthat respects the environment.

In this book, we rom the State o Acre have the privilege o seeing our lora in a dialogueo experiences rom eastern, central, and western Amazon. Mahogany, solitary aÇaí palmand rubber – which are part o the history o our region as well as part o our struggles –

along with the songs, the gestures ull o local culture and universal spirit are all in thebook. I would like to draw the reader’s attention to three important aspects o the work o Patricia, Margaret and Gabriel. The irst one is related to the impact o this work oncollective health, by strengthening the use o plants capable o substantially improving thenutritional value o our diet and, consequently, preventing the so called “illnesses o thepoor”. The studies developed by the authors correlated the seasonal availability o ruitsin the orest with the incidence o diseases, showing that during periods o scarcity thenumber o cases o some diseases is highest.

The second aspect is related to a power ul characteristic o the Amazon, still under-explored and poorly documented: the role o women in the knowledge and use o the non-timber orest patrimony. The advancement o sustainable experiences in the Amazon haswitnessed a strong contribution o women – especially in the rein orcement o communityactions and creativity to guarantee the social and material survival o the amily. Womenmay be the strategic leverage to provide both the cement and scale needed to create a newparadigm in the region. In this new edition, the Articulated Movement o the AmazonWomen (MAMA) rom Acre is studied as a personi ication o this role.

The third aspect I would like to highlight is the ability to associate orests and development –a true one, which instead o throwing us into the vortex o limitless competitiveness andsel ishness, leads us to community, to solidarity, and to human and spiritual values asmediators o each one’s goals. The reader will also ind studies on community management(Center o Amazonian Workers, CTA, project, Acre), environmental education (Healthand Happiness Project, Santarém – Pará State; and SOS Amazon, Acre) and other tracksthat lead to integral sustainability, in which it makes sense to take care o the environmentsince this is the way to take care o li e itsel , o children and our uture.

I want to again express my gratitude or this book, which is an extraordinary poem tothe Amazon, which touches our emotions with the truths expressed in the simple andpower ul igures o our animals, our plants, our aromas, our lavours. A sentiment ariseswithin us, inally, and or our lives, simply and so proudly Amazonian.

Marina SilvaFormer Minister o the Environment, Brazil

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FAO pre aceSince the early 1970s, FAO has been working to support the e orts o orest communitiesto improve their lives by involving them in the decisions which a ect their very existence.Today, an estimated 1.6 billion people around the world use orest resources to meet someo their needs or ood, shelter, medicine and cash income. In act, some 80 percent o peopleliving in the developing world rely on non-wood orest products (NWFPs) such as ruitsand medicinal plants or nutritional and health needs. These communities possess a deepknowledge o orests and their products, as well as their bene its to humankind and theenvironment. They are active caretakers o the orest. Today, more than ever, in the ace o the multiple challenges acing the sector, FAO continues to stress the importance o involving

orest communities in development initiatives.

Nevertheless, a weakness in exchange o in ormation between the scienti ic communityand local populations continues to hinder development outcomes. Local knowledgeand indigenous taxonomy is underrepresented in development practice, where Linnaeannomenclature and scienti ic data reign. O ten, scientists visit local communities and learnabout their traditional knowledge but only report their indings to other researchers/scientists in a scienti ic manner. For this reason, research continues to speak its own language– one hardly accessible to local communities.

In light o this, FAO’s NWFP Programme – which has long been dedicated to highlightingand disseminating in ormation on the importance o NWFPs and the vital role they play in

orest communities – was pleased to accept a proposal by CIFOR to collaborate with them

on an updated and translated version o the innovative illustrated book Frutì eras e PlantasÚteis na Vida Amazônica. This publication is an example o how research and developmentcan and should be respect ul and inclusive. In a way that is also accessible to local people,it synthesizes ecological, market, management and cultural in ormation o key Amazonianspecies in an e ort to help expand the knowledge base o traditional orest communitiesabout the value o orest resources. The updated English version, Fruit Trees and Use ul Plants in Amazonian Li e, serves two main purposes: it provides rich in ormation on Amazon

ruits and Amazon communities and shows how scienti ic in ormation can be presented inan innovative and more inclusive way, one that can be adapted accordingly by other actorsworldwide. This publication is particularly timely given the land-use changes a ecting the

orest sector in the Amazon – the most extensive tropical orest in the world – as well as inother areas. Local people are in dire need o reliable and, above all, accessible market andscienti ic in ormation that can help them make in ormed decisions.

FAO is a knowledge organization and, as such, its Forestry Department is especiallycommitted to making sure its technical expertise reaches orest communities in order toenable lasting impacts or uture generations through improved livelihoods today. With thisin mind, FAO gladly contributed to a publication that is a culmination o local and scienti icexpertise on orest ruits and related aspects, and above all an example o how it is possible

or “science” to share complex ecological and market in ormation e ectively with localcommunities, even in the absence o a common language.

Eduardo Rojas-Briales José Francisco Graziano da SilvaAssistant Director-General Assistant Director-General/Regional RepresentativeForestry Department or Latin America and the Caribbean

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Editors’ pre aceShould science stay in the ivory tower? Do scientists have a responsibility to turnknowledge into action? Scientists are trained to present their research to a select segmento society – readers o peer-reviewed journals. But as scientists build their reputationspublishing or narrow audiences, orests all, and people and their ecosystems becomemore impoverished.

I there is one message this book seeks to convey it is this: scienti ic results can and shouldbe shared with local people. New models o conducting research reevaluate with whomand how researchers share their indings, and reconstruct the process itsel , rom researchdesign to dissemination o results. The goal is to increase the equity and e ectivenesso research, and recognize that all people are creators o knowledge – orest villagersalongside scientists.

This book grew out o an earlier volume, written in 1997, to share research results withsemi-literate communities along a tributary o the Amazon River. Positive responseto this modest publication gave rise to a request rom the Brazilian Government or amore extensive work including species rom across the Amazon basin. This required thecollaboration o scores o experts willing to present their research to rural villagers inalternative ormats including jokes, recipes and pictures. Such a publication would notboost pro essional standing based on peer-reviewed journal articles, and could possiblydamage their reputations. Would anyone agree to participate?

To their credit, 90 Brazilian and international researchers participated, sharing theirdecades-long work in simple language. In addition, scores o armers, midwives, huntersand musicians contributed their insights and experience. Their stories reveal what numbersoverlook – the struggles and joys o the people living within Amazonian orests.

The reception by Amazonians has been extraordinary with housewives, taxi drivers,students, villagers, loggers, policy makers, rubber tappers and indigenous groups, seekingcopies. To meet demand, various sectors o the Brazilian government are now joining

orces to print and distribute 20 000 copies, ree o charge, to small producers.

This book is an updated and revised translation o its Portuguese predecessor, and isproduced in order to impart to others our e orts to integrate and share traditionalknowledge and scienti ic indings. Science should not be the territory o the well educated

ew. Science should be a common good, the value o which increases with each personthat uses it to make more in ormed decisions. We o er this book as one way to bringknowledge out o the academy and into the community.

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Acknowledgements..................................................................................................................xiiiAuthors.....................................................................................................................................xivContributors..................................................................................................................................xviAuhors and contributors: contact in ormation..................................................................xviiiGlossary o Portuguese and orestry terms...........................................................................xxiMap o South America...........................................................................................................xxiv

Introduction

Map o the Amazon.....................................................................................................................2Amazonian plant diversity..........................................................................................................3Health and nutrition: compliments o the orest.....................................................................4Compatible or con licting use....................................................................................................5The impact o seven generations....................... .......................................................................6

Who will use this book and how?

Who will use this book and how?............................................................................................11How to play with this book ....................................................................................................16

How to educate with this book: a knowledge network.........................................................19

Trees and vines

Andiroba (Carapa guianensis).................................................................................................29Bacuri (Platonia insignis)..........................................................................................................39Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) ...................................................... .......................................49Cat’s claw(Uncaria tomentosaandUncaria guianensis)..................... ................................65Copaíba (Copai eraspp.).........................................................................................................71Ipê–roxo, pau d’arco (Tabebuia impetiginosa).......................................................................81 Jatobá(Hymenaea courbaril)...................................................................................................91Mahogany, mogno (Swietenia macrophylla)..........................................................................101Piquiá (Caryocar villosum)....................................................................................................109Rubber tree, seringueira (Hevea brasiliensis)............................................ .........................121Titica (Heteropsisspp.)...........................................................................................................129Uxi, uchi (Endopleura uchi)...................................................................................................139

Palm trees and diverse other species

Açaí (Euterpe oleracea)...........................................................................................................157Açaí (solitary) (Euterpe precatoria).......................................................................................169Buriti, moriche palm (Mauritia lexuosa).............................................................................175Inajá ( Attalea maripa[syn:Maximiliana maripa])................................................................183

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Patauá (Oenocarpus bataua)....................................................................................................191Pupunha, peach palm (Bactris gasipaes)..................................................................................197Tucumã o Amazonas ( Astrocaryum aculeatum[syn: A. tucuma]).....................................205Diverse other species .............................................................................................................215

Forests or the people

Con licting uses: diverse perspectives o orest value...........................................................233Multiple-use management .....................................................................................................255Forest culture...........................................................................................................................267

Bibliography............................................................................................................................ 285Subject themes.........................................................................................................................299Appendix A: Trees and palms with a complete chapter.......................................................303Appendix B: Other trees and palms mentioned in this book.............................................305Appendix C: Wild animals mentioned in this book.............................................................309Index.........................................................................................................................................317

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This book was made possible through the support o 90 Brazilian and internationalcollaborators who joined orces to communicate their research results to armers andorest communities. We thank the hundreds o orest-reliant amilies who patiently

worked alongside scientists and shared their valuable knowledge and experiences. InBrazil, enthusiasm or the book rom Marina Silva, Carlos Vicente, Tasso Rezendede Azevedo, Aldaberto Verissimo, Fatima Cristina da Silva and the National Councilo Extractive Populations (CNS)* helped to initiate the new edition. The BrazilianGovernment, particularly the Ministry o the Environment (MMA) and the NationalAgricultural Research Institute (Embrapa), are currently ensuring that the Portugueseversion is printed and distributed ree to small holders. The work underlying this bookalso bene itted rom stead ast support rom Pro essor Sir Ghillean Prance and Daniel Katz.We thank the Food and Agriculture Organization o the United Nations, particularly TinaEtherington and Chrissi Red ern, or their perseverance and commitment to publish thisbook in English so that lessons on communicating research more broadly can be shared.

* Formerly the National Council o Rubber Tappers. The name was changed to represent a broader spectrum o orest extractivist populations, including women.

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Andréa Alechandre , Universidade Federal do Acre, Parque Zoobotânico, CampusUniversitário, BR 364, Km 04 - Distrito Industrial - CEP 69915-900, Rio Branco, AC,Brazil. [email protected], [email protected]

Paulo Armaral , Imazon, Rua Domingos Marreiros, 2020 – Fátima - CEP 66.060-160,Belém, PA, Brazil. [email protected]

Jarbas Anute Costa , Amazonlink.org, Rua Itaparica 44, Conjunto Village - Bairro VilaIvonete - CEP: 69909-710, Rio Branco, AC, Brazil. [email protected]

Valdirene Argolo , Rua Rosa de Saron, nº 42, Quadra Y, Cs 10 - Universitário II - CEP69930-300 - Rio Branco, AC, Brazil. [email protected]

Tasso Rezende de Azevedo , Deputy Director, Forestry Department; Ministry o Environment, Esplanadas dos Ministerios, Bloco B, 7 andar – Gabinete - CEP 70068-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil. [email protected]

Eduardo Brondizio , Ph.D., Dept. o Anthropology and ACT- Indiana University, 701E. Kirkwood Ave, Student Building 130, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA. [email protected]

Foster Brown , Ph.D., WHRC, 149 Woods Hole Road, Falmouth, MA 02540-1644, [email protected]

José Edmar Urano de Carvalho , Embrapa Amazônia Oriental, C.P. 48 - CEP 66095-100,Belém, PA, Brazil. [email protected] R. Clement , Ph.D., Rua Padre Antônio Vieira, 126 - Bairro Dom Pedro - CEP

69040-370 Manaus, AM, Brazil. [email protected], [email protected] Cymerys , 537 Tamalpais Drive, Corte Madera, CA 94925, USA. mcymerys@

sbcglobal.net, [email protected] da Silva , CNS (Conselho Nacional dos Seringueiros), Rua Barão de Mamoré -

São Braz – CEP 66073-070 Belém, PA, Brazil. [email protected] C. Daly , Ph.D., Institute o Systematic Botany, New York Botanical Garden, 200

St. & Kazimiro Blvd., Bronx, NY 10458-5126, USA. [email protected] G. Delprete , Ph.D., CAY Herbarium, IRD-UMR, AMAP, Boite Postale 165, 97323

Cayenne Cedex, French Guiana. piero.delprete@ird. rAlexandre Dias de Souza , Rua Pro . Lurdes Faria de Oliveira, 264 - São Carlos - CEP:

37550-000 Pouso Alegre, MG, Brazil. alexandredias.d [email protected], [email protected]

Pedro Albuquerque Ferraz , Conj. Manoel Julião, Quadra 06, Cs 14, nº 43 - EstaçãoExperimental - CEP 69907-540 Rio Branco, AC, Brazil. pa erraz@u ac.br

Evandro Ferreira , Ph.D., BR-364, KM 5, Campus da Universidade Federal do Acre -

Parque Zoobotanico - CEP 69915-900 - Rio Branco, AC, Brazil. evandro [email protected]

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Socorro Ferreira , Rua São Miguel, 527, Aptº 1102 – Jurunas – CEP 66033-015 Belém, PA,Brazil. [email protected]

Gloria Gaia , Avenida Conêgo Siqueira nº 2471 – Brasília – CEP 68400-000 Cametá, PA,Brazil. [email protected]

Daisy Aparecida Pereira Gomes-Silva , Secretaria Municipal de Meio Ambiente, Av.Antonio da Rocha Viana - Horto Florestal – CEP. 69.914-610 Rio Branco, AC, [email protected]

James Grogan , Ph.D., 44 Cave Hill Rd, Apt 2, Leverett, MA 01054, USA. [email protected], [email protected].

Mário Augusto Jardim , Ph.D., Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Av. Perimetral, 1901 –Terra Firme – CEP 66077-830 Belém, PA, Brazil. [email protected]

Paulo Yoshio Kageyama , Ph.D., Luiz de Queiroz Agriculture School, University o SãoPaulo, Avenida Padua Dias, 11, CEP 13418-900 Piracicaba, SP, Brazil. [email protected]

Karen Kainer , Ph.D., 110 Newins-Ziegler Hall, P.O. Box 110410, School o ForestResources & Conservation , University o Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0410, USA.kkainer@u l.edu

Alfredo Kingo Oyama Homma , Ph.D., Embrapa Amazônia Oriental, Centrode Pesquisa Agroflorestal da Amazônia Oriental, Trav. Dr. Enéas Pinheiro s\nMarco – CEP 66095-100, Caixa Postal 48, Belém, PA Brazil. [email protected]

Noemi Vianna Martins Leão , Embrapa Amazônia Oriental, Trav. Dr. Enéas Pinheiro,s/n, Bairro do Marco - CEP: 66095-100, Caixa Postal 48, Belém, PA, Brazil. [email protected]

Arthur Leite , Rua Pêssego, Resid. Yume, Cs 20 - Morada do Sol - CEP 69908-210 RioBranco, AC, Brazil. [email protected]

Marina Londres , 210 Newins-Ziegler Hall, P.O. Box 110410, School o Forest Resources& Conservation, University o Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-0410, USA. mlondres@u l.edu, [email protected]

Ricardo Lopes , Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária, Centro de PesquisaAgro lorestal da Amazônia Ocidental. Caixa-Postal: 319, CEP 69011-970, Manaus,AM, Brazil. [email protected]

Edson Luiz Furtado , Cx Postal 237 - CEP 18.603-970 Botucatu, SP, Brazil. el [email protected]

Lêda Luz , GTZ/Áreas Protegidas e Gestão Sustentável dos Recursos Naturais, MMASEPN 505 Bloco B. Edi ício Marie Prendi Cruz. Cobertura, sala 605 – CEP 70.730-540– Brasília, DF, Brazil. [email protected], [email protected]

David McGrath , Ph.D., WHRC, 149 Woods Hole Road, Falmouth, MA 02540-1644,USA. [email protected]

Gabriel Medina , Ph.D., Federal University o Goiás, Faculty o Agronomy, Departmento Rural Development, Rodovia Goiânia - Nova Veneza, Km 0, 74001-970, Goiânia,Goiás, Brazil. [email protected]

Elias Melo de Miranda , Ph.D., Embrapa Acre, Rodovia BR 364 Km 14 - Caixa postal 321

- CEP 69901-180 Rio Branco, AC, Brazil. elias@cpa ac.embrapa.br, [email protected]

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Nívia Maria de Paula Fernandes , Ph.D., Rua Daniel Matos, 151 - Vila Ivonete - RioBranco, AC, Brazil. lucasjp @hotmail

Luciano Pereira , Praia de Bota ogo, 154/707 - Bota ogo - CEP 22250-040 - Rio de Janeiro/RJ, Brazil. [email protected]

Charles Peters , Ph.D., New York Botanical Garden, 200 St. & Kazimiro Blvd., Bronx,NY 10458-5126, USA. [email protected]

Campbell Plowden , Ph.D., Center or Amazon Community Ecology, 1637 B NorthAtherton St. #90, State College, PA 16803, USA. [email protected], [email protected].

Projeto Dendrogene , [email protected] E. Putz , Ph.D., Department o Biology, PO 118526, 209 Carr Hall, University o

Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-8526, USA. ep@u l.edu Joanne Régis da Costa, Embrapa Amazônia Ocidental, Rodovia AM-10, Km 29 -

Caixa Postal 319 – CEP 69010-970 Manaus, AM, Brazil. [email protected] Mariella Mendes Revilla , Rua Rodolpho Coelho Cavalcante, nº 115, Ed. Mirante do

Atlântico, Aptº 1302 - Bairro Stiep - CEP 41750-166 Salvador, BA, Brazil. [email protected]

Ono ra Cleuza Rigamonte-Azevedo , Rua Boulivard Augusto Monteiro, 503 - Quinze -Rio Branco, AC, Brazil. [email protected]

Montserrat Rios , Laboratorio de Malaria Torre 1 - Lab. 610, SIU - Universidad deAntioquia, Calle 52 Nº 52-69, Medellin, Colombia. [email protected]

Ra ael P. Salomão, Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, C.P. 399, CEP 66040-170 Belém, PA,Brazil. [email protected], [email protected]

Mark Schulze , Ph.D., HJ Andrews Experimental Forest, PO Box 300, Blue River, OR97413 USA. mds11@u l.edu, [email protected]

Murilo da Serra Silva , Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Pará-Campus Rural de Marabá, Rua Vitória Régia, 117, Bairro Amapá, CEP: 68.502-120,Marabá - PA, Brazil. [email protected]

Patricia Shanley, Ph.D., Woods & Wayside International, 19 ½ Blackwell Avenue, Hopewell,New Jersey 08525, USA. [email protected], [email protected]

Natalino Silva , Serviço Florestal Brasileiro, SCEN, Trecho 2, Bl. H – CEP 70818-900Brasília, DF, Brazil. natalino.silva@ lorestal.gov.br

Johannes van Leeuwen , Conj. Jardim Espanha I, Cs 7 - Adrianópolis - CEP 69057-097Manaus, AM, Brazil. [email protected] Vogt , Ph.D., Rua de Obidos, nº 179 - Cidade Velha – Belém, PA, Brazil. ndvogt@

gmail.comLúcia Helena de Oliveira Wadt , Ph.D., Embrapa Acre, BR 364 - Km 14. Caixa Postal 321

- CEP 69908-970 Rio Branco, AC, Brazil. lucia@cpa ac.embrapa.brRichard Wallace , Ph.D., Department o Anthropology & Geography, Cali ornia State

University, Stanislaus, One University Circle, Turlock, CA 95382, USA. [email protected]

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alqueire – A term o ten used to describe a measure o land area by communities in theAmazon. One alqueire is the equivalent o 4.8 hectares, or 48 000 m2.

apical meristem – The growing tip o the plant, or apical meristem, emerges as a new budor growing point o a root. The meristem tissue is composed o undi erentiatedcells where growth occurs. Palm hearts are the inner core growing bud (apicalmeristem) harvested rom certain palm species.

Amazonia – The Amazon rain orest or biome is known as Amazonia and includesterritories rom nine countries: Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela,Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana (see map on page xxiv).

Bolivia – Bolivia is used to designate the South American country named PlurinationalState o Bolivia.

caboclo – Caboclos are native inhabitants o the Brazilian Amazon. Caboclos emergedrom the detribalization o the Amerindians and the subsequent syncretisation

o A rican, Portuguese and Indian peoples. The term came to be used ordisen ranchised populations o mixed descent inhabiting the lood plains and terra

irme regions o the Brazilian Amazon. ( or more in ormation see Brondizio 2008)

capoeira – Secondary orest that grows up a ter primary rain orest has been cleared. TheBrazilian martial art got the name capoeira because the early practitioners trainedin the capoeira to hide rom the view o their owners.

carimbó – Carimbó is a rhythmic drum-based dance and music rom Belém and MarajóIsland regions o Pará, Brazil.

cerrado – Cerrado is a tropical savannah region in the interior o Brazil, extending intoparts o Paraguay and Bolivia. It is characterized by tall dense grass cover withsome isolated low trees and gallery orests along streams and rivers.

crème – Frozen desserts called crèmes are commonly made with local ruit rom theAmazon, the most well known being crème de cupuaçu. Generally, ruit pulp isblended with sweetened condensed milk and cream. The mixture is spread in atempered glass pan and placed in the reezer or several hours be ore serving.

Curupira – Curupira is a mythical creature o Brazilian olklore taking the shape o a boywith his eet on backward. He is o ten portrayed riding a wild boar through the jungle. He is said to protect the rain orest rom those wishing to harm it by leadingthem in circles.

dbh – Diameter at breast height is a standard orestry measure used to express the diametero a tree trunk. The dbh is usually taken at 1.3 m above the ground, approximatelyat an adult’s breast height.

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Fruit trees and use ul plants in Amazonian li exxii

dendê – Oil made rom the leshy pulp o the A rican oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is knownas dendê. This strong- lavoured, deep orange-red oil is commonly used in WestA rican and A rican in luenced Brazilian recipes.

endocarp – Endocarp is a botanical term or the inside layer o aruit that directly surrounds the seed. It is o ten hard as inthe pit or stone o the peach, olive or cherry, and the shello walnuts, but may be a membrane as in citrus ruits. Forexample, in the Brazil nut the endocarp is the hard shelldirectly covering the edible nut.

arinha – The common term or arinha de mandioca,arinha is a lour producedthrough an elaborate process o soaking and roasting the tuberous roots o manioc(Manihot esculenta). Farinha is processed, eaten and sold as a principal source o income by most rural Amazonian amilies. Community or individual amily workshacks calledcasas de arinhaare built beside residences as places to process theroots. Manioc leaves and roots contain varying quantities o cyanogenic glucosides,which are converted into cyanide. The dangerous compounds are removed romthe roots through a lengthy soaking and cooking process.

rugivorous – Frugivorous means ruit-eating. Fruit makes up a substantial portion o arugivorous animal’s diet. Many rugivores serve as dispersers or the ruit they eat.

ganzá – The ganzá is a Brazilian percussion instrument, a type o cylindrically shapedrattle, o ten made out o a hand woven basket or metal canister illed with beads,

pebbles or seeds.hectare – A hectare (ha) is a metric measure o area, 1 000 m by 1 000 m or 10 000 m2. One

hectare equals about 2.5 acres.

igapó – Igapó is used to describe lowland Amazonian rain orest on permanently loodedland, with roots o the vegetation always submerged.

jutaicica – Exudates rom various species o theHymenaea orm a hard resin called jutaicica. Jatobá (Hymenaea courbaril ) is the most common source or jutaicica,o ten collected in a semi- ossilized orm at the base o the tree.

Mapinguari – The Mapinguari is a legendary three-meter tall slothlike creature believed toroam in the remote reaches o the Amazon. The monster is described as having oneeye and producing a strong unpleasant odor. Many believe that the myth has beenpassed down rom ancient encounters with the giant ground sloth, now thoughtto be extinct. Others believe that a giant sloth may still be surviving in the moreisolated regions o the Amazon jungle but no one has been able to document itsexistence as o yet.

mateiro (woodsman) – Mateiros are timber cruisers who do ield searches or timberspecies. They locate trees that can be logged, sometimes leaving a system o lightlycut trails and markers indicating to logging crews where trees are located, whatspecies, and how many by cutting notches on palm lea stems.

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Glossary o Portuguese and orestry terms xxiii

measurement abbreviations – The standard measurement abbreviations used in the bookare: mg = milligram, g = gram, kg = kilogram, mm = millimetre, cm = centimetre,m = metre, m3 = cubic metre, ha = hectare, ml = millilitre, oz = ounce

NWFP or NTFP – Non-wood orest products (NWFP) or non-timber orest products(NTFP) re er to resources or services other than timber (NTFP) or wood (NWFP)utilized rom orests, other wooded lands and trees outside orests. Fruit, seed,nuts, ibres, resins, gums, latexes, medicines, ish and game are o ten classi ied asNWFPs.

raceme – A raceme in lorescence has a single axis containing alternating or spiralledlowers on short stalks o about equal length. The new lowers are borne towards

the tip o the raceme as the central axis shoot grows.

spathe – Spathe is a large bract, modi ied lea , that subtends a spadix or other in lorescence.In palms, the spathe is generally a woody, boat-shaped bract that ensheaths the

lowers and subsequent ruit. Some other monocotyledons have showy less woodyspathes.

swidden agriculture – A system o shi tingcultivation plots o ten involving clearingand burning be ore planting, also re erredto as slash and burn.

terra irme – Terra irme re ers to lower elevation

Amazonian rain orest growing on higher,solid ground that does not lood.

tipiti – The tipiti is a hand woven, long, narrow sieve used to squeeze the liquid and toxinsout o grated manioc root in the production o arinha. The resulting liquid, calledtucupi, is used in regional cuisine, as well as the starch, tapioca, which separates outo the extracted liquid.

várzea – Várzea re ers to lowland Amazonian rain orest that loods seasonally whenrivers are at their highest during or ollowing the wet season. Várzea is also usedto describe the loodplain orests which are looded daily due to the in luence o the tides.

Venezuela – Venezuela is used to designate the South American country named BolivarianRepublic o Venezuela.

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Fruit trees and use ul plants in Amazonian li exxiv

Map of South America showing Amazonia and the major rivers in the area

1 Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela2 Plurinational State of Bolivia

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Global impacts o orest loss in Amazonia earn ront page headlines, but what o localconsequences? Do rural amilies have access to scienti ic indings that their orest homewill not be standing by 2030?Do they have any notion that their children will no longerclimb the tree to pick the ruit that has ed their amily or generations? Do statistics aboutde orestation turn into action or local people?

I there is one message this book means to convey it is this: science rarely reaches the peoplewho need it most, but it can. Scientists and orest-reliant communities are geographicallyand conceptually distant. Scienti ic indings are rarely shared with local people and localsare in requently consulted regarding the species and landscapes they have known orgenerations. To bridge this divide, this book weaves together the voices o armers andscientists; hunters and policy makers; midwives and musicians.

Appreciating di erent perspectives on orest value is critical as although tropical orestscover only 7% o our planet’s sur ace, they contain 60% o the earth’s species.TheAmazon is the largest contiguous tropical orest remaining in the world, with 25 millionpeople living in the Brazilian Amazon alone.3 However, it is being de orested at anincreasingly rapid pace; de orestation, ire and climate change are predicted to destabilizethe region and result in the orest shrinking to one third o its size in 65 years.4 Among thespecies being extracted by the timber industry in eastern Amazonia are 15 o the ruit andmedicinal tree species most valued by local people.I the current rate o de orestation and

the incidence o ire continue, the orest will disappear so swi tly that the grandchildrenand great-grandchildren o people living in the tropical orest today will no longer besustained by its ruits and medicines and will never know it as it once was.

What will remain in the wake o this wave o de orestation? Forest villagers in Amazoniasay that the orest never returns to what it was. Scientists agree. A study in Peixe-Boi, in theBrazilian state o Pará, demonstrated that about 65% o native trees do not regenerate wella ter repeated cycles o slash and burn.The solitary Brazil nut trees along the roadsides

The Earth has lost close to half, almost 3 million hectares, of itsoriginal forest cover.

Original forest distribution 6 Remaining forest

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Fruit trees and use ul plants in Amazonian li e2

have garnered the nickname “the living dead”, because they cannot reproduce withoutspecialized pollinators rom the orest.Among the vulnerable species that have di icultyrecuperating a ter logging and ire are copaíba, ipê-roxo, amapá and uxi. Barks, ruits andexudates rom these species are used to treat wounds, tumours, respiratory diseases andnutritional de iciencies. Such unique rain orest species are vital to the health and nutritiono Amazonians and to the world; they have no substitutes.

The aim o this book is to integrate scienti ic and traditional knowledge in a orm that isaccessible and appealing to the people who need it most – rural villagers. Because products

rom the orest, such as wood, ood and medicines, and ecosystem services sustain not onlyrural but also urban people, the book has also ound an audience in cities. Urban consumerhabits and demands or orest goods have enormous consequences or the orests. Thus,each o us is responsible or the health o the orest. Our actions will determine i orestsperish or continue to be part o Amazonian li e.

Map of the Amazon region showing the legal Brazilian Amazon,Brazilian states, and location of places mentioned in this book.

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Introduction 3

Douglas C. Daly

Those who travel in the Brazilian Amazon will encounter hundreds o plants thato er ruits, nuts, ibres, remedies and resins. This is in part because o the sheerenormity o the Amazon: its basin covers 5 million km2 in Brazil alone. However, thepro usion o plant resources cannot be explained merely by the size o the region. Wealso consider that at any given site in Amazonia, 1 ha usually contains between 125and 300 species o mature trees, and that the diversity and abundance o species varygreatly rom one part o Amazonia to the next.

The unique natural wealth o each region is owed to a distinct set o actors, suchas geographic location, environmental conditions and geological history. Each pieceo the puzzle holds a clue to the mystery o biological diversity. Taken together, weassemble a series o mosaics on varying scales, rom region to landscape and romlandscape to parcel o orest.

The occurrence o species ound in a geographiclocation is in luenced by the surrounding lora,by migrations, and by the evolution o newspecies over time. Scientists do not yet knowthe reason why, but certain groups o plantshave diversi ied rapidly in Amazonia in recent

times. These include important groups o ruittrees. There are some 130 kinds o ingás (Inga spp.), more than 50 each in the states o Pará ineastern Amazonia and Acre in the southwest.There are also more than 100 types o Pouteria,the principal genus o abiu and abiorana trees, o which 52 have been registered in Pará and morethan 30 in Acre.

The states o Acre and Pará are goodexamples o the divergent mosaics thatmake up the delicious biodiversity o Amazonia and as a result their lorasinclude di erent ruit trees and otherresources. Northern Pará especiallyshares a large number o species withthe neighbouring Guyana and FrenchGuiana, while Acre’s lora is closelyrelated to that o western Amazonia,speci ically with the southwesternAmazon in Peru and Bolivia, and

much less so to the rest o the BrazilianAmazon.

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Throughout Amazonia, abundant bene its come rom thetropical orest – ruit, ibres, wood, game and medicine, as wellas ecosystem services such as pollination, seed dispersal, resh airand clean water. The value o these services and o Amazonianproducts such as açaí, bacuri and copaíba is growing quickly. Buto ten it is not possible or people who live in rural areas to bring

orest products to the marketplace or to be compensated orconserving the orest’s ecosystem services. Even without earningany money, however, people earn a substantial “invisible income”

rom orest goods that enrich amily health and nutrition. As oneAmazonian mother says, “My amily saves our meagre incomeby eating ree rom the orest.”

Forest ruits provide essential nutrients, minerals and anti-oxidants that keep the bodystrong and resistant to disease. Rural amilies recount that during the season o orest ruitsand nuts they do not catch colds, coughs or the lu. Common de iciencies in the Braziliandiet, such as a lack o vitamin A, can be combated with orest oods. For example, buritipalm ruit contains the highest known levels o vitamin A o any plant in the world.Açaí

ruit is being hailed as a super ood or its high antioxidant and omega atty acid content.

Preventing disease through good nutrition can save income and lives. Even excellentsources o protein can be obtained rom the orest or ree. Brazil nuts are rich in acomplete protein similar to the protein content o cow’s milk, which is why they are

known as the “meat” o the plant kingdom. Families with game on their lands, particularlywildli e with high reproductive capacity such as rodents, can meet their protein needswithout ever setting oot in a meat market. I a amily member does become ill, cuts, evers,skin ailments and coughs can o ten be treated with the remarkable array o Amazonianmedicinal leaves, oils and barks.

ProteinMedicine

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Introduction 5

In spite o the high value o orests, rural people all over the world sell their orest goodsor what represents only a raction o the product’s actual worth. When children are sickor the manioc crop is poor, immediate cash can o er ood and medicine. Sometimes, the

irst ew timber sales go well: ew species are extracted, the damage to the orest is limitedand the community can still harvest ruit and vines, and hunt. But when the requencyand intensity o the extraction overtakes the orest’s ability to recuperate, the availabilityo non-wood orest products (NWFPs) can all signi icantly. In addition, during timbernegotiations, uture ruit harvests are o ten orgotten and le t out o the calculation. Whenloggers extract one ruit tree, the gain may be the equivalent o a ew dollars, while the losssigni ies thousands o ruit over the li e o the tree. Furthermore, under normal loggingtechniques, or each tree that is extracted or timber, another 27 die or are damaged in theprocess. When orest impoverishment reaches a certain point, the risk o ire increasesand additional species are destroyed.

In eastern Amazonia, 200 tree species are extracted or wood, hal o which produceuse ul ruits, lowers and seeds, leaves, barks, and roots or oils, latex and resins.Somespecies that have strong medicinal traditions, such as ipê-roxo, amapá, copaíba, cumaruand jatobá, are ound only in low densities in old-growth orests and are not cultivated.This means that they are naturally rare and vulnerable to exploitation. O the 12 medicinalplants most widely sold in eastern Amazonia, ive are harvested or wood.Currently,most commercial collectors in search o the most power ul medicinal barks, search not in

orests, but in sawmills.

72

01993 1997 2004

A v e r a g e c o n s u m p

t i o n o

f

p i q u i á / f a m

i l y / y e a r

( k g

)

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Scientists previously believed that much o the Amazonian orest was pristine andunaltered by humans. More recently they are discovering that many orests were managedand trans ormed by local people.With thousands o years o knowledge and practice,indigenous peoples have modi ied the abundance and distribution o select trees accordingto their pre erences. For example, Brazil nut and piquiá trees are ound in higher densitiesnear old Indian villages.

Indigenous management practices enriched the concentration o use ul trees, but agri-business, logging and ire are signi icantly reducing the numbers o species locally valuedand used. It is always important to evaluate the costs and bene its o changes to our Earth.Some changes that appear to be positive in the short term have grave consequences in thelong term. The Iroquois Indian tribe, rom North America, created a wise law:

“We must consider the impact o each o our decisions on the next 7 generations.”

1 Nepstadet al.20082 Dirzo, R. & Raven, R.H. 20033 IBGE 20004 Michalski, F., Peres, C.A. & Lake, I.R. 2008/Laurance, W.F. & Fearnside, P.M. 2002/Vergara &

Scholz, 20105 Shanley, P. & Rosa, N. 20046 Bryant, D., Nielsen, D. & Tangley, L. 19977 Vieira, I., Nepstad, D. & Roma, J. C. 19968 Viana, V.N.et. al.19989 Lima, M.C.C. 198710 Johns, J., Barreto, P. & Uhl, C. 199811 Herrero-Jáuregui, C.et al . 200912 Shanley, P. & Luz, L. 200313 Posey, D. 1985/Balée, W. & Campbell, D.G. 1989

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Page

Who will use this book and how 11

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The Portuguese version o this book has been made available in English or two mainpurposes. One is to demonstrate how it is possible to make science relevant and accessible,and to show how scienti ic publications can be prepared with and targeted to a broadpublic, including marginalized populations. Twenty ive percent o the world’s youth andadults in developing countries are unctionally illiterate1 as well as a quarter o 16-65 yearolds in the world’s richest countries.2 In rural communities this igure can reach closeto 40%, particularly among the elderly, the poor and women. The descriptions belowand the chapters that ollow were laid out to allow rural and urban audiences lacking

ormal education to extract in ormation rom pictures and numbers while more detailedin ormation is given or others.

Why is it important to communi-cate to people lacking ormal edu-cation? First, persons schooled inthe orest as opposed to a class-room may be particularly knowl-edgeable about orest resources;their insights and experience areextremely valuable. Second, localand national decision makingprocesses require understanding

o complex in ormation. Withoutin ormation, urban and ruralpeople can be at a gross dis-advantage in negotiations withthe private sector and partici-pation in governance processes.Furthermore, all elements o civilsociety need to understand thevalue o orests and the connec-tions between nutrition, amilyhealth care, culture, the arts andthe environment.

Another purpose o the book isto share in ormation regardingAmazonian species, which urban

and rural amilies depend upon or their livelihoods, with a worldwide audience. Someo the trees are well known and used throughout the world, like the rubber tree andBrazil nut. Other species, much like the people the book is meant to serve, are invisibleto policy makers. These include species such as uxi, ipê-roxo, jatobá and andiroba. It isimportant that the ull range o species serving both global and local needs is recognizedand appreciated.

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Abundant visual representations are used to make concepts comprehensible to a broadaudience. The Portuguese edition uses large ont with ample space around the text andillustrations. The language o the Brazilian text is armer- riendly, written in conversationalPortuguese. Given the expanded audience or the English version, the colloquial nature o the language is diminished and the ont reduced in size. To assist comprehension or non-readers, quantities in the text are generally conveyed as numbers instead o words.

Perhaps most importantly, the voices o local people are ound throughout the book,over 100 armers, community members and rural women collaborated by helpingto generate or share in ormation. Armed with diverse knowledge and experiences

rom various people in the region, our hope is that local communities can make morein ormed decisions in the ace o the opportunities and challenges the uture willbring.

a public betterinformed tomake decisions

Each chapter o the trees and palm sections represents one species and is divided intosix topics: ecology, economic value, uses, nutrition, wildli e and management; each o these is described below. The common names o species vary rom place to place. Weplace the scienti ic name or each species below its common name so that people romdi erent regions can recognize it. For example, Uxi is the common name or the tree withthe scienti ic name o Endopleura uchiCuatrec. The scienti ic name is composed o thegenus ( irst name) and the species (second name). The inal name re ers to the person whopublished the irst scienti ic description o that species. The illustrations o the species canhelp to identi y the plants as well.

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Who will use this book and how? 13

Flower and ruit seasons : The lower and ruit seasons are depicted using a calendardiagram that illustrates the time o year when lowering and ruiting occurs. The lettersbelow the illustration represent the months o the year. However, the seasons o ten vary

rom region to region within the Amazon. The text cites regional di erences, while theillustration highlights only one o the areas described in the text.

Density : Density re ers to the number o a particular species o tree ound in a certainsized area o orest. It is a measure o the size o the population in a unit area. The densitywill depend on the measurements used or the inventory. O ten only individuals abovea certain diameter are counted. Likewise, since tree distribution is not uni orm, the totalarea inventoried may a ect the resulting average density. Communities and oresterso ten use di erent measures to denote spatial areas o orest. Foresters o ten use a hectare(equivalent to 100 x 100 m, or 10 000 m2, about 2.5 acres) while orest communities inAmazonia o ten use alqueire (equivalent to 4.8 hectares).

Some inventories include all trees equal to or above 10 cm in diameter (approximately

30 cm circum erence) taken at breast height (DBH). Loggers generally take an inventoryo all trees above 60 cm DBH (180 cm circum erence), which are considered large enoughor harvesting. The density and distribution o trees (grouped or spread out) in the orest

are related to numerous actors, including: the ecology o the species, the type o soil andclimate, and the use and management history o the species. The data presented in thisbook indicate only the average density according to a ew orest inventories. When thedensity varies signi icantly or a species in terra irme versus wetland areas, an illustrationis given or each.

Production : The production o a tree is the average number o ruitsgrown per tree and the variations in that number. Production variesgreatly rom tree to tree and rom year to year. For example, a piquiátree can produce 1 000 ruits one year and none the next. Throughscienti ic studies that involve collecting samples rom various trees overa period o years, it is possible to arrive at a good estimate o ruit treeproduction. For a ew species, this in ormation is readily available in books; however, ormany species important to rural livelihoods, no studies exist. An illustration o a pile o

ruits shows the best in ormation available on average production or a particular ruit tree.The average production o a palm tree is represented by a basket o palm ruits.

J F M A M J J A S O N D

average numberof fruits per tree

0.5 to 1.5 treesper hectare

2 to 7 treesper alqueire

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Local, national and international economic data is provided in this section. Because evenspecies that are widely traded may have ew market studies, the economic values includedcome rom site speci ic research that may be several years old. Market prices depend uponmany actors, such as place o purchase, seller, time o year and the time o day that salesare made. Likewise, the exchange rates and even currencies vary over time. Brazilian reaisare converted to US dollars using the 2009 exchange rate or the rate rom the time periodwhen the economic data was collected.3 The dollar amount is o ten rounded o to thewhole dollar.

Rural landowners can estimate the economic value o the ruit produced in their orestby multiplying the density o ruit trees in a speci ic area by the average annual ruitproduction and then by the value per ruit. However, people living in remote areas

encounter many di iculties in bringing their products to market. Obstacles include:distance to market, lack o transportation, high product variability, perishability o ruitand lack o marketing skills. In addition to market value, it is also important to rememberthat ruit trees have a substantial, but o ten “invisible”, subsistence value and that theycan produce or many years. Fruiting and lowering trees also have the advantage o attracting game and supporting wildli e. Thus, the many values o a ruit tree can exceedthe comparative earnings rom market sales o its timber.

This section includes a list o the traditional uses o the species, o tenincorporating various parts o the tree, such as ruit, leaves, bark, seeds,lowers, resin and wood. The nutritional value o each ruit is explained

and sometimes recipes are shared. The weight o the ruits representedin the text is the weight o the resh ruit. Note that some o the uses(especially the medicinal uses) are limited to a ew regions, and many arenot yet proven scienti ically.

Without wildli e, the orest would not exist. Fruit trees arean essential source o nutrition or wildli e as well as people,and game is an excellent source o protein or rural amilies.Animals act as pollinators and seed dispersers, carrying out acrucial unction or the ecology o the orest. In this section,we point out a ew o the wildli e species that interact with theplant. The emphasis is on traditional game animals, but otherinteresting interactions are also highlighted.

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For centuries the orest has been managed by indigenous peoples, o ten to increase thenumber o use ul trees. Agronomists also per orm germination, growth and productionexperiments so that trees grow more rapidly and produce larger ruits. In this section, the

illustration shows the average time or germination and production to take place and theaverage growth o the young tree. Variations in the averages and management techniquesare urther explained in the text.

Local people, who have the most extensive experience with Amazonian ruit trees, rarelypublish their knowledge. This book seeks to weave together the insights and knowledgeo armers, artisans, scientists, policy-makers and homemakers. To ensure rigour, 90specialists and highly knowledgeable researchers or individual species have collaborated

as authors and contributors. In addition, over 200 seminal scienti ic publications, grayliterature, theses and dissertations ocusing on Amazonia were reviewed and cited so thatinterested readers can consult the original re erences

Endnote numbers are used to cite literature that is re erenced in the chapters. The authorsand dates o the publications are listed at the end o each chapter, and the complete citationcan be ound in the bibliography.

germination2 to 7 months

growth1 m per year

productionafter 10 years

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Attention: This book is designed to be lived with and ripped up – not kept neatly ona shel ! In schools, communities and associations in the city and the country, you canuse this in ormation in participatory workshops and through posters, theatre, songs,videos, maps and discussions. While readers ind that the book is instructive when read,the in ormation becomes even more power ul when shared in in ormal discussions andparticipatory workshops.

The more we draw, the more we learn. Posters can easilybe made based on illustrations rom the book. Many o thediagrams in this book came rom posters designed duringcommunity workshops.

Stories rom the book and rom villageli e are being used to create plays,radio programmes and videos. Thesecan be entertaining as well as conveycritical messages. Timber negotiations

are an especially pertinent theme or role playing in rontier

communities.. Some members o the community can pretend tobe persuasive loggers attempting to buy timber rom susceptiblemembers o the community. Invariably, some may succumb tothe lure o petty cash while others hold out and protect the orestor negotiate better deals.

During workshops, ecological songs animate the crowd and raise awareness. Musiccomposed by armers and rubber tappers convey deeply elt sentiments about the humanconsequences o orest loss as well as the role o women in con licts over orest resources.A documentary ilm,Daughters o the Canopy, based, in part, on the story o rural womenwho contributed to the book, highlights the struggle o women in logging rontiers andhas stimulated intense discussions between men and women.Through radio, nationallyrenowned Brazilian broadcaster, Mara Regia produced a series o programmes based onvarious chapters, celebrating Amazonian lora throughout Brazil.

Some communities orm groups to discuss key themes o the book, weaving their li eexperiences into the dialogue. I representing a cross section o the community, suchgroups can, over time, become decision-making bodies or the management o naturalresources.

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Many o the species in the book are valued or both their timber and NWFPs, such asruit, ibres, medicine and/or game, attracting value. The NWFPs in an area may have more

long-term value than the timber. To calculate the value o NWFPs, multiply the density o a species in a given area by the average production o one tree and the price o one ruit.By doing so, it is possible to calculate the value o the orest area or that species per year.Adding up the values o all o the use ul species gives the total annual economic value o a given area. This in ormation will enable you to evaluate the relative economic value o your area or NWFPs as compared to timber, agriculture or ranching.

It is important to include in the calculations the cost o labour hours, transportation,possible loss or damage to the product, as well as packaging, meals and expenses.These costs are generally high and the long distances to the market rom remote orestcommunities can make it di icult to sell the products e ectively. João’s story is an exampleo what can happen without proper planning or marketing experience. João scouted the

orest or bacuri ruit, and a ter 2 days he collected 400 ruit to sell in the Paragominas

X X =

5trees

per alqueire

400fruits per tree

US$0.25 US$500per alqueire

MARKET EXPENSES2 days’ wages ($30) +

$1 (packaging) +$14 (meals) = $45

$45 ÷ $0.25 =180 fruits

190 – 180 fruits =10 fruits

TRANSPORT$15 (1 day’swages) + $5

(transportation)= $20)

$20 ÷ $0.25 = 80fruits

280 fruits – 80fruits = 200 fruits

COLLECTION2 days’ wages:

US$30$30 ÷ $0.25 =

120 fruits400 fruits – 120

fruits = 280 fruits

PERISHABILITY10 rotten fruits

200 fruits – 10 fruits= 190 fruits

PROFIT10 fruits x $0.25

= $2.50

400 280 200 190 10

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open air market, in Pará, Brazil. Mud and holes in the road on the way to market held himup an additional day. However, he was ortunate because bacuri ruit have thick rinds andare tough; he only lost 10 ruits along the way. But ood and other expenses used up mucho his pro it, leaving João with only US$2.50 – not even enough to get a ride back home.Forest people need to be realistic about the market opportunities in their area, and weighthe bene its o taking orest goods to market against the bene its o using them as ood orresources or the amily. Nonetheless, opportunities o ten exist or making supplementalincome while conducting other amily chores or business in the city.

Be ore a workshop, it can be use ul to ascertain how many hectares o a community’ssurrounding orest are intact, and how many have already been exploited or altered.What quantities and types o ruit or other orest products does the community useand sell? Are the women or the elderly a part o the decision-making process regarding

orest management and/or timber sales? How many times has timber been sold, and atwhat price? Has a orest reserve been created? A ter some time, a return visit can helpto determine i resource management has changed and, more speci ically, i the orest hasbeen degraded and i and how it is being managed.

Cristina da Silva

Workers rom National Council o Rubber Tappers (CNS)in Brazil have used this book to work with approximately70 000 amilies living in Extractive Reserves (RESEX) in the9 Brazilian Amazonian states. These amilies are responsible

or the management, use, and protection o some 15 millionhectares.

“The book expresses the diverse realities o the Amazon,”noted Manuel Cunha, president o CNS who was brought upin a amily o Rubber Tappers in the Extractive Reserve o theMiddle Juruá, in the state o Amazonas. Frutí eras, as the bookis know locally, is being utilized by community health workers,pro essors, and communty leaders to explain the nutritive powers o the orestthrough its various products. Users o the book explain that it helps communityworkers illustrate that the orest is a source o extraordinary ood and can be a livingpharmacy when necessary. A pro essor who teaches with the book noted that piquiátrees are no longer cut down in certain community orests due to the intervention o villagers who have had access to the book or workshops.

Community workers o ten in use their own cultural experiences into the book’sstories leading to lively conversations in classrooms, workshops, or meetings. Thesongs, popular theater, and recipes promote local culture which can help retain

traditional knowledge or uture generation. Galo, an extractivist rom RESEXMapuá, on Marajó Island, explained Amazonians’ reaction to Frutí eras, “I believe inthis book because it has our look, our things”.

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As one collaborator indicated, “Only 50% o the work is writing the book, the other 50%will be disseminating it e ectively”. Given that rural people receive scant in ormation,the dissemination strategy o an earlier Portuguese edition was designed to ensure thatthe majority o copies were distributed ree to rural people and organizations workingin remote regions. Health, education and extension networks have been excellentdisseminators. Over time, the book has been used by orestry and agrotechnical schools,rural workers’ unions, indigenous tribes, rural and urban schools and universities andhomemakers. It has also been used as a tool or the literacy training o adults, who learn toread while improving their ability to negotiate or their community’s orest resources. The

ollowing examples show how the book has been used in a variety o settings.

Philippe Waldho

In the pro essional Forestry Certi ication course o the Federal Agrotechnical School o Manaus, the book is used to help students create and analyse hypothetical ield situations.The pro essors simulate situationsin which the students must proposemanagement options, adding valuethrough the processing, use and

marketing o certain species. Hereis how it’s done:

Choose species: In small groups,students select a ew species romthe book to work with.

Manage the property : Each groupo students is allotted an imaginary

orest o 50 hectares. This land includes 40 hectares o orest reserve, where the species o their choice can be ound. The students determine the distribution o the trees within thereserve, according to the unique characteristics o each (density, habitat, lowering andruiting season).

Draw a map : The group makes a map o the lot and establishes the di erent land useswithin the property: wildli e conservation area, agricultural ield, garden, stream, etc.

Design a management plan : The students design a management plan or the lot. Theplan contains (1)introduction, in which the group emphasizes the importance and uniquevalue o each orest product; (2)description o the species, their characteristics, as wellas examples o other species o the same amily; (3)calculation o the productivity o the lot in relation to each species, using the production per individual, density and area;(4) orms o marketing and income;and (5) presentation o the plan. To conclude, studentsand pro essors review each other’s work and o er comments and suggestions as to themanagement plan.

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This book contains accounts o people who lost their orest and regretted their decisions,and stories o people who maintained reserves to sustain their amilies with ruit, ibres,game and medicinal plants. Sharing o both negative and positive experiences has catalysedcommunities to in orm others about the various options or orest use. Extensionists andscientists are now using these and other examples as well in workshops and trainings.Consider these two scenarios:

One community with roughly 3 000 hectares o orest sold timber to logging companies13 times over a 20-year period. A neighbouring landowner maintained a reserve or the

uture. The community came to lament its decision because it no longer had ruit or gameto eat. In 1993, average consumption was 392 ruits per amily in the community. By 1999,this number had allen to 156 ruits. Up river, Senhor Mangueira’s amily guarded a large

orest reserve and ate thousands o ruits per year. He and his amily note that they remainhealthiest during the season o uxi. Their consumption during the our-month ruitingseason shows why: in 1993, they ate 3 779 ruits, and in 2001 consumption continued highat 2 500.

This book has also been utilized by the boat builders’ pro essional quali ication course inIgarapé Miri, in Pará. It inspired the students to build a timeline or species used in navalconstruction. The group made a map and established a scale o ten-year intervals beginningin 1960. They speci ied the species used in each decade and where they occurred. Thisexercise enabled the builders to visualize the process o species loss more clearly, revealing

that a ew o the most prized woods no longer exist in the area and can now only be oundin another municipality 120 km away.

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Climbing high to collect and sell seeds

Noemi Vianna Martins LeãoSelma Toyoko Ohashi

The seed laboratory at Embrapa (theBrazilian National AgriculturalInstitute), together with various

partners in Amazonia, o ers courses onthe collection and storage o seeds rom

native tree species to be used in re orestationprogrammes. The course has two principal

objectives: (1) to conserve orests with nativespecies that produce high quality seeds and (2) to

consider the seeds as an NWFP that can generateincome or traditional communities. Communities in

the states o Rondônia, Roraima, Acre, Amapá, Pará andAmazonas have enthusiastically participated in the course.

Since 1996, more than a thousand people, includingorest armers, oresters, horticulturists, students and

agronomists have taken the 40-hour course.

“In all my li e I never thought that the orestcould have so much value without extractingits timber,” noted one participant in the seed

collection course o ered by Embrapa in theAriquemes Reserve in Rondônia, supported bythe Seed Network o Amazonia, o the Ministryo the Environment. The shirt he wore onthe last day o the course summarized his

sentiments:

“Only a ter the last tree has allen, thelast ish has died and the last river hasbeen poisoned, will you perceive thatyou cannot eat money.”

- Cree Indian Proverb

The Parakanã Indians learned to climb trees with ropesand to collect valuable seeds or sale. Even thoughthey were not able to store the seeds success ully, theysold 110 kg o mahogany, tatajuba, andiroba, copaíbaand Brazil nut seeds. In 2003, or each kilogram o mahogany seeds, around 1 600 seeds, they receivedabout US$23 – more than they would be paid or thewhole tree i they sold it to loggers. Who purchasesthese seeds? There is a law in Brazil that loggers mustreplant the areas they cut, and so there is a signi icantdemand or orest seeds.

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When Amazonian children learn to read in school do you think they pre er, “See Spot run”or “Mummy picked a piquiá”? Because the majority o scholastic materials are producedin the south and southeast o Brazil, schools in Amazonia lack culturally appropriatematerial. Rural and urban schools in Amazonia are now using this book to teach biology,math, history, nutrition, environmental education and music while celebrating Amazonian

orest culture. In addition, the Adult Literacy Program (Pronera) run by the ederalgovernment has incorporated the book into their innovative curriculum which teachesthousands o rural amilies throughout the Amazon basin to read.

Pro essors can create math problems based on data in the book. A sample problem could

look like this: “A piquiá tree produced an average o 350 ruit per year. A ter he let hischildren eat 50 ruit, Maroca sold the remaining ruit at a armer’s market or 30 centsa piece. How much did he make rom his tree this year? A riend o his rom anothercommunity thought he would earn more i he sold his tree or $3.00. Which o themearned more?”

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Murilo Serra

Many o the beauti ul parks, theatres, municipalbuildings and stately homes in Belém were constructedwith money earned rom the sale o latex tapped romrubber trees. Visitors to the historic Rodriques AlvesPark (the Bosque) in Belém learn about the history anduses o native plants along the nature trail. Here theyhave created guided trails and illustrated plaques basedon this book to awaken the people o Belém to thebeauty and riches o the orest.

Along the naturetrail, the red lagso the açaí sellersshow where tiredand hungry walkerscan enjoy orest

ruits. And i anyenthusiastic visitors

all down runningtowards theirbeloved açaí, theycan rub andirobaoil on the bump – itwill eel better andthe oil will reducethe swelling.

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1 Richmond, M., Robinson, C. & Sachs-Israel, M. 20082 Credaro, A. 20043 www.data360.org/dsg.aspx?Data_Set_Group_Id=59, June 11, 20084 MacDonald, T. 2004

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Page

Andiroba (Carapa guianensis) 29Bacuri (Platonia insignis) 39Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) 49Cat’s claw (Uncaria tomentosa

andUncaria guianensis) 65Copaíba (Copai eraspp.) 71Ipê–roxo (Tabebuia impetiginosa) 81 Jatobá (Hymenaea courbaril ) 91Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) 101Piquiá (Caryocar villosum) 109

Rubber tree, seringueira (Hevea brasiliensis

) 121Titica (Heteropsisspp.) 129Uxi (Endopleura uchi) 139

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Carapa guianensisAubl.

Patricia ShanleyMarina Londres

A power ul anti-in lammatory medicinal oil extracted rom the seeds o andiroba is oneo the most widely used natural remedies in the Amazon. Andiroba oil can mend badly

sprained ankles, repel mosquitoes and is used in veterinary medicine to cure the in ectedcuts o animals. Indigenous groups in Brazil have traditionally painted their skin with amixture o andiroba oil and the bright red pigment rom the seeds o urucu (Bixa orellana).Andiroba is also valued or its bark and wood. The bark can be made into a tea to ight

evers, worms, bacteria and tumours. In addition to its lightness and durability, andirobawood is bitter and oily, deterring attacks by termites and caterpillars. Because the deep,golden-hued wood is o superior quality, andiroba is considered on a par with mahogany.For this reason, andiroba is increasingly di icult to ind in logged areas.

Andiroba trees have straight trunks that can reach 30 m in height, o ten with buttressroots. Growing throughout the Amazon basin, Central America and A rica, andirobapre ers seasonally looded orests and the margins o rivers, but it is also ound in terrairme orests.

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Andiroba’s lowering and ruiting seasons vary by region. In eastern Pará, andirobalowers rom August through October, and its ruits mature rom January through April.

In Manaus, andiroba trees produce ruit between March and April.

Andiroba trees grow in terra irme orests, but they are most commonly ound in várzea.

The mysteries o andiroba ruit production are stillun olding. Some years a tree may bear hundreds o

ruits, and others none at all, but the actors that drivethis phenomenon remain unknown.1 Likewise, we lackthe long-term studies necessary to recognize patterns o

luctuation in production or an andiroba population, butone study observed three years o low ruit production

ollowed by two years o plenti ul production.2 Moreover,every year there is a percentage o trees within a populationthat produces zero ruit, and these percentages also varydrastically between years. A study conducted in the Amazon estuary region3 ound that,

or a given year, 23% o the adult andiroba trees did not produce any ruit, and a study inAcre2 ound that 82% o the trees did not produce in one year compared to 35% o thetrees the ollowing year. For those trees that do produce seeds in a given year, scientistshave also measured very divergent levels o annual seed production: rom as low as 0.02 kgo seed/tree to as high as over 100 kg o seed/tree. Although production among individualtrees seems to be extremely variable, recent studies have reported that averages o ruitproduction (including adult non-producing trees) within a given population vary between

4.4 and 10 kg o seed/tree3

in várzea and between 0.3 and 3.4 kg o seed/tree2

in terra irme.Each kilogram contains about 55 seeds, and each ruit contains rom 12 to 16 seeds. Theseeds are composed o approximately 26% shell and 74% nut.

1 to 8 trees/ha 5 to 38 trees/alqueire

an average of4–10 kg in várzea

0.3–3.4 kg in terra firmeof seed/tree/year

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Andiroba 31

The table below shows some o the ranges in production numbers documented byresearchers. Variation in production can be due to numerous biophysical actors such aswhether the population occurs in várzea or terra irme. The methods used to determineproduction estimates in the ollowing studies may di er, particularly the sample size andthe number o years the study was conducted. It is important to emphasise that the rangesrepresent the amplitude (maximums and minimums) o production among individualswithin a population. However, averages are the appropriate estimate to be used i managersare to extrapolate production rom inventory data.

Location Habitat(may include di erentorest types within the“general” habitat)

Annual production/tree(note i average or range)

La Selva, Costa Rica1 terra irme Range o 750–3 900 seedsapprox. 15–79 kg

Alto Rio Guama, Pará, Brazil4 terra irme Average o 1.2 kgSantarem, Pará, Brazil5 terra irme Range o 0–50 kgGurupá, Pará, Brazil3 várzea Average o 4.4–10 kg,

Range o 0–155 kgAcre, Brazil2 terra irme Average o 0.3–3.4 kg,

Range o 0–16 kg

André Dias

Scientists do not yet know the productivity o many species o tropical trees, eventhose, like andiroba, that have extensive markets and valuable uses. However, to makegood use o orest resources it is important to know which trees are in a particular

orest, where they are located and how much they can produce. In the communityo Pedreira, Pará, a study was undertaken to estimate the average number o ruit anandiroba tree produces per year. Researchers counted all the andiroba trees in a givenarea and all the ruit that ell beneath a sample o 100 trees.

To estimate production rapidly, they groupedruit productivity into categories rom lowto high. The results showed that 37 treesproduced little or nothing; 43 trees producedup to 15 kg, 13 trees produced between 15and 50 kg and 7 trees produced greater than50 kg.5 Extrapolating to the larger orest, thecommunity calculated that their orest couldproduce a little over 1 200 kg o seeds/year.Thus they were able to estimate the labourrequired to produce the oil, as well as theirpotential annual earnings.

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Andiroba oil is one o the most widely sold natural remedies in Amazonia. The oilindustry has its origins in the city o Cametá, in the state o Pará, and its commercializationgenerates signi icant employment and income throughout Amazonia. In Cametá, childreneagerly collect and sell andiroba seeds. Street kids relate that 4 kg etch them US$0.10 –enough to buy a pack o crackers. In Salvaterra, on Marajó Island, which lies in the moutho the Amazon River, unemployed men, women and children comb the beach or seedswashed down rom inland rivers. In 2004, they could sell 1 kg, about 55 seeds, or US$0.07to companies in São Paulo. In 2009 in the Belém market, 1 litre o andiroba oil cost, onaverage, US$6. Stores o ten buy the oil during the harvest when prices are low, hold on tothe oil and sell it out o season at a higher price.

The oil is also in demand internationally and is exported to Europe and the United Statesof America. From 1974 to 1985, between 200 and 350 tonnes of oil were exported annually,

mainly from the states of Maranhão, Pará and Amapá. In 2009, in the United States of America, an 8-oz bottle of andiroba oil can be purchased over the Internet for betweenUS$23 and US$40.6 One proof of andiroba’s popularity is the number of soaps, creams, oilsand candles made from andiroba on the market in the Amazon region and throughout theworld. In the supermarkets of Belém, the soaps can cost from US$1.50 to US$5, while bodyoil (50 ml) costs US$3. A 150-g bag of andiroba bark costs US$1.

Whereas supermarkets, pharmacies and corner vendors sell andiroba in Belém, in thewestern Amazonian state o Acre andiroba oil is hard to ind in the market: ew communitiesin Acre produce andiroba oil, and those that do generally produce it or local consumption.

The wood rom andiroba, called ‘ alse’ or ‘bastard’ mahogany, is also in high demand orexport. In 2004, it could be ound in Pará sawmills or US$68/m3 sawn. For export, 1 m3 did not sell or less than US$170. While in the United States o America, 20 board eet (0.05m3) o andiroba is sold or US$157.7

Oil: Andiroba oil is widely used as a medicine or bruises,sore throats, in lammation, arthritis and worms, as well asto help heal umbilical cords. In the countryside, andiroba is

commonly applied on the skin to promote the growth o scar tissue and to repairskin damage. But one must use caution – it can create scar tissue on the sur acebe ore the internal wound has properly healed. The oil also works as an insectrepellent and is an ingredient in soap production. Rubber tappers take advantageo andiroba oil or lamp uel. Indians mix smelly andiroba oil with the bright redpigment rom the seeds o urucu to paint their skin.

Wood: The wood is o excellent quality, a brilliant honey-brown in colour, andresistant to attacks rom insects and caterpillars. Shingles are o ten made out o andiroba, and builders rely on it or civil construction.

Bark: Thick and bitter, the bark can be removed easily in large pieces. It is usedto make tea to prevent evers and worms, to ight bacteria and to treat tumours.Ground into powder, it can be used to treat wounds, skin ailments and to promotethe growth o scar tissue.

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Andiroba 33

In the community o Pedreira, Pará, one armer noted, “In the 1940s there weren’t morethan eight houses here. We lived by hunting, selling andiroba oil, animal skins and breuresin (Protiumspp.). In the 1950s we began to tap rubber, selling the latex o maçaranduba(Manilkaraspp.). Now we produce arinha and work less in the orest. Today, the youngdon’t even know how to extract andiroba oil. The trees are there, but they are going towaste.”5 In other regions, knowledge regarding the uses and ecology o plants and animalsis not being passed on simply because the trees and wildli e no longer exist. When lora and

auna vanish rom the local landscape, ecological knowledge o those species also ades.

With a group o ecologists, Gloria Gaia, aorest armer rom the countryside, visited the

Department o Chemical Engineering o theFederal University o Pará (UFPA). She and anesteemed phytochemist exchanged ideas abouthow to produce andiroba oil. She explained, “Mymother le t the seeds covered with green leaves

or 30 days to erment, then worked an additionalweek or two to extract the oil.” Gesturing to themachines around him, the phytochemist swi tlyreplied, “Guess how much time it takes me usingsolvents and presses? Only one hour!” Sceptical,Gloria asked him i the chemical substances thatcure people also occur in the rapidly produced oil.He responded that scientists do not yet know; butthey have discovered that some o the componentso the traditionally-produced, ermented oil donot appear in the swi tly-produced industrial oil.Might these components be responsible or themedicinal properties o the oil?

In Brazil, plants that are extremelye ective at curing ills, such as garlic,copaiba and andiroba, may be called“santo remedio” or “ remedy o thesaints”. Rubbing andiroba on seriousinjuries can speed recovery. Apart

rom helping a sprain or wound toheal, andiroba keeps mosquitoes and other insects rom landing onthe wound. The oil is also use ul or animal injuries. Horses o tendevelop serious saddle sores. Andiroba oil soothes and heals their skin and helps topromote hair growth.

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Gloria Gaia

There are many ways to extract andirobaoil. One process is re erred to as making“board oil”. The oil made rom thisprocess is called virgin because it’sabsolutely pure and o the best quality.Making “sun oil” is aster and less work-intensive. Both processes begin in the

ollowing way. Boil the seeds until theyare so t. Break a ew open and use your

ingernails to test i the lesh is thick andoily, seeing i your nail can pass easilythrough it. Take the seeds out o thewater, spread them on the ground, coverthem with green leaves and let them sit

or 40 days. A ter 40 days, open all the seeds with a kni e and remove the lesh. Knead thepulp and make small balls. In Cametá, women irst so ten the pulp with their eet, and thenlater with their hands.

Board oilPlace the balls in a trough made o wood or metal, an old canoe, ortwo pieces o wood joined long-ways in a V shape, with one end o the

trough leaning towards the ground. Place a ine strip o cotton romthe edge o the pulp to the end o the inclined trough; this way, the oilwill run directly rom the trough into the container. Knead the pulpevery day. A ter our to six days, the pulp will become hard and dry. Toobtain more oil, place it in the sun. You can also use atipiti( ibre sieve)to extract the remaining oil.

Sun oilLeave the pulp in the sun or two days, turning it over every two hours throughout theday. At the end o the second a ternoon, take the pulp inside and shape it into so tball-sized balls. Place them on inclined boards to allow the oil to drip out. On the third day,heat the pulp in the sun again or three hours, and then place the pulp in atipiti or twodays to extract the rest o the oil. The sun process produces more oil, but many believe thatsome o the oil’s potency is lost. The dry pulp o the andiroba seeds can be used to makesoap or tossed into the ire to repel mosquitoes.

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Andiroba 35

André Dias

In Amazonia, production varies greatly depending on the mode o extraction. Productionwith the use o a press has been estimated at between 8 and 12 litres/40 kg o seeds.8 Sometimes collectors do not have time to boil the seeds the day they are harvested, or theycannot retrieve the pulp be ore it starts to rain. Communities o ten extract the oil withouta press, or with only a homemade sieve, and there ore produce less than by the industrialmethod. The table below compares production and summarizes how Dona Maria andDona Rita rom Santarém and Dona Glória rom Cametá make the oil.

Dona Rita Dona Marita Dona Glória

40 kg o seeds were boiled4 days a ter they werecollected.

40 kg o seeds were boiledthe same day they werecollected.

40 kg o seeds werecollected and stored in acontainer with water so asnot to lose moisture, andthen they were boiled.

The boiled seeds werestored in a sack or 26 days.

The boiled seeds were storedin a sack or 15 days.

The boiled seeds werecovered and stored orbetween 30 and 40 days ina dark corner o the house.

The pulp that was removedrom the seeds was placed

in the sun the same day.

The pulp spent 5 days in theshade.

The pulp spent 3 dayscovered in a pan.

For 19 days the pulp stayedin the sun, was kneadedonce in a while and kept outo the rain.

The pulp stayed in the sunor 14 days, was kneaded

every day and was alwayskept out o the rain.

The pulp was kneaded andle t in the sun or the oil torun out.

40 kg o seeds produced1 litre o oil.

40 kg o seeds produced3 litres o oil.

40 kg o seeds produced4–5 litres o oil.

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Andiroba oil can be used as a repellent against gnats and mosquitoes. Italso reduces in lammation caused by insect, snake and bat bites. Studies bythe Amapá State Research Institute (IEPA) discovered that candles maderom the dry remnants o andiroba seeds repelled the mosquito that carriesdengue, Aedes aegypti.9

The Tapajós National Forest has an abundance o andiroba and other NWFPs thatsell briskly at good prices in local markets. Due to the richness o orest resources intheir villages, a group o resource ul women rom the communities o São Domingo,Nazaré and Pedreira decided to start an andiroba oil business together. To sell the oillegally, they had to surmount numerous legal and logistical obstacles. These includeddeveloping a management plan and securing permission rom the Brazilian EnvironmentalProtection Agency (IBAMA) to transportthe oil. Through perseverance and hardwork, the women’s endeavour has met withsuccess and enables them to contributeto their amilies’ incomes while earningthem respect among their peers. One o the secrets o the business’s success is theparticipation o older women; it is only the

elders that still know the best techniques orextracting andiroba oil.

Place 1 litre o andiroba oil in a pan to boil with 4 kg o melted cowtallow. Boil or 30 minutes and add 250 g o silicate or caustic soda i you have it. I you would like scented soap, try adding various ragrantherbs. Boil until thickened. Allow the mixture to cool and place in amould. Finally, cut the soap into pieces and store. In the countryside, itis customary to add ashes rom cacao shells mixed with water to the tallow and andirobaoil. This kind o soap is used to wash clothes, to clean itchy skin, or to treat skin in ectedwith ringworm or ungal in ections. To make the cacao ashes, simply burn the dry skinso the ruit. The best ash is white (very strong and acidic) and should be stored in a jar ina dry place.

The bitter andiroba seeds are appreciated by paca and agouti. Justas squirrels collect and hoard acorns, agoutis sometimes eat theseeds beneath the trees; other times, they bury the seeds to eat later.Fortunately, they do not always remember where they hid them, andnew trees spring up.

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Andiroba 37

Neuza Bou leuer and Cristina Lacerda

Andiroba has great potential or agro orestry because it produces both excellent wood andmedicinal oil. Germination begins in the irst six days and ends a ter two or three monthswith 85–90% o the seeds sprouted. Andiroba grows rapidly, even in degraded areas, bothin sun and shade. For this reason, planting andiroba is a good way to enrich secondary

orests and other degraded areas. But be care ul with the seeds because rodents like toeat them. Although andiroba grows best in looded orests, it can also be planted in terra

irme. Scientists do not yet know i it is better to plant seedlings close together or spreadapart, in ull sun, in partial shade or in mostly shade. It seems that in the initial phase thetrees grow well in the shade, but light is important or rapid development over time. Whenandiroba trees are in ull sun, the trunks increase in diameter rather than gain height8, andwhen they are close together, they are more susceptible to insect attacks.

Carlos Augusto Ramos and Marina Londres

An extended amily o healthy trees demonstrates a wide variety o ages, including manychildren, a number o parents and a ew grandparents. This means that the amily willcontinue to reproduce well into the uture. When there is not a su icient distribution o generations, the species could have di iculty maintaining the population.

One study in the São João do Jaburu community in Gurupá, Pará, illustrated that theandiroba population had many grandchildren, ew parents and almost no grandparents.No trees over 60 cm diameter were ound. Why? The locals had been accustomed to sellingbig trees or timber. Thus, many o reproductive trees were lost to the timber trade.

Through the initiative o village women, the communities are now rethinking their useo andiroba to ocus on oil production. To ensure that seed collection did not urtherdecimate the andiroba population, community members have been working togetherwith ecologists3 to count and monitor andiroba seed production. They enced o theground below the crowns o andiroba trees using nylon ishing nets and monitored the

ruit all weekly. From the 2006 monitoring results, it was possible to estimate the total

seed production o andiroba populations within the community orest lands, and compareproduction with the total amount o seeds harvested by the community. The contrastwas stark: the community was collecting less than 1% o the total seeds produced in the

germination10 days

growth1.6 m/year

production10 years

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orest. This illustrated that the community can increase seed extraction and oil productionwithout signi icantly a ecting andiroba regeneration; increased oil production in turnpromises to increase amily incomes and improve the prospects o preserving both thecommunity and its orests.

Andiroba diameter classes

1 McHargue, L.A. & Hartshorn, G.S. 19832 Klimas, C. 20103 Londres, M. 20094 Plowden 20045 Dias A.S. 20016 www.grasshuttreasures.com/amazonoils.html and www.rain-tree.com/andirobaprod.htm7

http://www.woodworkerssource.com/Andiroba.html, July 15, 20088 Clay, J.W., Sampaio, P.d.T.B. & Clement, C.R. 19999 O Liberal 1998

N o .

o f t r e e s / h a

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0 10 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60

Children Parents Grandparents

Diameter (cm)

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Platonia insignisMart.

Patricia Shanley José Edmar Urano Carvalho

Gabriel MedinaSocorro Ferreira

In the quiet, early morning hours be ore dawn, village children walk bare oot orkilometres to arrive at the base o bacuri trees. They brave the dark woods to beat their

riends to the chase. Under the branches o these magni icent trees, they crack open thethick green rinds o the bacuri ruit to taste the so t white, aromatic lesh within, then carryhome as many as they can. The popularity o the ruit has increased in cities as well, givingrise to a variety o products in the market, such as yoghurt, jam, liquor, cake and sweets.The name bacuri comes rom the indigenous language Tupi-guarani, where “ba” means alland “curi” means soon. Bacuri is the ruit which alls as soon as it ripens.

This beautiful tree can reach 15 to 25 m in height and 1.5 m in diameter, or almost 5 m around.It has a straight trunk, which exudes a yellow latex, and opposing branches that form a “V”that can be recognized from a distance. Its shiny leaves are opposed , and it has large, lovelyflowers with pink petals. The bacuri tree is native to the state of Pará, and the area of greatestconcentration is the estuary of the Amazon River, particularly in the Salgado region, and theisland of Marajó.1 It grows in the states of Maranhão, Piauí and other areas,1 but rarely inwestern Amazonia.2 Bacuri is also seen in parts of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinameand French Guiana. Bacuri is found in primary forest but also occurs in secondary forest.Because it re-sprouts from the stump when felled and responds well to fire, it can regeneratein degraded areas of various soil types, except dry soils.

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The bacuri lowers rom June to August and appears in the markets o Belém during therainy season, rom January to April. Luckily, the timing o the harvest o this delicious

ruit varies by region, prolonging its availability in the market. Early in the season, theisland regions like Marajó supply Belém; later, the ruit is supplied by the Bragantinaarea. In recent years, collectors in the state o Maranhão are also supplying bacuri ruit tovendors in Belém.

Density varies rom region to region. Bacuri occurs in low densities in primary orest,about one tree per hectare. In tall secondary orest o ten years or more, it is possible toind 1 800 bacuri saplings/ha.3 The bacuri tree is ire resistant. Some say the more it is

burned, the more it buds. I a bacuri tree is cut and burned in the process o preparingan agricultural ield, various shoots emerge rom the trunk and the roots. I these areprotected, they will grow into trees, orming large bacuri stands.

A bacuri tree can produce up to 2 000 ruits in a year, but the average is about 400. Manybacuri trees do not produce ruit every year; they rest rom one year to the next. In a ive-year study with a sample o 16 trees, an average o nine trees were productive per year.4 Potentially, 50 trees in 1 hectare can produce:

9.5 tonnes o ruit= 1 tonne o pulp= 6 tonnes o peel= 2.5 tonnes o seed, which can be used as animal eed5

The ruit normally has a thick rind and two seeds and is10% pulp by weight. New research has discovered ruitwithout seeds, which have 18% pulp.6 Some bacuri ruitwith thin skins can have 28% pulp.6

0.05–1.5 trees/ha 2–7 trees/alqueire

an average of400 fruit/tree/year

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Bacuri 41

Because bacuri is so delicious, it is worth the e ort to know exactly how many ruits thetrees produce. Look at the average production o 16 trees over a ive-year period:

Some people hit the tree with a machete, believing the impact will make the tree producemore. But be care ul, this practice may only encourage the ruits to all prematurely.

According to one vendor, “Bacuri is turning to gold in the market”4. Recent prices re lectthis popularity: in February 2003, in the Ver-o-Peso market, one bacuri ruit cost betweenUS$0.10 and US$0.25 each, depending on its size. In 2008, the ruit ranged rom US$0.30to US$0.60. In January 2009, in the same market, bacuri cost rom US$0.40 to US$0.65each. One kilogram o pulp, which sold or US$2.60 in 2003, etched US$5.90 in 2008. Asack with 100 ruit sold or rom US$18 to US$41. In 2009, a chocolate illed with bacuricost US$0.40. In 2003, a litre o Bacuri liquor cost US$4 in the supermarkets.

In February 2001, approximately 4 000 ruits/day were sold at the Bragança outdoormarket alone.3 That market increased three old in ive years. In the ten main open airmarkets in Belém, more than 491 000 bacuri ruits were sold in 2004, with 178 000 soldin the Ver-o-Peso market alone. Thecommercialization o bacuri generatedmore than US$74 800 in 2004. In onemorning, more than 10 600 bacurisarrived at the Açaí Fair, coming romSoure and Ponta de Pedras on Marajó

Island.Bacuri is one o the most popular ruitsin the wholesale markets o São Luís,Teresina and Belém.7 Its sweet pulp isused in puddings, ice creams and juices.In areas close to markets, women,children and the elderly collect bacuri.Near Bragança, during the harvest,each collector earns approximatelyUS$4 or three hours o work.3

631

96256 228 479

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

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During the 1995 harvest, when Curumim and Antonino rom the Rio Capim region soldbacuri, one sack o ruit (150 to 200 pieces) was approximately equal to the value o oursacks o arinha. They estimated it took one day to collect US$40 worth o ruit (200 ruitsat US$0.20 each).

To produce the same US$40 worth o arinha, it would have taken approximately oneweek. An advantage o marketing bacuri rather than other orest ruits is that its thick skinprotects the pulp on the journey to the market, and the ruit stays good or up to sevendays under the tree.

Similarly, Curumi and Antonino compared the value o the ruits o the bacuri tree to thevalue o its wood. One tree trunk in the orests o some communities in this region o Pará was sold or US$2. In the same period, ten bacuri ruit were worth the same amount(ten ruit at US$0.20/ ruit). Being hunters rom Rio Capim, they thought about this. Theirexperience indicated that one bacuri tree produces an average o 400 ruits/year. Theyestimated that their amilies, the neighbours and the animals in the orest ate 100 o those,leaving approximately 300 ruit on the ground.

Curumi and Antonino decided to collect those ruit and send them to market. With abouttwo days o labour, they were able to collect and sell the ruit. Even with the luctuationo prices during the harvest, they earned US$40 or the 300 ruits rom this one tree in oneyear. The sale o a tree or its wood can only be done once, but its ruit can be sold everyyear that the tree is productive. To earn the same money rom lumber sales, they would

bacuri wood

shingles

1 day 1 week 1 sack of fruit = 4 sacksof farinha

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Bacuri 43

have to sell 20 trees. Curumi and Antonino understand that a standing tree is much morevaluable to them than i it were sold to loggers or cut down to make way or agriculture.

O course not everyone is able to sell his or her ruits. Many lack transport, are unable tosecure a stand in the market, need to work in the ields or have an illness in the amily. Buteven without selling a single ruit, it is important to remember the invisible pro its romthe bacuri tree. The ruit is an excellent source o nutrition or the whole amily and canalso be used to make liquor, juice and sweets.

Fruit: The ruit pulp is used in juice, rozen crèmes , ice cream, jam,sweets, lan, cakes, yoghurt, rozen ice treats and liquor. In Belém,che s are creating dishes incorporating bacuri, and businesses are canningpulp to sell to other states. Wood: Bacuri wood is o excellent quality and is used in construction,in boatbuilding and or making urniture. In the interior o Pará, thewood is used to make shingles.

Oil: Bacuri oil appears in soaps and is recommended by some to treat skindiseases and to heal cuts on animals.8

Latex: The yellow latex produced by the tree is used in a ew regions totreat eczema, herpes and other skin problems.8

Leda Luz, Margaret Cymerys and Patricia Shanley

To measure the importance o the orest in the householdeconomy, 30 amilies in three communities along the Capim Riverweighed all o the orest products they extracted during 1994. Theresults showed that over the course o one year the vines, gameand ruit that an average amily extracted were equivalent to 25%o their average annual income. Expert hunters catch game ortheir amilies with a value equivalent to hal the average annualincome. Buying ruit, ibres and meat would be exorbitantlyexpensive or many rural amilies whose main source o income isthe sale o arinha and timber. The primary orest provided 85%

o the vines, 87% o the ruits and 82% o the game extracted. It is advantageousthat communities consider this invisible income be ore selling wood or orestedland. Communities can negotiate with loggers to conserve areas o orest that havemany use ul tree species as well as conserving patches o orest which may serve ascorridors or wildli e, linking them with other wooded areas. Villagers can also planto preserve areas adjacent to the orests o neighbouring communities or ranchersallowing or a higher biodiversity throughout. With planning, it is possible to managethe orest to extract wood as well as ruit, vines, oil and game.

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Bacuri pulp is an important source o mineralsthat can be eaten by growing children tostrengthen their bones and teeth. It is high in

ibre and provides some protein. Every 100 go pulp o ers 105 calories, more than cupuaçuand less than uxi and açaí, as well as 7.4 g o

ibre, 33 mg o vitamin C, 20 mg o calcium, 1.9g o protein, 36 mg o phosphorous and 2.2 mgo iron.9

A large percentage o a ruit’s weight is its rind.Each ruit di ers, but by weight: approximately

10–12% o the ruit is pulp , 18–26% is seedand the rest, rind (exocarp).10,11 The rind alsohas a delicious lavour and with the properpreparation can be eaten. To make the bacuri rind palatable, it must be cooked to eliminatethe heavy resin content. It also becomes more delicious when you mix in 20% to 30%pulp. There are a number o other recipes that are made with milk and sugar. Experiment!

Peel six bacuris, remove the seeds and set the pulp aside. Wash and boil the peelsuntil so t. Pour out the boiled peels into a colander and remove the outer skin.Mix in 250 g o sugar and 1 litre o water. Boil until it becomes syrupy. Whenthe syrup begins to thicken, add the pulp. Continue boiling and stirring or30 minutes, taking out any residue o resin. Turn o the lame when the mixturebegins to pull away rom the bottom o the pan.

The bacuri rinds should be cut, washed and boiled until they are so t. Next,scrape the inner rind away rom the outer skin with a spoon. For ive or sixrinds, mix in one can o condensed milk, one can o cream, ¼ cup o sugar and¼ cup o pulp. Put the mixture in a glass cake pan and place it in the reezer.It will be ready to serve in about one hour.

Grate the peel o three medium-sized bacuris. Let it soak in 1 litre o water or24 hours. Strain the mixture. Add sugar and drink.

NOTE: Cooking oil can be used to remove the bacuri latex rom pans andutensils.

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Bacuri 45

It is likely that ruit-eating animals enjoy the large bacuri ruit, butlittle research is available on its consumption by wildli e. Animalssuch as rodents and monkeys that are able to gnaw through the thickrind should be able to attain the sweet pulp inside. Bacuri is uniqueas it is one o the ew trees in the neotropics known to be pollinatedby large perched birds. Many trees in Amazonia are pollinatedby hovering birds, like hummingbirds, but ew have lowers

designed to attract parrots. Bees enterbacuri lowers to collect pollen, butonly birds such as the white-belliedparrots, and golden-winged parakeets success ully pollinatethe lower.12 Other birds observed pollinating bacuri ruits in

central Amazonia include the white-eyed parakeet, yellow-rumped cacique, purple honeycreeper, silver-beaked tanager,blue-grey tanager and palm tanager.

The bacuri is a tree with multiple uses ( ruit, wood and resin) and a high economic value.As we have seen, it is more valuable standing than sold as timber. For this reason, bacuritrees should be preserved in their environment, as well as planted and managed in degradedareas. The bacuri tree grows well in poor soil, with best production in open areas with a loto sun. Because o the high value o the ruit at the beginning and the end o the harvest,those who have trees that produce between seasons should maintain them care ully.13

In areas o secondary orest where bacuri sprouts easily rom the roots o old trees, as isthe case in the Bragantina region in Pará, armers are implementing management plans.Taking advantage o the proximity o markets and the high price o the ruits, some

armers are reserving a ew areas to grow bacuri trees. For example, in the community o Taquandeua, a ter harvesting manioc rom their shi ting cultivation plot, amilies let the

orest grow back. A ter one year, bacuri trees dominate the area. The best trees are selectedand maintained at a distance o 4–8 m between them, while the rest o the area is cut and

armed. A ter ten years o selective cutting, many amilies are already eating and sellingbacuri rom their managed plots.3 In these areas, people only cut a bacuri tree in cases o extreme necessity.

germination1–2 years

growthfast in the sun,

50 cm to 1 m/year

production8–10 years

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I bacuri does not grow in your area on its own, you can plant it. You can do this in oneo two ways: by planting the seeds, which take two years to germinate, or by plantinggra ts and sprouts that produce earlier. A good way to get sprouts quickly and cheaply isto plant a seed and wait 70 days or the roots to grow. Then cut the seed and leave the rootin the ground. From the severed root, a ter two months, a small yellow sprout will grow,which requires a ew more months to develop. You must wait about our or ive monthsuntil the sprout reaches about 40 cm and is ready to be transplanted. A seed with a smallpiece o root can be used to orm new sprouts. Just repeat the process. From one seed it ispossible to obtain three or our sprouts. The recommended space or this planting is 10 x10 m, reaching up to 115 plants/ha. Using this method you can have sprouts ready in lessthan one year.14

Be care ul not to use seeds rom the same tree. To produce, a bacuri tree needs a ew birds,like the golden-winged parakeets, to bring the pollen o other bacuri trees that are a goodmatch or it.15 Scientists recommend that it is better to use ruits rom up to ten di erenttrees to avoid genetic incompatibility among the saplings, which can cause mature trees tobe unproductive.

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Bacuri 47

Douglas C. Daly

Bacuri has many relatives. Normally they are small- or medium-sized trees that growbeneath the canopy in terra irme orest and have yellow bark and ruit. The pulp thatsurrounds the seeds is white, sweet, acidic and re reshing. Become amiliar with therelatives o this avourite tree: Species Fruits Occurrence Adult tree

sizeBacuripari lisoGarcinia(Rheedia)brasiliensis Mart.

Yellow, round, approx.3 or 4 cm in diameter,smooth, containing 1to 3 seeds.

Primarily in looded orest,most commonly in CentralAmazonia, but also reachingas ar as Bolivia, Paraguay,southwest Peru, Guyana,French Guiana and theAtlantic orest.

Small,between 5and 8 m.

Bacuri,bacuripariGarcinia(Rheedia)macrophylla Mart.

Yellow, oval, rom 6to 8 cm in diameter,with a short stem onthe end, smooth, with4 seeds. Sold in manymarkets.

An ecologically lexiblespecies, growing in terra

irme orest, seasonallylooded orest, permanentlylooded orest (igapo), and

secondary orest. Probablynative to Amazonia but withample distribution in thenorthern region o SouthAmerica. Widely cultivated.

Size varies,generallybetween12 and 15m.

Bacuri mirimGarcinia(Rheedia) gardneriana (Planch. &Triana) Zappi

Hanging, yellow, moreor less oval with a longstem at the end, only 3or 4 cm long in total,with 2 seeds.

In orests , distributedprimarily in eastern Brazil,extending to the south o Pará, Minas Gerais, MattoGrosso, and Bolivia (SantaCruz). The lavour is wellliked, but it is consideredonly a snack because o its

small size.

Small,rom 5 to

8 m.

Bacuri deespinhoGarciniamadruno (Kunth) B.Hammel

Sold on the streets o Santa Cruz de la Sierrain Bolivia, yellow,round or ovular, 5 to6 cm in diameter, roughbecause it is covered inwrinkles, containing 1to 3 seeds.

In terra firme forest, widelydistributed in Amazonia. Itcan also be found in CentralAmerica, western parts of Venezuela (Barinas andTáchira), the Pacific coast of Colombia and Ecuador.

From 8 to15 m.

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1 Calzavara, B.B.G. 1970 / Cavalcante, P. 19912 Clay, J.W.C.; Sampaio, P.B. & Clement, C.R. 20003 Medina, G. & Ferreira, S. 20044 Shanley, P. 20005 Villachica, H. 19966 Carvalho, J.E.U.,et al.20027 Souza, V.A.B.,et al.20008 Braga, R. 19769 http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/bakuri.html10 Barbosa, W.C., Nazaré, R. F. R. & I. Nagata. 197911 Cruz, P.E.N.et al . 198412 Maués, M.M. & Venturieri, G.C. 199713 Lima, M.d.C. (ed.). 200714 Carvalho, J.E.U.; Nascimento, W.M.O. & Muller, C.H. 199915 Maués, M.M. & Venturieri, G.C. 1996

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Bertholletia excelsaBonpl.

Karen Kainer, Margaret Cymerys,Lúcia Wadt, Valdirene Argolo

The Brazil nut tree – valued for its nutritious nuts and for the herbal medicines made fromother parts of the tree – is so essential to the livelihoods of Brazilians that it is a felony inBrazil to cut one down. Brazil nuts are one of the few internationally marketed rain forestproducts that are harvested primarily from wild trees. The large fruit fall more than 40 mfrom the top of these giants rising out of the Amazon forest. The fruit contain 10–25 nuts(which are botanically classified as seeds) that have long been noted for their vegetableprotein content. More recently, Brazil nuts have been identified as an excellent source of selenium, which helps to fight cancer, boost the immune system and enhance general well-being by reducing anxiety and lifting energy levels, confidence and mood.

The Brazil nut and the piquiá are akin in that they possess the most massive trunks o all the trees in Amazonia. In Pará, there is one Brazil nut tree with a trunk over 15 m

in circum erence.1

Brazil nut trees occur in terra irme Amazonian orests in Colombia,Venezuela, Peru, Brazil and Bolivia, as well as in parts o Guyana.2 In Acre, they are oundonly in the eastern portion o the state but remain a species o utmost importance or localpeople in that region.

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In Acre, lowers o the Brazil nut tree begin to open at the end o the dry season, when theruits rom the previous season are almost ready to all. The lowers appear rom October

to December, and the ruits mature in 14–15 months, alling rom December to February.In Pará, the lowers appear rom September through February, and the ruits all rom January to April.

Brazil nut trees may occur in stands calledcastanhaisor bolas,sometimes separated bykilometres o orest with no Brazil nut trees. A study o over 20 sites across the Amazonbasin revealed widely varying densities, rom 0.1 trees/ha in sites at the edge o the Brazilnut range in Madre de Dios, Peru, to 12 trees/ha in Amapá, Brazil.3 Densities between1.3 and 4.0 trees/ha were ound in the Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve in Acre.4 Astudy in southeastern Amazonia ound 1.7 reproductive trees/ha.5 In the National Foresto Caxuanã there are rom 10 to 12 Brazil nut trees/ha and in Trombetas, rom 0 to15 trees/ha. A study in the Bolivian Amazon ound densities o 1 to 5 adult trees/ha.6

Brazil nut trees have extremely hard-shelledwoody ruits the size o a grape ruit that encase10–25 nuts. It is di icult to estimate the averageproduction o a Brazil nut tree because the numbero ruits produced varies greatly rom year to year.Production is related to the size o the tree. But thisis not a irm rule, as some large trees do not produceany ruit at all.

0.1–12 trees/ha 0.5–58 trees/alqueire

average of1 000 nuts/tree

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Brazil nut 51

Fruit production varies between trees, with some producing zero and some up to2 000/tree.7 A study in southeastern Amazonia ound 103 to 270 ruit/tree and a meano 17 nuts/ ruit.5 Another study at three sites in eastern Amazonia determined a ruitproduction o 63–216/tree.8 In addition, one study o 140 large trees (larger than 50 cmdbh) ound that in any given year approximately 25% o the trees produced 75% o the nuts rom these stands.9 Until the end o the 20th century, Brazil was almost theexclusive producer o Brazil nuts in the world. Bolivia has since edged ahead o Brazil tobecome the world’s largest Brazil nut producer.10

In 2008, harvesters in Acre were paid US$5.90or a can o Brazil nuts (11 kg). This value hasluctuated considerably over the past decade, rom

a low o US$1.20 in 2001 to a high o US$7.40 in2005. In 2007, Brazil produced more than 30 000tonnes o Brazil nuts or sale, generating overUS$23 million.11 Brazil nuts can be purchased inthe markets o Rio Branco, the capital o Acre, orUS$2.70 or a 250-g package. In Belém, in 2009,a litre o shelled Brazil nuts sold or US$4.20and unshelled or US$1.30. Brazil nut oil is being used in the production o shampoos,

acial masks and other health and beauty products in Brazil, as well as by internationalcompanies. A 100 ml bottle o Brazil nut oil can be purchased on the Internet or aboutUS$9.12

The rich and ragrant Brazil nut is immensely popular in England and the United States o America, and almost all o the Brazil nut production is exported to satis y those markets.However, data rom the Brazilian Minister o Development, Industry and Commerceshow that exports have been alling since the 1970s, though not necessarily because thenuts have diminished in popularity. In 1998, European regulation reduced the acceptablelevel o toxic substances (a latoxins) produced by ungi that contaminate Brazil nuts.

This change disrupted global commerce o the nut.13 In July 2003, the European Union shut its doors to the tradeo the Brazil nut in its shell. Removing the shells is a

meticulous process that adds signi icant time and expenseto Brazil nut production, making it a less viable source o income or many harvesters in Brazil. Since the 1960s, itis estimated that the international export o Brazil nuts

rom the Amazon is between US$18 million and US$126million/year.14 However, more importantly, the collection,processing and sale o Brazil nuts generate money and jobs

or thousands o Amazonian amilies.

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Nut: Brazil nuts are usually shelled and eaten resh, but they also appearin sweets and ice cream. They can be made into a sweet spread,ground into lour, or used as “milk” to season ood.

Oil: Brazil nut oil appears in soap, creams and shampoo.

Fruit: The hard shell o the ruit is used to make cra ts and toys.It also serves as a medicine and or making coal. Because o itsshape, it can act as a mortar and pestle or be used as a bowl tocollect latex.

Bark: The bark can be made into tea, which is used as a medicine ordiarrhoea.

Wood: Although historically used or ence posts and construction, thewood is now rarely used because it is illegal to ell Brazil nut trees.

Lênio José Guerreiro de Faria

In Asia, people look orward to the steaming bowls o ricethat accompany every meal. In Amazonia, a meal is not a mealwithout arinha, a coarse and ragrant lour made rom maniocroot. Rural and urban Amazonians alike eat several cups o

arinha daily. When choosing rom the dozens o sacks o arinhaproduced both industrially and by local armers, customersconsider texture and colour to be the most important signs o quality. Most urban consumers pre er yellow arinha to the

traditional white, and some businesses add arti icial dyes to make the lour more appealing.However, these chemical additives have caused serious allergies, especially in children.The problem became urgent enough that the Laboratory o Chemical Engineering o the Federal University o Pará (UFPA) began studies on potential natural colourings.University researchers discovered that curcuma o the ginger amily, is an excellentcolouring, but it has an odour and a lavour that do not combine well with arinha. Theypersevered and discovered that charcoal made rom the Brazil nut ruit shell is extremelye ective in removing the lavour and odour o curcuma. Picking up on this idea, aresearcher rom the University o French Guiana visited UFPA to see i and how charcoal

rom Brazil nut shells could be used to puri y water in rural areas. They discovered that1 g o charcoal made rom the large Brazil nut ruit can cover a sur ace area o 250 m2, andlike a giant sponge, absorb most impurities, leaving the water remarkably clean.15

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Brazil nut 53

Virgin Brazil nut oil, produced in Amapá, is being exported to Europe, where itis available in Parisian supermarkets. The oil has the advantage o being rich inselenium. Brazil nut oil rom Laranjal do Jari in Acre is being sold with a “greenseal”, as it is made by a traditional population in a protected area.

An increasing number o people in Western society su er rom cancer as well as romstress-related disorders such as anxiety, atigue, depression and memory loss. EatBrazil nuts! Studies recently conducted in the United States o America and Europe

showed that Brazil nuts contain selenium, a trace mineral that has the power toprevent cancer and combat certain viruses.16 In addition, this mineral provides energy,li ts the spirit and reduces the chances o catching common, chronic illnesses.

Studies show that bad moods are sometimes linked to a low level o selenium in thebody and that consumption can contribute to boosting con idence. Selenium proteinshave also been discovered to be an important source o antioxidants. Oxidization hasa role in premature aging, Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease.17 The quantityo selenium in the Brazil nut is linked to the presence o this mineral in the soil.Due to lower concentrations o selenium in the soils o Acre, the Brazil nuts rom

that state re lect slightly lower levels o selenium.

Brazil nut trees do not grow in North America andEurope, and research indicates that American dietscontain only 20% o the recommended daily doseo selenium.

To ensure that you are getting enough selenium inyour diet, doctors recommend a 200 mcg seleniumsupplement per day, the equivalent o about twoshelled Brazil nuts. Because the nuts lose up to 75%o their selenium content a ter they are shelled, it isbest to eat them immediately a ter removing theirshells. But do not get carried away, because eatingmore than 25 nuts/day is considered to be unhealthy.I Brazil nuts are hard or you to ind, anotherdelicious ood that strengthens the body, preventsmany diseases, combats cancer and is a good sourceo selenium is garlic. Eating two or three cloves/ dayhas tremendous health bene its.

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Rich in protein, vitamins, minerals andcalories, the Brazil nut is considered themeat o the plant kingdom. The nuts are

rom 12% to 17% complete protein withall the essential amino acids. The lour madeby grinding the nuts is approximately 46%protein, with no at.18 In comparison, bee is 26% to 31% protein. The Brazil nut hasabout hal o the protein content o bee andtwice as many calories. It has almost as muchprotein as cow’s milk, and provides completeamino acid content. Brazil nut “milk” is

delicious, and you can use it as a substituteor cow’s milk in cooking. To make themilk, simply grate the nuts and add water,squeezing the mixture through a cheeseclothor strainer. Brazil nuts contain minerals,such as phosphorous and potassium, andvitamin B. In addition, 100 g o Brazil nutscomprises 61 g o at, 2.8 mg o iron, 180 mgo calcium and 4.2 mg o zinc. The Brazilnut also has great quantities o the aminoacid methionine, which is considered by some nutritionists to be one o the elements mostlacking in Amazonian diets.19

Ingredients:– 2 cups o grated Brazil nuts– 4 cups o lour– 1 cups cornstarch– 2 cups butter– 1 cup o sugar

Preparation:Mix all o the ingredients until the dough is irm. Roll out the dough with a rolling pinand cut the biscuits into the desired shapes. Dust the biscuits with lour be ore baking at350oF or 12–15 minutes.

Percentage of protein

46% 17% 31%

Calories

twice the calories of beef

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Brazil nut 55

Ingredients:– 4 teaspoons o butter or oil – 1 bunch o cilantro– 1 whole chicken – chili pepper, garlic and salt– juice o 1 lemon to taste– 1 tomato, peeled, chopped – Brazil nut milk using 1 cup– 1 onion, chopped o grated Brazil nuts

Preparation:Cut the chicken in pieces and season with salt and garlic. In a pan, sauté the onions,tomatoes, cilantro, lemon juice and chili pepper in the butter or oil. Add the chicken andlet it simmer. Next, remove the chicken rom the pan and allow it to cool. Remove thebones rom the chicken and cut the meat into large pieces. Add the nut milk to the brothremaining in the pan and mix in the chicken pieces.

To make Brazil nut milk: grate the nuts or pound them with a mortar and pestle. Next,place the grated nuts in a pan with a little hot water and mix well. Squeeze the mixturethrough a cheese cloth or a strainer to extract the milk. The remaining Brazil nut pulp canbe used as animal eed.

Ingredients:– 2 cups o sugar– 1 cup o butter– 4 eggs– 1 cup o grated Brazil nuts– 1 cup o condensed milk (with a little water)– 1 cup o lour

Preparation:Cream the butter and sugar, add the eggs and continue to mix until smooth. Stir in thegrated Brazil nuts and the condensed milk and mix. Then add in the lour and stir well.Pour the mixture into a cake mould and bake in the oven.

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Ingredients:– 1 large cupuaçu– 1 kg o sugar– 1 plate ull o grated Brazil nuts– 1 plate o chopped Brazil nuts toasted in a pan with butter to taste

Preparation:Remove the cupuaçu pulp rom the shell and cut the pulp away rom the seeds withscissors. Place the pulp in a pan with water and bake it to reduce the acidity. Rinse thepulp in a colander. Mix the cupuaçu, sugar and grated Brazil nuts in a pan and placeover a lame. Allow it to simmer until the mixture pulls away rom the bottom o the pan. Spread the mixture on a greased baking sheet or carving board. Sprinkle thetoasted Brazil nut pieces over the mixture and roll it into short sticks. Wrap in colouredcellophane or aluminium oil.

For silky smooth hair, mix one cup o Brazil nut oil with one cup o honey and one egg

yolk. Apply to clean hair and rinse a ter a ew minutes.s

In various regions o Amazonia, the Brazil nut ruit shell isconsidered to be an e ective remedy or hepatitis, anaemiaand intestinal problems. A large ruit is thoroughly cleanedand iltered water placed in its centre to soak or two orthree hours, or until the water becomes blood-coloured.The water is drunk daily, like a tea, until symptoms subside.Some pregnant women beleaguered with morning sicknessstate that eating one or two Brazil nuts/day alleviates theirsymptoms.

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Brazil nut 57

The Brazil nut tree demonstrates theimportant links between plants and animalsin an intact rain orest. For example, there aretwo species o poisonous rogs (Dendrobatescastaneoticus, Dendrobates quinquevittatus)that almost exclusively use the rain- illedhollow o Brazil nut ruits or their tadpoles.21 The Brazil nut lower has a closed hood and is pollinated e icientlyonly by large-bodied bees capable o pushing open the hood andentering the lower.2 These bees o the generaBombus, Centris,

Epicharis, Eulaema, and Xylocopalive in the closed orest. A recent decline in Brazil nutproduction has been linked to pollination de iciency, possibly owing to the smoke romorest ires reducing bee abundance or to the reluctance o some bees to visit ragmented

landscapes.7 The creamy, pale yellow lowers are also a avoured ood o paca, peccary,armadillo and deer. Hunters o ten build plat orms near Brazil nut trees, where they wait

or game to come and devour the thousands o meaty lowers scattered on the orest loor.

The agouti is a true riend o the Brazil nut as it is one o the onlyanimals able to gnaw through the thick, hard husk o the Brazil nut

ruit to reach the nuts inside. Primarily the agouti, but occasionallysquirrels disperse Brazil nuts throughout the orest. The agoutiscatter-hoards the seeds up to 1 km away rom the mother tree, burying and reburyingthem at depths o 1–2 cm to dig up and eat during the leaner times between ruit seasons.7 Like squirrels, the agoutis may orget some o their buried seeds, allowing the seeds togerminate. Given their key role in dispersing seeds, it is important not to overhunt agoutis,so that there is no shortage o Brazil nut trees in the uture. Scientists think that both thework o agoutis and the work o people ollowing indigenous management practices havebeen responsible or creating high concentrations o Brazil nut trees in certain areas.22

Rubber tappers in Acre say that capuchin monkeys havealso igured out how to open Brazil nut ruits when time hasso tened their hard husks. The monkeys blow into the smallopening o the pod and then beat it on a branch until it breaks.But the monkey o ten loses out to clever riends waiting below,who are quick to grab any nuts that may all. A monkey mayalso try to retrieve the ruit with his hand, but the opening is sosmall that its hand can be injured. Older monkeys have learnedto delicately remove the seeds with a inger tip, one at a time.They say that observations o this practice led to the proverb:“An old monkey never places his hand inside a gourd.”

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Brazil nut trees live many years; three large trees were carbon dated to be more than 650years old.23 The late Murça Pires, distinguished botanist from the Goeldi Museum in Belém,

thought that the Brazil nut tree could possibly live for 1 000 years or more. But lately someresearchers have expressed concern that there are not enough young trees. One study of theAmazon basin reported that young Brazil nut trees were limited or non-existent in somesites where the Brazil nuts had experienced decades of heavy harvest.3 Another study atthree sites in Acre found that all sites had sufficient seedlings and young trees to maintainthe population given current nut harvest levels.24 Similarly, a study at two sites in Boliviafound reasonable seedling densities despite the areas experiencing heavy Brazil nut harvestfor several decades.6 Monitoring to make sure there are enough young trees coming up in theforest to maintain future generations is always a good idea.

How might Brazil nut harvesters increase their production? One option is to plantseedlings. A study of Brazil nut trees in Acre compared their survival and growth in forestclearings (where they grow naturally), in shifting cultivation plots and in pastures.25 Thesethree potential sites for planting Brazil nut trees were all surrounded by a larger landscapeof relatively undisturbed forest. Results illustrate that Brazil nut trees do well in forestclearings, although their growth is slow. Pastures offer all the conditions needed for theBrazil nut tree to grow well, including full sun; however, it takes a lot of work to constructprotective fences and clear away weeds. This study showed that the best place to grow Brazilnuts in the rubber tapper communities is in their shifting cultivation plots, planted togetherwith rice and corn, before the plots become secondary forest. This way they grow rapidlyand it is not necessary to do a lot of work to keep the area weed-free. Brazil nut trees cangrow at least 1 m/year in height. In general, several years after abandonment of shiftingcultivation plots, higher densities of seedlings and saplings are present,26 making these typesof secondary forests efficient sites to tend naturally regeneratingBrazil nut seedlings to increase productive densities in the long term.

Colonists, mostly migrant armer amilies rom Southern Brazil, inthe Reca Project on the rontiers o Acre and Rondônia states, havealso had success planting Brazil nuts in agro orest systems. But it iscritical to have some orest nearby so that the trees can be pollinatedand produce ruits. Brazil nut trees planted in ields ar rom orestsprobably will not produce. Old Brazil nut plantations do not give

ruits, possibly because the large bees that pollinate the trees need areas o orest to survive,or perhaps because the trees in these plantations are o similar genetic material, precludingnecessary cross-pollination.

germination12–18 months

5½–6½ months with treatment

growth0.9 cm in

diameter/year

production50 cm dbh

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Brazil nut 59

Brazil nuts have a ew germination secrets. The seeds, whichwe commonly re er to as nuts, have a dormancy periodsuch that they will not germinate just a ter the ruit alls

rom the tree. One way to shorten the dormant period isto collect newly allen nuts and store them in a containerwith moist sand.25Always keep the container in a dry, shadyspot, with good air circulation. A ter ive months, extractthe seeds rom their seed coats (which are now so t andloose), throwing out any seeds that have been damaged.Sow the seeds in a spot where they will not be attacked byants or rats. In two weeks some will begin to germinate; themajority will germinate within six weeks. Transplant thenewly germinated seedlings into plastic planting bags or in ahome nursery. A ter they have reached 25 cm, or grown 16 leaves, plant them permanentlyin a sunny spot.27 Brazil nut trees can grow quickly with su icient sun and are able to reachreproductive size, generally 40–50 cm dbh, in 10–12 years. Trees growing in the orestunder lower light conditions generally will take 60-70 years to reproduce. In Bolivia, theage o irst reproduction was estimated at 120 years and emergent trees that receive greatersunlight had the highest reproductive percentage.6

Johannes van Leeuwen

In addition to nuts, Brazil nut trees also supply high-quality wood. The law allowsonly specially planted Brazil nut trees to be cut or timber. Many species like piquiáand ipê do not grow straight when they are planted out in the open, and when theyare planted in groups they are susceptible to illness. However, Brazil nut trees growstraight and rapidly in plantations. Until they are ready to be planted, care must betaken that the saplings are not dug up by agoutis or rats.

It is best to plant the Brazil nut tree seedlings on a rainy day. I they do not getenough rain, the saplings will drop all their leaves. And when it is not possible tomake a deep hole, cut the last bit o the root. The Brazil nut root will quickly growdeep into the soil, which is why it is called a pivotal root. The root should never beallowed to double over in the plantation as the deep root prevents the tree rom beingblown over by the wind when it grows tall.

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Al redo Kingo Oyama Homma

About 100 years ago, when world rubber prices ell, Brazil nut production came tobe the most important economic activity in the region o Marabá in southeasternPará. For a period o 60 years, Brazil nut trees were maintained and helped to sustainthousands o amilies.28 But in the past 30 years, thousands o 100-year-old Brazil nuttrees have disappeared rom the Marabá region.

In the 1970s, based on the principle that cattle were worth more than the standingorest, the government began to support cattle ranching. To promote development in

the north o Brazil, highways like the Belém-Brasília, the PA-150, the BR 222 and theTrans-Amazon were constructed, in addition to hydroelectric projects like Tucuruí.During this time, ranchers and land speculators poured into the North, even to remote

areas. Their presence initiated a wave o de orestation, with agriculture and pasturereplacing a signi icant amount o primary orests throughout Amazonia.

As the pro its rom ranching declined and governmental incentives waned, a newphase o natural resource exploitation began. Two kinds o gold were discovered:yellow gold o the Mineral Province o Carajás and “green gold”, or timber ( irstmahogany, then other species, such as the Brazil nut). As a result, by 1997, 70%o the areas that had once been home to Brazil nut trees in southeastern Pará werede orested. Both living and dead trees have been cut down or their wood, resultingin the near-extinction o the species in the region, creating “Brazil nut cemeteries”.29

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Brazil nut 61

The destruction o the Brazil nut trees in southeastern Pará illustrates the con lictbetween public policies and smallholder needs. Allotted only 50 hectares or less o land, armers discovered that the income rom extracting Brazil nuts and cupuaçu

ruits is less in the short term than the income produced by arming and ranching.Colonists who had previously been able to plant one portion o their lands and leavethe other orested, determined that, given only 50 hectares, clear-cutting made themost short-term economic sense.30

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Ra ael P. Salomão

I you take a walk through the orest o the Trombetas region, you will ind Brazil nuttrees in great densities and varieties. In an area o 789 ha, there are approximately 1.5 Brazilnut trees/ha, with some hectares having as many as 13 trees. These concentrations areknown asbolasor castanhais. In contrast, in a nearby orest o 1 500 ha there were onlyseven Brazil nut trees. The two areas are only 30 km apart and have the same rain all, lightand soil type.

Archaeologists are working together with ecologists to explain thesebolas. Many peoplebelieve these areas were managed by Indians hundreds o years ago. Thesebolasare wellknown by the locals, who even give them names like “Big Deer”, “Small Deer” and“Chico’s Bola”.

In addition to having an abundance o Brazil nut trees, Trombetas is also rich in mineralsthat are mined by large industries. In severely degraded areas, Brazil nut trees are beingreplanted and are growing well. The Brazil nut tree is an excellent species or recuperatingdegraded areas. A ter two decades, trees planted in 1984 had already attained diameters o 60 cm. The scientists responsible or re orestation have not orgotten the local population.Instead o only planting species that are valued or their timber, they are also planting

what are known as “social species,” trees like the Brazil nut that o er nutrition and healthbene its or local people.

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Brazil nut 63

Along lengthy highways throughout Amazonia large expanses o pasture exist where onecan see only a ew enormous, white, skeletal trees standing dead on their eet. These areBrazil nut trees. Brazil, Peru and Bolivia appreciate the Brazil nut tree so much that theycreated laws incurring ines or jail time or anyone who cuts one down. However, thelaw is clearly not e ective in preserving the Brazil nut trees. Studies in Acre show that,20 years a ter the creation o pasture, 80% o the Brazil nut trees die without ever havingreproduced.31 Persistent burning o the pastures takes a toll on the trees, probably leadingto premature death. Even i they survive, ruit production is diminished because theseisolated trees are ar away rom other Brazil nut trees, which hinders cross-pollinationsince the large bee pollinators generally do not venture into open areas.32

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1 Salomão, R.P. 19912 Mori, S.A. 19923 Peres, C.A.et al.20034 Wadt, L.H.O.; Kainer, K.A. & Gomes-Silva, D.A.P. 20055 Baider, C. 20006 Zuidema, P.A. and Boot, R.G.A. 20027 Ortiz, E.G. 20028 Miller, C. 19909 Kainer, K.A, Wadt, L.H.O. & Staudhammer, C.L.. 200710 Assies, W. 199711 IBGE, 200712 http://store. lorestas.us/bo001.html13 Newing, H. & Harrop, S. 200014 FAO. 2009.15 For other experiments with Brazil nuts see Faria, L.J.G. & Costa, C.M.L. 199816 Gross, D. 199017 Chang, J.C.et al.199518 Ramos, C.M.P. and Bora, P.S. 200319 Benton, D. 200220 Balée, W. 1989 / Cotta, J.N.et al.200821 Caldwell, J.P. and Myers, C.W. 199022 Balée, W. 198923 Vieira, S.et al.2005.24 Wadt, L.H.O.et al.200825 Kainer, K.A.et al.199826 Cotta, J.N.et al.200827 Muller, C.H. 199528 Emmi, M.F. 198729 Bentes, R.S.et al . 198830

Homma, A.K.O. 200031 Mello, R.A.et al . 199832 Powell, A.H. and Powell, G.V.N. 1987

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Uncaria tomentosa(Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.) D.C. andUncaria guianensis(Aubl.) J.F. Gmel.

Elias Melo de Miranda

Thousands o years ago, indigenous Peruvians discovered the medicinal power o a spinyAmazonian orest vine: cat’s claw (unha-de-gato). However, this locally well-known vineonly gained widespread popularity in Peru a ter it irst became amous in Europe.1 Studieso the bark, roots and leaves have established the presence o alkaloids that stimulate thebody’s immune system against tumours, in lammations, viruses and ulcers. Today, cat’sclaw is used throughout Amazonia and has growing domestic and international markets.

There are a great variety o species known as cat’s claw. The two most amous belong to thegenusUncaria. The main characteristics o these vines are the claw-like spines rom whichthe name is derived. The cat’s claw climber,U. tomentosa,is large and has semi-curvedspines, which enable it to wind its way up tree trunks. The creeper,U. guianensis,is smallerand has di iculty climbing because it has sharply curved spines, like goat’s horns, whichdo not easily grip onto other plants. Both are ound in the tropical regions o Brazil, Peru,Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia, Guyana and Paraguay.

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creeper (U. guianensis):


climber (U. tomentosa):

The two species have di erent ruiting seasons. The creeper , U. guianensis,lowers irst,rom February to June, and produces ruit rom April to August. The climber,U. tomentosa,lowers rom September to November, and produces ruit rom October to December.2

Density

A study o the two species in the state o Acre, Brazil determined that cat’s claw occursmore requently in várzea (33 vines/ha) and in secondary orest (11 vines/ha) than in terra

irme (1.7 vines/ha).3 But the two species exhibit di erences in the habitats they pre er. Theclimber,U. tomentosa, pre ers closed orest or orests with small openings and generally

occurs in low densities. The creeper,U. guianensis, develops best in secondary orest, alongriverbanks or roadsides where it can orm large concentrations.

On average, it is possible to extract about 0.5 kg o bark/m o vine.Creeping cat’s claw reaches between 5 and 10 m in length, and in 1 ha itis possible to ind 15 individuals over 5 cm in diameter that can urnishapproximately 60 kg o bark. In contrast, climbing cat’s claw grows rom10 to 30 m in length but occurs in low densities, approximately 1 vine/ha,yielding approximately 10 kg o bark. Since the climbingU. tomentosa

individuals provide more bark, collectors in Peru tend to concentrate theircollection e orts in the upland orest. In order to satis y demand in 1995,Peruvians collected vines rom a 20 000 ha area.2

33 plants/ha invárzea for U. guianensis

1.7 plants/ha interra firme for U. tormentosa

Climber10 kg of

bark/vine

Creeper4 kg of

bark/vine

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Cat’s claw 67

In Peru, the world’s largest producer o cat’s claw, exports peaked in 1995 at 726 tonnes.From 1996 to 1998, between 275 and 350 tonnes were exported.4 Peruvian export businessescan purchase 1 kg or US$0.90 and sell it or US$3.90. In the United States o America, 1 kgtrans ormed into capsule orm is worth between US$200 and US$500. Brazil exports less,but it is easy to ind cat’s claw in Amazonian markets. In 2008, at the Ver-o-Peso marketin Belém, 150 g o bark sold or between US$1.20 and US$2.40. For US$1.20, a packet o 50 g o powdered cat’s claw, 20–30 g o leaves, or 50 g o the vine could also be purchased.

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Bark: The bark o cat’s claw is used to make teas as it possesses propertieswhich stimulate the immune system and, in a ew tests, demonstratedantiviral and anti-in lammatory e ects.3

Roots and leaves: The roots and leaves can be used inmedicinal teas.

Vine: Fresh, drinkable water is released when the vine iscut. Rattan-type urniture is also produced rom the vine.

A ter harvesting the vine, scrape o themoss and dirt using a large kni e. Themoss on the climbing cat’s claw is o tenblack, while the moss on the creeping cat’sclaw requently has an o -white colour. Toremove the bark, simply tap one piece o vine against another until it comes loose.Set the bark in a shady spot to dry or threeto ive days during the dry season. Next,cut the bark into sizes pre erred by the consumers. To protect the bark rom humidity andto make the product more attractive to customers, place the bark in labelled bags.

Climbing ( U. tomentosa) Creeping ( U. guianensis)Length 10–30 m 5–10 m

Diameter 5–40 cm 4–15 cmSpine semi-curved curvedHabitat openings in the primary orest secondary orest, riverbanks and

roadsidesOccurrence high altitudes, 400–800 m low altitudes, 200 mDensity ew/ha can be ound in great numbers

The di erent types o cat’s claw also vary in their chemical composition. The levelo alkaloids, or example, appears to be di erent rom species to species. Within thesame species, the levels can also vary signi icantly, depending on the age and the

habitat o the plant.2

The e ects o the tea may also vary rom person to person andplant to plant.

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Cat’s claw 69

To brew tea, using the bark or root, local users o er the ollowing recipe: Boil 20–30 g o bark or root o cat’s claw cut in small pieces in 1 litre o water or 20–30 minutes. This teacan be taken every eight hours, between meals. I using the leaves, boil 15–20 g in 1 litre o water or 15–20 minutes; strain and drink every six hours.

Because o its strong history o traditional use, the sale o cat’s claw took o priorto scienti ic con irmation o its e ectiveness. Some researchers maintained thatthe medicinal properties o cat’s claw had not been adequately proven, but recentphytochemical studies have identi ied bene icial properties in the bark.5 In Peru,together with copaíba (Copai eraspp.) and sangre-de-grado (Croton lechleri), cat’sclaw continues to be among the most widely sold medicinal plants. In the remote ruralareas o Pará, Brazil, it is known as jupindá, and many amilies use it to make a tea tostrengthen the body against malaria. In 2001, o 30 amilies with cases o malaria, onlytwo used medicine rom the national health service, SUCAM. All the other villagersutilized cat’s claw tea mixed with species such as veronica (Dalbergiaspp.), cedro(Cedrela odorata), pau d’arco (Tabebuia impetiginosa) and escada-de-jabuti (Bauhinia guianensis).

The e icacy o other plants o the genusUncariahas been con irmed in other regionso the world, including China, Taiwan Province o China and A rica. The lavonoids(antioxidants) ound in a number o Uncariaspecies have also been used by thepharmaceutical industry to treat vascular diseases.2

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Seeds germinate in 5–20 days, and the seedlings can be planted rom six months to twoyears later.2 When the vine is cut, the iner shoots can also be stuck in the ground andgrown (the same way manioc is planted). Cat’s claw has the advantage o being ire-

resistant, and it grows well in open areas. The vine can reach 5 cm in diameter in ive years,and it is ready to be harvested in 5–10 years.2 Both the vine and the root are used requentlyby local populations in the Amazon. However, it is better to collect only the vine, cutting ita ter it bears ruit, while leaving about 50 cm to 1 m o vine so that the plant can regenerate.Covering the cut with clay will help to keep the vine rom losing water. Since the vineso the orest-dwellingU. tomentosaare large and provide substantial quantities o bark,it is worthwhile to take special care when harvesting them because these vines are lessabundant. Plantations in open areas produce many thin vines along the ground , but scantbark.

1 Jones, K. 1995 & Alexiades, M.N. 2002a2 Alexiades, M.N. 2002a3 Miranda, E.M., Souza, J.A. & Persira, R.C.A. 20014 Hughes, K. & Worth, T. 19995 Heitzman, M.E.et al.2005

germination5–20 days

growth1 cm/year


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Copai eraspp.

Arthur LeiteAndrea Alechandre

Ono ra Cleuza Rigamonte-Azevedo

Copaíba, known as the antibiotic o the orest, is one o the medicinal trees most widelyused in the Amazon to treat in lammations and wounds. The Indians discovered the

curative power o copaíba oil, and since then it has healed the minor as well as the li e-threatening injuries o thousands o people. Rural people contend that ar rom the hospitalor the pharmacy, copaíba oil is your best remedy.

The copaíba tree is also known as the “oil wood”, “miracle tree” and “diesel oil tree”because it produces a thick, yellow, sticky medicinal oil that is extracted by makingincisions in the trunk. The iltered oil can also be used as a biodiesel uel. Copaíba treesreach about 36 m in height, 140 cm in diameter and up to 3 m in circum erence. Thetrees are ound throughout the tropics, but with the greatest incidence in Brazil, where16 di erent species are well distributed throughout the country.1

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In Acre, as in Pará, the copaíba tree lowers in the raining season, rom January throughApril, and ruits rom May to September. Bees are the tree’s principal pollinators.2

In the Amazon, the copaíba tree occurs in terra irme orests, and on the margins o lakesand streams. It also grows in the orests o the Cerrado o Central Brazil. The municipality

o Tarauacá, in the state o Acre, is known to have large areas in which one or morecopaíbas can be ound per hectare. In some regions, such as the southern part o Pará, theirnumbers are diminishing because o the timber trade.

The annual production o oil rom copaíba trees varies rom 100 mlto 60 litres/tree, though not all trees produce oil. Oil production alsoappears to vary depending upon soil type and the age o the tree. Inthe area o Pedreira, Pará, out o a sample o 114 trees, 22% did notproduce oil, 50% had low production ( ewer than 3 litres), 23% hadregular production ( rom 3 to 9 litres) and only 1.7% produced morethan 10 litres.3 Another study in the state o Amazonas illustrates thatin sandy soils 75% o trees are productive, while in clay soils only 45%are productive.4 Data rom 62 trees in Acre indicate that 41% producein the irst extraction, while the second extraction reached 72%, withbetter production in terra irme orest.5 Scientist Dr. Alencar conducteda long-term study in Manaus and discovered that a ter repeated tapping,production diminished.5 To ensure a consistent supply, scientists inAcre suggest extracting only 1 litre/tree, every three years.6

0.1 to 2 trees/ha 0.5–10 trees/alqueire

average of1 litre ofoil/tree

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Copaíba 73

In 2009, in the medicinal plant shops in Belém, a litre o copaíba oil cost between US$11and US$15. Oil sold in glass bottles etched a higher price, as a 50-ml vial cost US$4.20and in the United States o America copaiba oil can be purchased over the Internet atUS$40 or 8 oz.7 Copaíba bark is also used as a medicine; in 2008, 1 kg o copaíba bark costUS$8 and each 150 ml sack sold or US$1.20. Soaps were also in demand, costing betweenUS$2.00 and US$2.40 apiece.

Copaíba oil was widely exported during the rubber era and a ter the Second World War.In 1947, or example, Brazil exported 94 tonnes. Today, the oil is sold to France, Germanyand the United States o America. In 2006, Brazil sold 523 tonnes o copaíba oil, earningrevenues in excess o US$1.9 million.8 Because o de orestation in Pará, copaíba oil isincreasingly scarce in Belém. It is now coming rom

distant regions like Manaus, in the state o Amazonas.Considering that in the national market 1 litre o copaibaoil is worth more than 15 kg o rubber, rubber tappersin Acre are investigating harvesting copaíba oil as apotential option or diversi ying production.2 In 2004, inthe sawmills o Tomé-Açu, Pará, 1 m3 o copaíba woodcost US$68. In 2008, 1 m3 o sawn copaíba timber had amarket price o US$206.9

Those who extract copaíba oil should pay attention to the variation in price according towho is selling the oil, where it is being sold, how it is processed and what kind o packagingis used. Notice the di erence in price o the litres o oil sold in di erent situations:

Vendor Price in US$Caboclo rom Capim River, Pará 0.70Medicinal plant shop, Belém 9Logger, Paragominas 10Sawmill owner ( rom Paragominas to São Paulo) 17Ver-o-Peso, Belém (20 ml bottles, US$0.52 each) 26Belém airport (20 ml bottles, US$1.54 each) 77

Rubber tappers are amiliar with various types o copaíba trees: red, white and yellow.2 However, researchers were surprised by the variety in colour, scent, lavour and densityo the oils; together with the local people they discovered more than ten types. The clearoils tend to be avoured by medical industries and the darker oils tend to be used to make

soap and to treat injured animals.5

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Oil: A metabolic product o the tree, created by canalswhich secrete the oil rom the medulla or centre o thetrunk, the oil has antibacterial and anti-in lammatoryproperties. It is used to promote the growth o scartissue or wounds and ulcers, as well as to treatserious and chronic skin diseases, such as dermatosisand psoriasis.10 In Rio Branco, the capital o Acre, itis most commonly taken or throat in ections. Acre’slargest consumers are the elderly.6 In contrast, inPará, all ages and social classes consider copaíba oneo the most important natural remedies in Amazonia.

Industrial use or the oil: The oil is utilized as a ixer in the manu acture o varnish, per ume and paint. It can also be used in photographic development.More recently, copaíba oil can be ound in natural beauty and personal careproducts, including soaps, creams and shampoos. Rural olk continue to useit as lamp oil, and it is being planted in some areas as a source o biodiesel.11

Wood: The copaíba tree produces a superior timber that is highly soughta ter because it is resistant to insects, particularly termites. It is used in civilconstruction and the manu acture o boards.

Bark: In some regions, the tea o the bark is used as an anti-in lammatory. InBelém, because o the high price o the oil, tinctures made rom the bark areo ten used as a substitute.

Mix one or two drops o copaiba oil with a tablespoon o honey. Take twice a day.12

Without costly lashlights, how do villagers make their way across pitch blackorests? Copaíba oil is used as uel to light up the night. Place a wick in an

oil container and set it alight. During years o low income and/or economicdownturns, home-cra ted technologies, such as rustic lamps, o ten return in use.

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Copaíba 75

In southern Pará, copaíba is commonly used by ranchers.They pour oil on the ground near salt licks. When the cattleapproach to eat the salt, their hooves become covered in oil,which prevents oot-and-mouth disease.

• 1 drill, 1.20 m in length and 1.9 cm in diameter;• 1.27 cm plastic tubing to place in the hole in the tree,

and a plug or the tube or hole;• 1.9 cm rubber hose, 1.5 m in length;• 2-litre soda bottles or other jug to collect the lowing

oil. To store or long periods, glass bottles arerecommended.

The tools needed to remove the oil cost about US$51, approximately one month’s earningsrom rubber collection in 2004. In Acre, the Secretariat o Forests and Extractivism (Se e)

paid or the kit and thus enabled the collectors to become sel -su icient.

Copaíba occurs in low densities in the orest, and or this reason great care must be taken

in its extraction. In some places, people ell the trees or cut them deeply with a machete sothat they may obtain higher volumes o oil than they can in a care ul extraction. However,a deep cut wounds the tree and may lead to a ungal or insect in ection rom which it maynot recover. When it su ers rom a severe in ection, a tree can die in as little as three years.A tree’s bark is similar to a person’s skin, protecting it rom illness.

With the correct method, it is possible to extract oil year a ter year with no ill e ects. Usea small drill to puncture the centre o the trunk, rom 20 to 50 cm deep, depending uponthe width o the trunk. Next, insert plastic tubing or a piece o metal pipe beneath the holeto let the oil drip out into a container either suspended rom the tree or on the ground.

The oil can be le t to drain or a ew days. A terremoval, close the container to prevent insectsrom entering and plug the hole in the tree. It isadvantageous to care ully extract the oil, as it hasa high economic value, can be preserved or longperiods and is easy to transport.6

The process o extracting oil varies greatly romregion to region. In Acre, they say that the besttime to harvest the oil is during the rainy season,while in Pará many pre er to harvest during thedry season. Some also say it is best to tap the treesduring the new moon, perhaps because the moona ects the circulation o the oil.

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• It is important to choose trees with a circum erence greater than 150 cm. Hollowtrees generally do not produce oil.6 I the irst hole does not provide oil, try the otherside o the tree, or drill at a di erent height.

• I the oil does not come out, some peoplelight a ire at the base o the tree to heat theresin; however, ires can damage the tree andpotentially get out o control.

• Many trees do not produce oil immediatelya ter being tapped. In this case, leave thehose in place, or plug the hole, and comeback in a couple o days.

• In addition to tapping near the base o the tree, people sometimes tap arther up(10–20 m) to potentially extract more oil.

Copaíba ruits are appreciated by deer, tortoises, agouti, birds, pacas, monkeys, peccaries,squirrels and tapirs. Over a one year period, hunters in a community along the CapimRiver captured 63 kg o game beneath copaíba trees. Wounded animals lick and rubthemselves with the oil that runs down the trees.6

One hundred years ago, rubber tappers avidly seeking the sticky exudate o rubber trees, “white gold”, also sought out the healing, golden oil o copaibatrees. A rediscovered diary rom that era reveals that tapping copaiba trees wasa dangerous occupation: “We had to tap around 100 trees, walking in the woodsand worrying about snakes and wild animals the whole time. We had to ind ourway around large areas o orest and keep care ul track o which trees we hadtapped. Out o 100 trees, only hal would produce some oil. For ood, there wereonly a ew Brazil nuts and small game to eat. At night, we had to be sure we had

ound a high place to tie our hammocks so the jaguars could not reach us.”13

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Copaíba 77

The seeds take 35 days to germinate. Ninety percent o seeds germinate when sown,immediately a ter alling, and about hal o the remaining seeds will germinate a ter30 days. The copaíba tree seems to grow best when it is not interplanted with other species.It pre ers partial shade during the seedling phase and ull sun when planted out or thegrowth period.14 However, little is known about ideal soil types and growing conditions

or this tree. Because o its high value and power ul medicinal uses, it is well worth thee ort to conserve and plant copaíba.

There are no government restrictions on the extraction o copaíba oil or domestic use.However, in order to sell the oil, a management plan is a legal requirement. The plan mustde ine what area is to be utilized, how many trees are to be tapped and what technique willbe used to extract the oil. In addition, it is necessary to make a map indicating the locationo each o the copaíba trees to be tapped. In Acre, collectors use maps o roads opened byrubber tappers to ind copaíba trees. When they ind a copaíba tree, they clear a small trailleading to it and mark its location on the map.6

germination35 days

growth50 cm/year

productionlarger than 40 cm

in diameter

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Andrea Alechandre,Foster Brown,Valério Gomes

Throughout the world, orest inventories generally survey only timber species, omittinguse ul vines, ruit and medicinal trees that are an essential part o local livelihoods. Some

orest inventory methods sample quadrangles at random. But to map use ul trees mucho the e ort o opening new orest paths could be saved by using “rubber roads”, createdby rubber tappers to access rubber trees. Researchers at the Zoological Park in Acredeveloped a simple method or rubber tappers to map copaíba trees in their areas. It is

ast, easy and inexpensive; it o ers reliable results and is well liked by communities. Asresearcher Andrea Alechandre says, “I you want to identi y copaíba trees, go with arubber tapper. He always knows.”

Many local people and hunters who spend time in the orest already know where thevaluable species are. However, taking the time to draw a map is help ul to systematizein ormation. I local stakeholders are involved in a land dispute, or want to sell wood orcopaíba oil, a map can be a use ul tool or explaining the location and quantity o theirresources. In addition to making use o existing trails and local knowledge, mappinginvolves the understanding o a compass and the measurement o an individual’s pace.15

1) Measure a line on the ground o 100 m with a tape measure.2) Walk the line three times and count your steps each time.

3) Add up the number o steps needed each time and divide by three. This gives youthe mean number o steps per 100 m.

4) Divide the mean number o steps by 100. The result is the size o your step in metres(step/metre).

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Copaíba 79

Foster Brown, Andrea Alechandre, Carlos Campos

It is possible to measure not just one species, but the ruit trees, medicinal plants andibres important to your community as well. Let’s test the methodology with adult

copaíba trees.

1) Choose a good starting pointthat will never change location,like your house or a bridge.Mark it on a piece o paper.

2) Draw a compass on the paper

and mark the direction it ispointing. Next draw a line inthat direction to the closestcopaíba tree rom the startingpoint.

3) Walk rom your starting pointto the irst tree and count your steps. Divide the number o steps by the sizeo your step and mark the distance o the line on the map.

4) Draw another compass next to the irst tree on your map. Draw a line in the

direction o the next tree. Walk to the next tree counting the distance with yoursteps and repeat the process or all the trees.

5) Number each tree on your map and measure the circum erence o each. It is agood idea to identi y each o your mapped trees with a numbered plaque.

When you inish, you will have a map o copaíba trees. With a compass and themap, anyone wanting to ind the copaíba trees should be able to do so. They orientthemselves in the direction noted on the map and walk the distance indicated. Usingthis method, three communities mapped 512 copaíba trees with more than 150 cm incircum erence. They were then able to calculate that their 31 holdings contained morethan 1 100 copaíba trees.6

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1 FAO 1987/Clay, J. and Clement, C. 1993/Rocha, A.A. 20012 Rocha, A.A. 20013 Dias, A.S. 20014 Ferreira, L.A. 19995 Alencar, J.C. 19816 Leite, A.et al . 20017 http://www.rain-tree.com/copaibaprod.htm, accessed March 20098 IBGE, 20079 Secretaria de Estado da Fazenda. 200810 Estrella, E. 1995 / Ming, L.C.; Gaudêncio, P. and Santos, V.P. 199711 Sydney Morning Herald September 19, 200612 Shanley, P.; Hohn, I. and Silva, A.V. 199613

Yungjohann, J.C. 198914 Varela, V.P., Vieira, M.G. & Melo, Z.L 199515 Amorex (unpublished) / Alechandre, A.; Brown, I.F. and Gomes, C.V. 1998

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Tabebuia impetiginosa(Mart. ex. DC) Standl.

Mariella Mendes RevillaAlexandre Dias de Souza

Mark Schulze

Ipê-roxo, also known as pau d’arco, is highly prized throughout Brazil and beyond, bothor its high quality and attractive wood and or its bark, which has power ul medicinal

properties. The bark o ipê is a renowned medicine, containing lapachol and other potentchemical substances. Sold under the name o “pau d’arco”, it is used in home remediesto treat in lammation, allergies and tumours and to promote the growth o scar tissue.Ipê’s extremely durable wood was used in the reconstruction o the amous Atlantic CityBoardwalk in New Jersey, United States o America. Ipê does not need to be treated toresist rot, touting the environmental advantage o being chemical ree. Over the last twodecades, as ipê-roxo has become increasingly di icult to encounter in the orest, mostmedicinal plant collectors head directly to sawmills to harvest the bark rom trunks waitingto be sawn. But some loggers are catching on and are beginning to sell this valuable bark,which has a vibrant market in Brazil, Europe and the United States o America. Duringthe lowering season, ipê-roxo’s canopy explodes with exquisite lowers and the petals alllike rain, leaving a so t lilac-coloured carpet on the orest loor. The tree can reach 40 m inheight and 4.5 m in diameter. Ipê-roxo occurs throughout Amazonia but in relatively lowdensities, particularly in the state o Acre where it is considered rare. Ecological studies o ipê indicate that current extraction levels are placing this valuable species at risk.1

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Ipê-roxo lowers rom May through September and produces ruit between June andNovember. Shortly a ter the petals all, the leaves all, leaving the tree bare. About ten dayslater, ruit appears. However, this lovely spectacle does not occur every year; productionvaries and trees may not lower or two years in a row.

The density o ipê-roxo is less than 1 tree/ha and its distribution is irregular. It grows interra irme orests, and in Acre it avours orests with bamboo.2 Ipê-roxo is rarely oundin the várzea or wetland areas. Rising demand or ipê-roxo has made it increasingly scarcein Amazonia. In a 2004 survey, ipê-roxo timber was no longer being extracted rom orestsaround many sawmill centres in the eastern Amazon where it previously had been one o the primary timber species.3 Brazilian export data or ipê timber suggest that since 2004 atleast 650 000 ha o orest were logged annually or ipê.

Sixty percent o the bark is composed o water, signi ying thatevery 100 kg o bark harvested will result in 40 kg o driedmedicinal bark. The quantity o bark that can be sustainablycollected rom a living tree is not well known, as ew studieshave been undertaken on sustainable bark extraction. Amongother actors, the amount that can be extracted without harmingthe tree will likely depend upon the tree’s age, vigour and dbh.At present, most o the bark traded regionally is collected romlogged trees at sawmills.

0.04–1 tree/ha 0.5–1.5 trees/alqueire

300 g ofbark/tree/year

(estimated)

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Ipê-roxo, pau d’arco 83

Ipê-roxo is sold under the name “ipê” or its wood and“pau d’arco” or its medicinal bark. There ore, many peopledo not realize that the prized timber species also possessespower ul medicinal properties. The demand or ipê-roxo barkby homeopathic pharmacies, healers and the cosmetic industryis growing daily. In the herbal shops in Belém in 2009, 1 kg o bark was sold or US$3. In 2004, average sales o bark rom one

air and our o the largest herb shops in Belém, totalled 250 kg/week. In Belém, a smallbag with 200 g o bark sold or US$1.20–1.80. In addition, there are many herbal medicinelaboratories that are grating ipê-roxo bark to make capsules.

Ipê-roxo is highly sought after by loggers because of the excellent quality of its wood. In

areas where mahogany no longer exists, as in Tomé-Açu in the state of Pará, ipê-roxo is themost expensive timber species. In 2007, the selling price/m3 of sawn wood in the domesticmarket was US$510 and in 2008 the price jumped to US$867.4 Export prices in 2008 haveaveraged US$1 188/m3 of sawn wood.5 Consumers of both the wood and bark are generallyuninformed that current levels of extraction of the tree for its prized timber, marketed as“green mahogany” in the United States of America, may be placing the species at risk.

Inner bark: Tea, syrups, in usions and cough drops are made rom theinner bark. In some areas it is used to combat serious diseases such asdiabetes, leukaemia, cancer, anaemia, arterioscleroses, arthritis, bronchitis,cystitis, parasites, gastritis, cuts and in lammations. It is important to notethat lapachol, an active ingredient in pau d’arco, is a napthoquinone andcontraindicated or people on certain medications. Early cancer studies werestopped because o its toxicity at high doses; there ore, it is recommendedpau d’arco be used under the supervision o a health pro essional. Sold inhealth ood stores and pharmacies, in the United States o America it isused requently or allergies.6 In addition, many rural communities in theBrazilian Amazon use it to treat malaria.

Wood: Ipê wood is of excellent quality – heavy, with a densityof 1.3 g/cm3. Used in construction and in the fabrication of posts, boats and coal, the wood is also commonly used to makefloors, boards and planks, becoming the preferred wood inthe United States of America for decking. Native Amazonianswho use traditional hunting methods use ipê to make bows.

Tea made from the inner bark of ipê-roxo, often referred to as

pau d’arco, contains a combination of substances that many userscontend combat cancer as well as help in the growth of red bloodcells and in the improved oxygenation of the body.7 Unlike manymedicines, ipê-roxo (pau d’arco) tea tastes delicious!

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• Never boil or keep pau d’arco tea in containers made rom aluminium, tin, lead orplastic. These substances cause a chemical reaction with various components o thetea when boiled, altering its medical e ect. Containers o glass, ceramic, porcelain,clay, cast iron or stainless steel are better.

• Do not store the tea in the container in which it was prepared, because the particleso the bark can become bitter.

• Do not let the tea steep or very long because its aroma can become overpowering.

• Use 5–10 g of bark for each litre of water, cover and let simmer on a low flame. Takethe pan off the stove and let the tea steep for 15–20 minutes. Strain the tea directlyinto the container in which it will be stored to be taken a little at a time.

Ipê-roxo trees are principally threatened because o ranching, logging and ire.However, in remote regions or in regions where logging pressure is not yet high,trees can be threatened by a lack o knowledge regarding adequate techniques orharvesting the bark in a sustainable manner. Although the use o ipê-roxo bark hasincreased in recent years, there are ew studies evaluating the impact o bark collectionon the health o the trees. To generate basic in ormation about the extraction o ipê-roxo bark, the Acre government undertook a study o its regeneration. The objectiveswere to learn how the bark regenerates and whether larger trees regenerate bark

aster. Initial observations indicated that ipê-roxo has a potentially good capacity orregeneration: in two years, 40–50% o the extracted bark had grown back.

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Patricia Shanley and Lda Luz

Even with pharmacies on every street corner stocked with modern medicines, Braziliansrom upper, middle and lower social classes continue to buy medicinal roots, barks,

leaves, oils and resins rom native orests. Consumers say that traditional orest remediesare reliable, inexpensive and e ective in treating sicknesses such as rheumatism, arthritis,herpes and nervous system disorders or which there are still no adequate medicinesavailable in the pharmacy.8

Eighty percent o the people in the world regularly use plantsto treat common illnesses. In addition, many medicines sold inpharmacies contain substances that were originally discovered ina plant. Considering the proven e ectiveness o some traditionalmedicines, it is curious that scientists have not trans ormed moremedicinal plants into pill orm. The reason is that scientistssimply lack the expertise to isolate the active substances in thesechemically complex substances, such as copaíba oil, amapá andsucuúba latex, jatobá resin and pau d’arco bark.

Ranching, logging,arming and more

recently soy plantationshave trans ormed the Amazonian landscape,

reducing orest cover and changing speciescomposition in the orests that remain. Toensure that remedies continue to be available inthe uture it is essential to know which medicinalplants are most important, where they grow andin what requency.

Below are some valuable medicinal tree speciesextracted by loggers in Pará.

Common name Scienti ic name UsesCopaíbaAndirobaCumaruSucuúba JatobáAmapá, bitterPau d’arcoUcuúba

Copai eraspp.Carapa guianensisDipteryx odorataHimatanthus sucuubaHymenaea courbaniParahancornia asciculataTabebuia impetiginosaVirola michelii

deep wounds, natural antibioticsprains, rheumatism, insect repellentrheumatism, muscular painworms, herpes, uterine in ectiontonic, colds, expectorantrespiratory illnesses, tonicin lammations, tumours, ulcers

ever, hepatitis, generates scar tissue

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There is an ongoing debate about whether the most power ul natural remedies are ound inthe primary orest, secondary orest or growing like weeds by the wayside. Some scientistsargue that the most e ective medicinal plants are those that grow in tough conditions, oundin secondary growth orest or as invasive weeds.7 Others believe that the trees o tropical

orests, which struggle in warm climates against virulent insects and ungi, contain the mostpower ul remedies. To collect medicinal barks today, most eastern Amazonian collectorsin logging rontiers requent sawmills rather than orests. In Belém, a nine-year study o plants in the local markets showed that o the 211 medicinal plants being sold, 95 are nativeto Amazonia. O the 12 most popular plants sold rom 1994 to 2000, seven are native to the

orest, and o these seven plants, ive are currently harvested by the timber industry.9

Plantations Fields and roadsides Secondary growthforest

Terra firme forest

1guaraná(Paullinia cupana )

3amor-crescido ( Portulaca

pilosa ), mastruz

(Chenopodiumambrosioides ), quebra-pedra ( Phyllanthusniruri )

1sacaca ( Crotoncajucara )

7andiroba ( Carapa guianensis ),barbatimão ( Stryphnodendron

barbatiman ), copaíba ( Copaifera spp.), pau d’arco ( Tabebuiaimpetiginosa ), marapuama(Ptychopetalum olacoides ), sucuúba(Himatanthus sucuuba ), veronica(Dalbergia subcymosa )

Because o the increasing incidence o ire and logging, some medicinal species are gettingharder to ind, not only in the orest but also in the market. Species with high medicinalvalue are increasingly being extracted or their timber. Some species, such as ipê-roxo,amapá, copaíba and jatobá only occur in mature orest, in low densities and are notdomesticated. Rare in some areas, they are vulnerable to exploitation. A long-term studyo the ecology and e ects o logging on ipê indicates that this species is at risk and belongson the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species o Wild Faunaand Flora) list like mahogany.10

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Silvia GaluppoCampbell Plowden

Murilo SerraAnother powerful remedy used by both rural and urban populations is thebitter white latex which exudes from the amapá tree. Like pau d’arco, thereis a strong need for more ecological, phytochemical and ethnobotanicalresearch on this popularly used medicinal tree. It is traditionally used totreat respiratory conditions, gastritis and promotes the growth of scar tissue.Amapá is also used as an invigorating tonic, often by women after givingbirth. Recent studies have demonstrated the analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of two species of amapá (Parahancornia fasciculata and Brosimum parinarioides).11 Amapá’spowerful medicinal properties are widely known among Amazonians, and in 2005 it was one

of the most widely used natural medicines in Belém, with a total of 10 560 litres being sold.12 There are two groups o Amazonian trees with edible latex that are called amapá: bitter amapáand sweet amapá. The bitter group is composed o a ew species rom the botanical amilyApocyanaceae. Species rom this amily normally contain many types o alkaloids - strongchemical substances which can be e ective in ighting illnesses. The most common specieso bitter amapá isParahancornia asciculata. Some indigenous tribes in eastern Amazoniaalso use the latex rom the speciesCouma guianensis. The sweet amapá group is composedo species rom the genus Brosimum ( rom the Moraceae amily). Nutritional analysis o Brosimum parinarioidesdemonstrates the presence o calcium, iron and magnesium.13 Eventhough it is strong and widely used, many o its speci ic actions remain unknown.

Some collectors demonstrate a detailed knowledge o the ecology and anatomy o the treeand are using the same tool used to extract rubber rom the rubber tree or the purposeo extracting amapá latex. The use o this tool results in greater latex production and lessdamage to the trees. A distance o 32 cm between cuts and a minimum tree diameter o 27 cm or initial extraction also correlate with higher productivity over the long term.12 A number o di erent species o amapá are relatively tall trees that are ound in upland dryand looded orests where the average density may reach 26 trees/ha. Because the di erentvarieties o trees and latex may look similar, it is sometimes di icult to ascertain whichspecies o amapá is being used. Dishonest merchants may take latex rom a similar speciesand sell it as i it were the valued, medicinal species o amapá. To untangle the con usion,

some key di erences between the species are listed below.

Family Species Common name Leaves Flavour of latex

Apocyanaceae Parahancornia fasciculata bitter amapá small,opposed

very bitter, takenwith honey

Apocyanaceae Couma guianensis black amapá round bitterMoraceae Brosimum rubescens muirapiranga various types,

alternatingnot used

Moraceae Brosimum potabile amapáí small, slender,alternating

unpleasant

Moraceae Brosimum parinarioides sweet amapá large, thick,alternating good, taken withcow’s milk

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Campbell Plowden

As with pau d’arco, there are ew studies about theecology and physiological e ects o extracting latex o amapá. In one study in the indigenous area o Tembé,in Pará, the two main varieties o amapá (Parahancornia asciculataandCouma guianensis) had a combined densityo 3 trees/ha. The ruits o the amapá tree are big, have athick rind and are adored by monkeys. To harvest thelatex, trees were wounded with a 1 cm wide diagonal cuttwice a week or ive weeks during two successive yearsnear the end o the rainy season. In 1999,C. guianensis (called “black amapá”) yielded an average o 100 ml o latex during the irst cut, but the harvest declined to anaverage o 22 ml by the end o the experimental harvest.P. asciculatayielded an average o 19 ml during the irst cut,rose to a peak o 43 ml/tree then declined to an average o 28 ml/tree during the tenth and inal harvest. Some Tembé said that latex should notbe collected when the trees are bearing ruit since the latex is toxic then.14

Gloria Gaia

In the lively outdoor medicinal market in Belém, stalls display barks, roots, oliageand a brilliant array o colour ul liquids, oils and resins. Some o the bottles o whiteliquid are amapá. The merchants sell two types: bitter and sweet. In 2008, a bottle o 500 ml o bitter amapá cost between US$6 and US$9. The bitter amapá is used bymany people to treat malaria, worms, uterine in ections, gastritis, anaemia, respiratoryproblems and even tuberculosis. Recently, people have begun to use amapá to treat

cancer.

People in rural areas take a smallteaspoon o amapá milk irst thing inthe morning be ore eating, or eightdays. A terwards they wait one weekwithout taking it and, i needed, repeatthe treatment. Children always takeonly hal the dosage, a hal teaspoon.Amapá milk is never taken pure. It isalways mixed with water, milk, porridgeor co ee. Sweet amapá is used to restorethe energy o malnourished children.Usually, one tablespoon o sweet amapáis given twice a day.

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Ipê-roxo seeds are brown and have slender wings. The ruits are like green beans andneed to be collected when they change rom green to almost black, be ore they open anddisperse their seeds. The seeds do not go through a dormant period; it is recommendedto plant them within the irst 20 days a ter collection. Seeds germinate in two weeks andthe seedlings grow 5–75 cm/year in height. Once they are planted in the shade and thetrees reach more than 10 cm in diameter, their growth slows to 1–5 mm/year in diameter.One study illustrates that i le t in the shade, the majority die within the irst year andthe rest die in the second year.15 When cultivated, ipê-roxo develops very well in ull sun,both in single-species and mixed-species plantations.16 However, when not tended, ipê-roxo saplings can be overwhelmed by vines and competing trees, so periodic clearing o

competing vegetation is recommended or success ul plantings.Some people believe that the active medicinal substances o ipê-roxo are encountered insigni icant quantities in the bark when the tree is over 40 years old. There ore it is worththe e ort to look a ter older trees. When harvesting the bark, a ew techniques to protectthe tree’s vigour should be employed:

• Do not remove the bark rom young trees with diameters o less than 30 cm.• Do not remove a ring o bark around the trunk. This will kill the tree because the sap

that eeds the tree needs to pass through the bark.• The thinner the tree, the thinner the piece o bark that should be extracted, varying

rom 2 to 4 cm thick.• Avoid extraction during the reproductive cycle (floweringand fruiting). It is preferable to extract the bark after the seedsare dispersed; this way, you will avoid interfering with thetree’s reproductive cycle and allow new trees to grow.

• Remove rectangular pieces of bark in a vertical line going upthe trunk: the long sides of the rectangle along the length of the tree, the short sides along the width of the tree. The barkshould be removed at chest height and above.

• After extraction, be careful to avoid contaminating thesection where the bark was removed with fungi, termites andother types of insects that interfere with its regeneration. It isworthwhile to observe and evaluate the regrowth of the barkeach year to see how the tree reactsto the cut.

germination2 weeks to

1 month

growthseedlings: 5–75 cm

height/yeartrees: < 1–5 mmdiameter/year

seed productionat 30–50 cmin diameter

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Timber rom the ipê-roxo is so valuable that the ipê would seem to be the ideal species tomanage. Indeed, ipê accounted or 9% o all timber exports rom Brazil in 2004 and is themost common tropical species in the US$3 billion residential decking market in the UnitedStates o America.17 However, it is one o the trickiest species to harvest rom orests ina sustainable manner. Ipê-roxo presents two major obstacles or managing: irst, saplingsgrow sparsely in the orest and thus cannot replace the adults which are extracted; andsecond, the growth rate is relatively slow: one plant can take up to 100 years to grow intoan adult. Because ipê-roxo trees grow less than 2 mm/year in diameter on average, a 2-m(2 000-mm) diameter giant is likely to be many centuries old.18

Logging operations typically cut down all o theadult trees in the orest, leaving ew parent trees toproduce seeds or the next generation and ew youngtrees to take the place o the adults that were cut. Themethod used or harvesting ipê-roxo makes about asmuch sense as taking all o the money out o a savingsaccount and hoping that in 30 years the balance o zero will somehow have generated enough interest topermit another withdrawal. There is no chance o thishappening. For this reason, ipê-roxo is one o the mostthreatened species in Amazonia. Be ore cutting it downit is vital to consider the many bene its this tree can

o er over the long term.

1 Schulze, M.et al.2005 / Schulze, M. 20082 Oliveira, A.C.A. 20003 Lentini, M., Pereira, D., Veríssimo, A., 2005/ Schulze, M.et al.2008a4 Secretaria de Estado da Fazenda, 2008, www.se a.pa.gov.br5

www.aliceweb.desenvolvimento.gov.br6 Lübeck, W. 19957 Stepp, J.R. and Moerman, D.E. 20018 Shanley, P. and Luz, L. 20039 Galuppo, S.C. 200410 Schulze, M.et al.2008a11 Souza, M.C.L.et al . 2003 / Projeto Dendrogene, Embrapa-Amazonia Oriental.12 Serra, M.et al. 2010.13 Galuppo, S.C. 200414 Plowden, C. 200115 Schulze, M. 200316 Schulze, M. 200817 SECEX, 2005 / USDA-FAS 200818 Schulze, M.et al.2008b

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Hymenaea courbaril L.

Patricia ShanleyMark Schulze

The irst-rate wood, curative bark, edible ruits and golden resin o the jatobá tree o er anoutstanding assortment o uses or rural and urban amilies. The bark contains propertiesthat ight the common cold, bronchitis and diarrhoea, and tea rom the bark serves as atonic to strengthen the body a ter an illness. The wood is extremely durable and or thisreason it was used to make railroad ties or the Carajás mine in Pará, which carried someo the heaviest loads o iron in South America. Jatobá’s resin, known as jutaicica, can alsobe used as medicine. During times o con lict, Indians used the resin on the points o theirarrows to set ire to enemy villages. And inally, jatobá produces edible ruits that arebeloved by local people, though little known outside o orest communities.

Jatobá is a tall tree, rom 30 to 40 m, and has a straight trunk, reaching approximately 2 min diameter (about 5 m in circum erence). The bark can grow up to 3 cm thick. Jatobá iswidely distributed throughout Mexico, Central and South America, extending all the way

to Paraguay. It grows in terra irme orests and occasionally in tall várzea orests, and canalso be ound in poor and sandy soils.

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The jatobá tree lowers in the dry season and bears ruit 3–4 months later. In Pará, jatobálowers rom March through May and bears ruit rom August through October. In

Central Amazonia, it produces ruit rom February to September1 and in Acre, rom Mayto September.2

Jatobá is widely distributed but rare (less than 1 tree/ha) throughout most o its range.Its abundance is diminishing because o the timber trade. It is exported as well as used

domestically.

Production varies greatly. Jatobá does not usually produceruit every year; it o ten rests one year and produces the

next. While some trees produce very little, others canproduce up to 2 000 ruits, with each ruit containing 2–4seeds. In any given year, 15–90% o the adult trees in apopulation may produce ruits.

Jatobá bark is approximately 40% water. O 100 kg o bark, roughly 60 kg will be drymaterial. One tree typically produces about 15 kg o resin.

In 2009, in the Ver-o-Peso market in Belém, one jatobá ruit was sold or US$0.10, asopposed to US$0.03 in 2004. A litre o resin now costs US$3 and 1 kg o bark US$2,whereas in 2004, these cost US$1.50 and US$1 respectively. In Rio Branco, in 2002,the municipal market and the medicinal plant shops sold a 100 g bag o jatobá bark orUS$0.70. Jatobá wood is one o the most prized on the international market. In 2008, 1 m3

o sawn jatobá timber sold or US$336 domestically.3

Sawn wood sold or export can etchmuch more and in 2004 was almost US$400/m3.4

0.05 trees/ha 2.5 trees/alqueire

an average of about800 fruits/tree

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Jatobá 93

Rocio Ruiz and Nívea Marcondes,CTA, Acre

Not only can timber and ruit makemoney, but also orest seeds. Withthe rise in de orestation in Brazil,there has been a corresponding rise indemand or hardwood seeds to assistcompanies who need to meet ederalre orestation regulations. A study inRio Branco in 2005 illustrated that 1kg o jatobá seeds (300 seeds) was sold

or US$4. It is revealing to comparethe price o a standing tree to the priceo its seeds: at US$3/m3, the averagetree is worth less than US$21 in Acre,

ar less than a single crop o seeds,which may yield 10–15 kg. In additionto seeds rom the jatobá tree, seeds

rom many other species like cerejeira( Amburana acreana), copaíba, cumaru(Dipteryx odorata), ipê-amarelo (Tabebuia serrati olia) and maçaranduba (Manilkarahuberi) also etch high prices at the market. In Acre, the Technology Foundation (Funtac)

markets 11 seed varieties, with plans to increase this number. Seeds are a particularly use ulcommodity in more isolated regions, as they are easier to transport than timber.

Jatobá(Hymenaeacourbaril )

Ipê-amarelo(Tabebuia

serrati olia)

Maçaranduba(Manilkara huberi)

Price paid tocollector/kg o

seeds

US$4 US$25 US$4

Price paid/m3 o timber (standingtrees)

US$3 US$3 US$3

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Fruit: The ruit can be eaten raw or used to make lour. It is believed toalleviate pulmonary problems.

Bark: A tea made rom the bark is used in certain areas to combat thecommon cold, diarrhoea, bronchitis, cystitis, pulmonary congestion, worms,weakness, bladder in ections and cramps, as well as to aid in digestion andto treat prostate cancer. In addition, the bark and ruit can be used to ightcoughs: just suck and chew on a piece like a lozenge.

Sap: When cut, jatobá excretes a valuable red sap. It can be used as fuel,medicine, vegetable varnish and sealant for canoes. Care should be takenwhen extracting the sap with a machete, as this can damage the tree. Liquid

sap turns into solid resin (locally called jutaicica) upon contact with oxygen.Resin: Called jutaicica, this golden resin is usually ound at the base o thetree, oozing rom holes in the bark made by insects, or orming in hard,transparent balls on allen trees. Farmers sometimes ind chunks o jutaicicain their ields where jatoba trees once grew. These are gathered and chewedto alleviate gas and stomach aches.5 Jutaicica can be burned and used asan inhalant or colds and headaches. Jutaicica is also an excellent varnish,particularly or clay pots.

Wood: Hard, heavy and highly valued in the exportmarket, jatobá wood is used in civil construction inthe cities and used for making canoes in the country.It has outstanding value because of its durability,which is comparable to maçaranduba, jarana (Lecythislurida) and other hard and resistant woods. Jatobá isexceptional because it does not splinter.

Game: Hunters wait or game (such as tapirs, pacas and monkeys) beneaththe jatobá when the ruits are alling.

Leaves: The leaves possess a terpenoid, a chemical substance that kills ungiand repels ants and lizards. The leaves merit urther study.

To make jatobá tea or colds or as a tonic, boil three ingers o bark (20 g) in 1 litre o wateror 15 minutes. Take one cup o tea three times a day.6 The bark can also be used to make

tinctures, lozenges or syrups.

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Jatobá 95

Be care ul! Jatobá bark is very similar to other barks thatare extremely toxic. Jatobá is o ten con used with jutaí (Hymenaea parvi olia) and the jutaí-da- olha-grande (long-leaved jutaí) (Hymenaea oblongi olia). However, there arenoticeable di erences: common jutaí has hard, leatheryleaves, its trunk is less red and its bark is iner than that o jatobá. It is easier to di erentiate big-leaved jutaí because itsleaves are much larger and its trunk is redder than jatobá.

The ruit is composed o 2–4 seeds (25–40% o its weight), surrounded by a sticky whitepulp (only 5–10%) encased in a pod (50–70%). The protein value o jatobá lour is similarto corn and superior to arinha. One hundred grams o the ruit supplies 115 calories,29.4 g o glycides and 33 mg o vitamin C.7

Lênio José Guerreiro de Faria

Researchers rom the Laboratory or theEngineering o Natural Products, at theFederal University o Pará, discovered thatpowder made rom jatobá ruits can beused as a coagulator in the process o trans orming latex rom the rubber tree(seringa) into solid rubber. The standardprocess or removing the liquid romlatex uses centri uges, which require large

quantities o energy. In contrast, using jatobá powder does not require any energy,as the powder concentrates the liquidand separates it rom the rubber. A ewcommunities have already tested the use o jatobá or making rubber.

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Scrape the seeds with a kni e to obtain the pulp. Next,grind the pulp with a mortar and pestle or blender andthen si t. The lour that is produced can be used to makecakes, biscuits, breads and liquors.

Ingredients:– Milk, pulp, sugar, cinnamon

Preparation:Remove the pulp rom the seeds. In a pan, mix the pulpand the milk. Add sugar and cinnamon to taste and heatthe mixture over a stove until it thickens. Serve warm.

Ingredients:– 2 cups jatobá lour– 3 cups wheat lour– 2 tablespoons yeast– 1 tablespoon sugar– 3 tablespoons oil– 1 teaspoon salt– 2 cups warm water

Preparation:Dissolve yeast in warm water in a large bowl or 10 minutes. Gradually add the wheat and jatobá lour. Knead the mixture well on a cutting board or table. I necessary, add more

lour until the dough becomes irm. Return the dough to the bowl and cover or two hours

in a warm place without draughts, like an oven. Next, return the dough to the cuttingboard and knead well. Leave the bread to rise or another 30 minutes in a bread pan. Bakein a hot oven or 30 minutes.

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Jatobá 97

Deer, paca, agouti and monkeys eat jatobáruits. Monkeys are capable o knocking

down quite a ew ruit when they are inthe trees. Just like us, they bang the ruiton the branches or exposed roots to openit. Tapir8 and paca eat the ruits and scatterthe seeds throughout the orest, helpingto disperse the species to new areas.

Margaret Cymerys

Forests are critical ecosystems or wildli e, o ering them ood and shelter; as orests aredestroyed, wildli e habitats are threatened. Some species o animals can survive in loggedand burnt over secondary orests, while others cannot. For example, tapirs, white-lippedpeccaries and some primates are generally not ound outside tall primary orests. Manybirds including the large razor-billed curassow (Mitu tuberosum) that eat ruit and seedsare also only seen in the primary orest.

Other animals like paca, agouti, sloth and deer can livein secondary or primary orest and tend to remain inlogged, armed areas and areas that have su ered ires.The pie chart below shows where animals were capturedby hunters in a community along the Capim River inPará. The majority o the game animals were capturedin primary orest (82%), demonstrating the importanceo this habitat to wildli e and local livelihoods.9 Withoutprimary orests, wildli e diversity will diminish and it willno longer be possible to witness magni icent Amazonianwildli e like the harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and theocelot ( Felis pardalis).

Percentage o captures/habitat

Field, river, garden (5.7%)

Primary forest (82.1%)

Secondary forest (12.2%)

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Jatobá regeneration is exceedingly limited, perhaps owing to high predation o itsseeds or because the majority o seedlings die within a ew months in the shaded orestunderstorey.10 However, given the multiple values o this tree, it is worthwhile to care

or standing trees and to plant new ones. Growth and ruit production o standing trees,particularly smaller individuals, can be increased by cutting vines that compete or light inthe tree crown and cause broken limbs, and by selectively removing trees o less valuablespecies that are directly competing or resources.11 To plant, remove the pulp rom theseeds and place them in pans in a shady, well-ventilated place. Seed dormancy can bebroken by scraping their exteriors or by dropping them quickly in hot water and thentrans erring them immediately to cold water. A ter scari ication, seeds germinate in oneweek. Cans, baskets or plastic bags with small holes in them can be used as receptacles orthe seeds. Plant one seed per receptacle, 5 cm deep in the soil. Place the receptacles in thesun and water twice daily.

When the plant reaches 25 cm, transplant it to a permanent location that receives a lot o light (at the orest edge or in gaps in the orest canopy), pre erably in the rainy season. Mixchicken manure, horse manure or corn husks in the soil around the hole where the plantsare to be placed, making sure the planting holes are large enough or the growing rootsto breathe com ortably.12 When trans erring the seedlings, be sure not to break the clumpo soil that surrounds the roots. Alternatively, scari ied seeds can be planted directly in

orest openings and tended by periodically cutting back competing vegetation.10 Becauseo their high value, many armers take care not to disturb jatobá sprouts in the ground

when they tend their crops. They protect the seedlings until they are large enough to betransplanted.

germination20–180 days, or oneweek when scarified

growth0.5 m to more than

1 m/year

production40 years in forest gap

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Jatobá 99

In 2003, mahogany was recognized as a species threatened with extinction by predatorylogging in the majority o areas where it occurs. Mahogany extraction is now regulatedby legislation that speci ies how the species is to be managed and the quantity o timberthat can legally be harvested. The mature populations o jatobá and mahogany are equallythreatened by predatory logging, and neither regenerates well in disturbed orests.Recovery o jatobá populations rom a single timber harvest may take more than 100 years,even under the best o conditions.13 Because

ew small trees and seedlings o mahoganyand jatobá are present in a typical orest,when 90% or more o the adults are loggedin a typical operation, it has an enormouse ect on the populations o mahoganyand jatobá alike.14 However, jatobá di ers

rom mahogany in that it has medicinal aswell as timber value. Un ortunately, jatobáis still not legally protected and continuesto be threatened by overexploitation inthe majority o Amazonia. In addition toa ecting the long-term supply o wood,unsustainable harvesting will also reducethe availability o jatobá’s irreplaceablemedicinal products.

Although jatobá was little known outsidethe Amazon until recently, the wood isincreasingly marketed to the United States

o America and Europe (sometimes as‘Brazilian Cherry’) or use in urniture andlooring. In the mid-1990s, the ‘discovery’o

Mariella Revilla

Alexandre Dias de SouzaTake care when removing jatobá bark. A study in Acreshowed that the bark has limited potential or regrowth.Although 40–50% o ipê bark regenerates a ter twoyears, only 10% o jatobá bark grew back. Jatobá barkregenerates slowly because it is attacked by insects,primarily bees, which eed on its resin. Most barkcollectors throughout the state o Pará now requentsawmills where they are able to collect substantialquantities o bark rom the jatobá timber that is beingprocessed.

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jatobá timber by importing countries caused it to jump rom the class o a low-valuespecies, only worth harvesting rom orests near sawmills, to the class o an export speciesin high demand. By 2004, jatobá had become one o the more valuable timbers in theAmazon, intensively harvested rom orests across the basin.3 In the United States o America market alone, the value o jatobá imports exceeded US$13 million in 2007 – theirst year jatobá lumber imports were recorded separately rom other tropical species –and are on pace to surpass US$40 million in 2008.15 With this market accounting or 30%o timber exports rom the Amazon, total exports may well exceed US$100 million. Incontrast to the globally marketed timber, medicines derived rom jatobá bark and sap areprimarily marketed and used locally. However, local populations o ten bene it more rom jatobá medicines than rom selling logging rights to timber companies, which pay onlya tiny raction o the timber value to the landowner (a tree sold to loggers or as littleas US$50 can yield more than US$600 worth o sawnwood).3 While Jatobá looring and

urniture is o high value to consumers, and jatobá logging can be enormously pro itable,the jatobá tree may bring more value to local communities when le t standing.

1 Clay, J.W.; Sampaio, P.B. & Clement, C.R. 19992 Almeida, S.C.B. 19993 Secretaria de Estado da Fazenda 20084 Lentini, M., Pereira, D. & Veríssimo, A. 20055 Levi-Straus, C. 19976 Shanley, P.; Höhn, I. and Silva, A.V. 19967 IBGE, 19998 Oglethorpe, Jet al . 19979 Cymerys, M., Shanley, P. & Luz, L. 199710 11 Schulze, M. 2003.12 FAO 198713

14 15

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Swietenia macrophyllaKing

James Grogan

Perhaps more than any other tree, mahogany connects Amazonian orests to the worldoutside through its gorgeous, durable wood. Many loggers have penetrated the heart o the

orest in search o this valuable wood, o ten re erred to as ‘green gold’. Mahogany treesare easy to identi y rom the ground owing to their massive buttresses, up to 5 m high.Mahogany orms a broad crown rom a ew large branches, with leaves that shine like noothers in the orest. It is distributed in southern and western Amazonia and in the orestsalong the Atlantic coast o Central America. Mahogany should be treated well as its timberis valued at our times the price o any other wood.

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Mahogany lowers in the Amazon between July and November, rom the middle o thedry season until the beginning o the rainy season. Fruit reach ull size in the crown bythe middle o the rainy season, but the seeds inside are mature only at the beginning o the

ollowing dry season, rom May to August. Fruit capsules pop open as the tree drops someor all o its leaves early in the dry season, and the wind disperses the winged seeds.

Mahogany occurs at low densities in South America compared to Central America andMexico. In southwest Amazonia, in the Brazilian state o Acre, Peru, and northwestBolivia, densities are typically one tree in 5–20 ha where mahogany occurs, or on averageabout 0.1 tree/ha. It occurs more requently in southeast Amazonia in the Brazilian stateo Pará, along the banks o seasonal streams and smaller rivers at densities up to 2.5 trees/ha and even up to 6 trees/ha in local groups. But these populations were nearly completelylogged out during the ‘mahogany rush’ o the 1980s and 1990s.

Viewing a map o South America, mahogany’sdistribution looks like a great whale with its headstarting in Pará, Brazil, its body passing acrosssouthern Amazonia and its tail rising up west andnorth towards the Atlantic Ocean, covering partso Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia andVenezuela. In Central America, mahogany canbe ound along the Atlantic coast, rom Panamato Mexico. Some researchers believe that it iswidely distributed in Mexico and Bolivia becausehurricanes and loods have allowed mahogany to

lourish in these regions by opening large swathso orest or regeneration.1

0.1 trees/ha 0.5 trees/alqueire

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Mahogany, mogno 103

Mahogany produces two valuable commodities: extremely beauti ulwood (easy-to-work and prized by people all over the world) andseeds.

Mahogany trees begin to lower and ruit annually when they areabout 30 cm in diameter, though even smaller trees are capable o producing ruit. The rate o ruit production generally increases asthe tree grows in diameter, though some small trees are capable o producing many ruit, and some large trees rarely produce ruit atall. High ruit production or a tree 30–70 cm in diameter is around50 ruit capsules. Trees larger than 70 cm in diameter may produceup to 200 ruit in a single year, though this is rare (the most ruit ever counted on a singletree were 780 on a 132 cm diameter tree in Acre). Fruit production by individual trees andby groups o trees varies widely rom year to year, as trees o ten “rest” between years withheavy ruit set.

A single ruit contains up to 60 large, winged seeds, but on average only 35–45 o thesewill germinate. Fruit size may vary considerably, both within a tree’s crown and amongdi erent trees. Larger ruit produce larger seeds that are more likely to germinate and willproduce larger seedlings. Even though most seeds ly less than 100 m rom the parent tree,they are di icult to collect on the ground once dispersed, and they quickly lose the abilityto germinate once exposed to the elements. The seeds are best collected rom the crown,be ore the ruit capsule bursts open, by using proper tree-climbing equipment and an

extendable pruning pole to sever the ruit where it attaches to the tree’s smallest branches.The larger branches should not be cut just to bring down a ew ruit – this will reduce ruitproduction in years to come.

300SEEDSUS$4

2 360SEEDSUS$2

56FRUITSUS$4

2 500SEEDSUS$50

A cooperative o communities near Brasiléia in Acre, called Nossa Senhora daFátima, collects mahogany seeds and seeds rom other valuable timber species to sellpro itably throughout Amazonia. The cooperative employs community memberswho are trained as tree climbers and collectors. One kilogram o mahogany seedscontains between 2 000 and 3 000 seeds a ter the wings have been removed. It takesabout 50–75 ruit capsules at 40 seeds/capsule to produce 1 kg o cleaned seeds. In

2000, this cooperative earned about US$50/kg or the mahogany seeds that theycollected, dried and packaged or sale.

an average of3 000 seeds/tree

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Mahogany is the most valuable timber species in the Brazilian Amazon, worth up toour times the value o its nearest competitor. One cubic metre o irst-quality sawn

mahogany – imagine a solid cube o stacked mahogany planks, 1 m wide by 1 m long by1 m tall – is worth about US$1 800 when it departs the docks o Belém or Paranaguá or theUnited States o America or Europe. A single large tree, 80 cm in diameter or a bit largerthan 250 cm in circum erence, on average can produce more than 2 m3 o sawn timberworth about US$4 100 i the wood is o high quality. However, smallholder armers andIndigenous Peoples who sell mahogany trees to loggers rarely receive more than US$6–24/tree, i they receive any money at all. Similarly, mateiros (woodsmen) who search the orest

or mahogany, chainsaw operators who ell the trees, and logging crews who drag the treesout o the orest and transport them to the nearest sawmill are poorly paid. In act, mosto the tree’s value goes to the middlemen who inance mahogany’s harvest, processing and

resale to oreign buyers.2

(US$)

Farmer Logger Internationalbuyer

Value of the sale 24 1 400 17 700Costs 0 800 12 400Earnings 24 600 5 300

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Mahogany, mogno 105

Mahogany is highly valued because its wood combines many rare qualities. It has abeauti ul colour and grain; it is lightweight yet exceedingly strong and resistant to rot;and it has excellent workability – just ask any carpenter. For these reasons, it is a luxurywood used throughout the world

or producing high-priced urniture,panelling, musical instruments andyachts. Mahogany’s extraordinaryvalue has pushed loggers into theheart o Amazonia where peoplehave never heard a chainsaw be ore.The loggers ly in, using smallplanes to spot mahogany crowns

in orests ar rom the nearest roador settlement. Loggers will try tobuy trees cheaply unless landownerslearn to negotiate air prices.

In the sixteenth century, a tertheSpanish arrived in Centraland South America, theydiscovered that mahoganywas a superior wood forshipbuilding than theEuropean timbers used upuntil that time. It resisted rotin warm, tropical waters andhad the enormous advantageof not splintering when hitby cannonballs, absorbing

the impact without shattering and injuring sailors with flying wooden shrapnel. When theEnglish defeated the Spanish Armada in a great naval battle in the sixteenth century, their

main prize was the Spanish fleet, built largely out of mahogany.The English are primarily responsible or the modern-day useo mahogany as a luxury wood in urniture. They discoveredin the eighteenth century that mahogany’s great strengthallowed massive bureaus and wardrobes to be built on legsso thin and delicate that they looked insu icient to bear theirweight. This style was so popular that even the royal amilyinsisted on having urniture built rom mahogany.3

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By shopping or and requesting certi ied sustainable orest products, consumers can helpcommunities and governments maintain unctioning orest ecosystems. Although nearlyevery North American and European has heard o mahogany, how many consumersknow where this timber comes rom, and at what cost? Since the 1970s, mahogany hasbeen under intense exploitation pressure to supply international consumers, leading tocommercial extinction across most o its range in South America. Mahogany receivedadditional protection when it was listed on CITES (Convention on International Tradein Endangered Species) Appendix II in 2003, but this is no guarantee that signi icantnatural populations will survive in the wild.4 More than any other Amazonian resource,including gold, mahogany has catalysed the invasion o previously unexploited orests andIndigenous Areas across Amazonia by loggers, ranchers and industrial armers.

The majority o mahogany is logged illegally, extracted rom uninhabited governmentlands and indigenous areas hundreds or even thousands o kilometres rom the nearestlegally registered management plan. O ten loggers ell every mahogany tree they can ind,including trees too small to harvest legally and large hollow trees with no commercial value(but that still lower and produce seeds each year). Predatory logging ignores sustainablemanagement guidelines that require the retention o small trees to provide uture harvestsand large ‘mother’ trees to produce and disperse seeds representing uture generations o mahogany trees.5

Yet mahogany could also represent the vanguard o positive change in Amazonia. I consumers demanded certi ied orest products, oresters and governments alike would

have an incentive to sustainably manage their orests. By ar the most valuable timber treein Amazonia, mahogany could provide great incentive or management plans that allowor continued commercialization while maintaining healthy populations o trees in theorest, thus ensuring harvests or generations to come.

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Mahogany, mogno 107

Mahogany seeds will germinate within 2–4 weeksonce they have been watered. Break o the wingsand plant the seeds tip down in well-draining

soil ( or example, sandy soil), nearly but not quiteburied. In the nursery, use black polyvinyl planting

bags 10–12 cm in diameter by 30 cm deep to allow the seedlingto root deeply. It’s best to try to use the same kind o soil inthe nursery that the seedling will encounter in the orest a terplanting. Keep the soil damp, but not too wet, or else seedswill catch ungal in ections and die. The best overhead coveris hal shade using a single layer o babaçu or inajá leavessuspended about 2 m over the plantings.

Once the seeds begin to germinate, the seedlings will sprout leaves quickly, standing 15–25cm tall, with 4–8 simple leaves. They will rest or about a month be ore producing newleaves again – some o these will be compound leaves, and i the seedling is healthy, it cangrow 10–15 cm during the second lush. The best time to plant seedlings into orest gaps orinto agricultural clearings is a ter the second batch o leaves has sprouted. Prune o all butthe highest our or ive leaves to reduce heat and water stress when planting in bright sun.

Dig a hole the exact size o the seedling bag with a posthole digger and slide the seedlingsoil core into this hole intact, makingsure to re-establish soil contact betweenthe seedling and the orest soil.

It is also possible to plant mahoganyseeds directly into gaps and agriculturalclearings, especially in areas that havebeen cleared by burning, as the burnedareas o er reduced root and above-ground competition. Keep seeds drya ter collecting them, because there isa tendency or moulds and ungi todamage them without any sign o attack.

germination2–4 weeks after

wetting the seeds

growth1–2 m/year

in the first years

seed productionwhen the trunk reaches

30 cm in diameter

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Wait until a ter the rainy season has begun to plant seeds, so they will germinate morequickly. This will reduce the time they are exposed to orest animals, like rats and agoutis,and to insects that eat or damage seeds. I possible, loosen the soil be ore planting to about30 cm depth with a posthole digger, re ill the hole, and then plant the seed at the soilsur ace. Plant two or three seeds per site to make sure at least one survives to germinate andgrow. Later, i necessary, weed out the small or less vigorous seedlings. Mahogany growsespecially well beside dead trees or palm stumps that do not sprout.

Mahogany seedlings pre er a lot o light – the more the better. Plant seeds or seedlings asnear as possible to clearing centres, at a spacing o 8–10 m. It is best to orient a long clearingeast-to-west so that the sun will pass overhead longer during the day.

Mahogany is capable o growing very ast under theright conditions – in a clearing with lots o sunlight,in ertile soil and without vines smothering its crown.Some seedlings can grow up to 2–3 m/year during the

irst years. Secondary vegetation growing near theseedlings can help them hide rom the shoot borermoth, whose larval caterpillars eat expanding stemtissues and destroy the sapling’s straight-as-an-arrow

orm. It is also good to plant mahogany at low densityand widely spaced, so that one ast-growing seedlingdoes not attract the shoot borer to its slower-growingneighbours.

Mahogany needs care, but not too much. Once mahogany is growing well in small- tomedium-sized clearings, it needs tending only every two or three years. Vines shouldbe cut i they’ve climbed onto its crown, and competing trees can be cut i they arecasting too much shade on the mahogany trees. In the long term, these e orts may bewell compensated. Mahogany is likely to be much more valuable by the time the nextgenerations – your children, and their children – wish to cash in.

1 Snook, L.K. 1996 / Gullison, R.E.et al . 19962 Veríssimo, A.et al . 19953

Ra les, H. 20024 Blundell, A.G. 2004 or Grogan, J. & Barreto, P. 20055 Grogan, J., Barreto, P. & Veríssimo, A. 2002

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Caryocar villosum(Aubl.) Pers.

Patricia Shanley Jurandir Galvão

Margaret Cymerys

The piquiá is a majestic tree that can reach astonishing heights o 40–50 m. It has a trunko up to 2.5 m in diameter (over 5 m in circum erence) and an enormous crown thatis easily spotted in the orest. It can be ound throughout Amazonia, with the greatestconcentrations in upland orests o the large estuary region.1 The grape ruit-size, tawny

ruit all reely rom the tree. Children scoop them up to bring home, as the yellow, oily,rich pulp o piquiá must be boiled be ore eaten. Although not sweet, the savoury ruit areappreciated by Amazonian amilies who delight in their unusual scent and lavour.2 Thewood’s interlaced ibres provide extra resilience, giving it a superior quality and making ita avourite or boatbuilding. Rich in carbohydrates and protein, piquiá lowers are a prized

ood source or orest animals. When the tree is in lower, avid hunters place small huntingstands near the tree to wait or game to arrive and nibble at the thousands o large goldenyellow lowers scattered on the ground.

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In Pará, the piquiá tree produces lowers in the dry season, rom August until October,and ruit during the rainy season, rom February until April. The leaves may all either inthe beginning o the lowering season or as the ruit begin to appear on the tree.

Higher densities, rom 2–7 trees/ha, occur in some regions, possibly because o indigenousmanagement.

Most piquiá trees do not produce ruit every year. Manytrees rest one year and produce the next. Over a ive-yearperiod along the Capim River (1993–1998), between 20%and 33% o 100 piquiá trees produced ruits each year.3

In Boa Vista, a 45-minute boat ride rom Belém, localshave managed piquiá and other ruit trees or generations.One grand old tree there is called Queen Piquiá or theexceptionally lavoursome ruit she produces. Piquiátrees are renowned or producing both bitter and “sweet”

ruit. Consumers warn that it is use ul to know your ruitmerchant so that you can be sure to purchase deliciouspiquiá.

0.4–0.6 trees/ha 2–3 trees/alqueire

an annual average of350 fruits/tree

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Piquiá 111

During the lowering season, piquiá trees blanket the earth below them with thousandso lovely yellow lowers, encircling the tree and mirroring the crown above. Each lowerhas a bouquet-like centre with hundreds o long, thin stamens. During one season, a treein the Capim region tossed 14 000 lowers/day, approximately 120 000 lowers over thewhole season. However, a multitude o lowers does not necessarily indicate that a tree willproduce a multitude o ruit. This impressive lower production resulted in approximately400 ruit. Another individual tossed 2 600 lowers and produced only 45 ruit, while adi erent tree with 1 700 lowers produced 40 ruit. Yet another tossed 10 261 lowersand produced 300 ruit. Still, scouting out which trees are producing lowers each yearcan o er a good idea as to which trees may bear ruit. But anticipating how many ruit isdi icult. As Antonino rom the Capim River region says, “Piquiá has a secret that no oneis able to discover.” The average ruit production o 100 piquitrees varied substantiallyover a our-year period.3

At the beginning o the harvest in January 2009, piquiá ruit in the Ver-o-Peso marketwas selling or US$ 0.40 each. During the same time rame in 2008, one small ruit at thismarket cost US$0.30 and a large one cost US$0.50. In 1998, one piquiá ruit in the Belémoutdoor market etched between US$0.13 and US$0.40. In 2004, in Belém’s 28 major openair markets, about 343 000 piquiás were sold; in Ver-o-Peso alone, 108 000 piquiás weresold. During 2004, the sale o the ruit generated approximately US$47 3004. In 2008, a litreo piquiá oil sold or US$21.

Piquiá wood is exceptional or boatbuilding.Consequently, the occurrence o piquiá trees near boatactories has declined. Piquiá is also avoured by rural

communities or building canoes and is o ten cut downalong riversides. To ensure a supply o ruit without along walk to the orest, it is use ul or rural amilies toconserve some trees near the village. One Capim amilykeeps a big piquiá about 500 m rom their house. Thechildren o the amily, Neca, Antônia, Simeão and Jaime,know when the ruits are in season and run throughthe orest to be the irst to collect them. In the month

o March alone, the amily ate 868 piquiá ruits. I they had bought these in the closest armers’ market o Paragominas, the ruit would cost about US$400.

194129

38

126

1994 1995 1996 1997

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Fruit: The pulp can be boiled in salted water. The most delicious piquiá arefragrant with bright yellow pulp. Underneath the pulp, there is a layer of slender,sharp spines, so it is critical to be careful when biting into a fruit. To attractcustomers, merchants sometimes open the thick brown rind of the piquiá toreveal the golden pulp inside.

Wildli e: The lowers attract many species o animals, especially paca, agouti,deer, coati and armadillo.

Wood: The wood o the piquiá is o high quality –compact, heavy, slow to decompose and use ul

or pieces with large dimensions. Piquiá wood is

prominent in the construction and boatbuildingindustries and is o ten used or rein orcing theinternal structure o riverboats. In rural villages,canoes carved o piquiá have the advantage o lasting up to ten years. A canoe o piquiá can be packed ull o orest ruits,sacks o manioc lour, bananas and a large amily without trepidation, owingto both its stability and the reliability o the natural para in sealant typicallyused as a inish. Fences and gates to corral cattle may be constructed o piquiábecause it is water resistant and does not splinter easily.

Oil: The oil rom the pulp o piquiá can be used in cooking and is especiallygood or rying ish.Seed: The seeds are an excellent source o nutrition; the seed’s oil has potentialutility in the cosmetics industry.

Rind: The rind is rich in tannins. It can be used as a substitute or the oak gallin the making o ink as well as to dye hammocks and yarn. The rind can alsobe used to make soap.

Piquiá is an excellent source o calories and energy. The ruit is composed o 65% rind,30% pulp and 5% seed. The pulp is 72% oil, 3% protein, 14% ibre and 11% othercarbohydrates. Piquiá lowers are also rich in nutrition, o ering wildli e an excellent oodsource. The lowers are composed o 71% carbohydrates, 8% protein and 3% at.

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Piquiá 113

During a good harvest year, Senhorinha o the village o Nanaí, Pará, was able togather so many ruits that she could extract all the oil she needed or the entireyear. “Making our own piquiá oil means that we don’t spend money that wedon’t have,” she explains. To extract the oil, Senhorinha suggests the ollowing:Let the ruits ripen or three or our days. When so t, boil them or one hour andpour out the water. The next day, grate and knead the pulp well, cooking overa low lame without water. Finally, take the pulp out bit by bit as the oil melts.Three dozen piquiá can produce approximately 2.5 litres o oil.

Ingredients:– 1 18-litre can o peeled piquiá– 5 litres o water– 500 g o caustic soda– 50 g o para in or silicate– linen sacks– 1 large empty can– 1 wooden spoon

– several wooden boxes

Preparation:

Dissolve the caustic soda in water. Leave the piquiá ruit to soak in this mixture or 12hours. Next, remove the rinds with a wooden spoon. Mix the piquiá, water and causticsoda together until they orm a dough-like texture. Add the para in bit by bit. When thesoap is a good consistency, spoon it into the wooden boxes and wrap the boxes withinlinen sacks. Let the soap rest or 12 hours, and then cut it into bars. Always remember thatthe caustic soda is toxic and direct contact should be avoided. The can used to contain thecaustic soda and water should not be reused or other purposes.

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Piquiá 115

The amount o game captured beneath ruit trees during one season (September 1993–August 1994) in the Capim Region o Pará shows how important lowers and ruit are orthe nourishment o wildli e and people.

Tree Number of animals Total weight

Piquiá 18

4

4

1

1

pacas

red brocket deer

nine-banded long-nosed armadillos

seven-banded long-nosed armadillo

agouti

232 kg

Copaíba 1

1

red brocket deer

yellow-footed tortoise

63 kg

Tatajuba 7 yellow-footed tortoises

1 red brocket deer

1 agouti

60 kg

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Inga 2 pacas

2 agouti

1 collared peccary

1 brown-throated, three-toed sloth

1 mealy parrot

40 kg

Uxi 3

1

1

1

nine-banded long-nosed armadillos

paca

red brocket deer

agouti

38 kg

Maturi,Matamatá

5 pacas31 kg

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Piquiá 117

Dendrogene Project6

Pau-rosa ( Aniba rosaeodora) trees have been harvested for perfume since the colonizationof Brazil. For this reason, it is now difficult to find them in Amazonia. This same fate couldbefall the piquiá tree as it is highly valued for its wood as well as its fruit.

Piqui trees reproduce and bear ruit through pollination. The piquiásdepend on a nectar-eating bat, Thomas’s nectar bat (Lonchophylla thomasi),to carry pollen rom one tree to another. In the dark o night, this tinybat, weighing only 8–15 g, visits the crown o the piquiá tree and buries his head intothe lowers to lap the sweet nectar within. For the bats to survive and continue theirpollinating unction, it is important to leave enough piquiás in the orest.7

Predatory logging and ire has reduced the piquiá population, making it less likely that

there will be several nearby piquiá trees lowering at the same time. The greater thedistance between the piquiás, the less chance that the littleLonchophylla thomasiwill beable to success ully pollinate them.

The piquia tree is the avourite o many hunters as they say her lowers“call” game animals. For example, in the lowering season, Raimundobuilds a blind near a piquiá tree and waits or his dinner to arrive. In 1995,

during only two months o the lowering season, he was able to catch 67 kg o gameunderneath the piquiá trees. About 40% o the game’s weight is inedible parts, suchas bone, skin and hair.5 Sixty percent is edible, resulting in about 40 kg o game meat.I Raimundo bought an equivalent quantity o bee in the nearest meat market, hewould have paid US$151, about the same value he would earn selling ten sacks o

arinha. At the local community store where you can only ind the more expensivedried bee , he would have paid US$222, about the value o 15 sacks o arinha.

During three months o piquiá lowering, seven hunters rom one community alongthe Rio Capim in Brazil caught 18 pacas, 4 deer, 4 armadillos and 1 agouti beneaththe piquiá trees. This game weighed 232 kg. The community caught our times moregame under the piquiás than any other tree. This game provided about 139 kg o edible meat that would have cost US$526 in the Paragominas markets, which is theequivalent o the price earned rom35 sacks o arinha. Managing ruittrees and wildli e make it possible

or rural villagers to continue toobtain needed sources o protein

rom common and rapidly producingspecies such as rodents, whileprotecting more vulnerable wildli eand orest biodiversity.

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It is di icult or a piquiá tree to take root and grow in the deep orest because its seedlingsdo not grow well in shade. I you want a orest ull o piquiá, it is best to plant seedsin clearings in the orest or openings in the canopy where light can penetrate. In thecommunity o Nanaí, Pará, Paulo planted 70 piquiá trees nine years ago. Today, they areover 8 m high. In a ew years, Paulo will have ar more piquiás than he could ever eat, andhe plans to sell the surplus in the local market. Due to its rapid growth, the piquiá tree canbe e ectively integrated into agro orestry systems.

Domingos Meireles, who makes his living producing ruit in the Transcametá region o Pará, says that a piquiá tree that re-sprouted close to his house produces between seasons.Nightly, the amily tosses its organic ood waste out o the window and onto the roots o the tree. Domingos declares, “Recycling our compost through the roots and into the bodyo the piquia tree has given it added strength and has sweetened the lavour o its ruit.”

To enrich secondary growth orest, plant 50 piquiás/ha. With an estimated 200 ruits/tree,this could yield six tonnes o resh ruit/ha, or:

– 1 tonne o pulp– 90 kg o seeds– 330 kg o tannins– 105 kg o pulp oil– 30 kg o seed oil.

germination2 months to 1 year

growthfast initially, then 1 meach year for 10 years

productionafter 10–15 years

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Piquiá 119

Many species o wildli e survive by eating ruit.8 For example, in the rain orest, a greybrocket deer’s diet consists o 87% ruit, and the larger red brocket deer consumes 81%

ruit. Fruit makes up 59% o the diet or the collared peccary rom western Amazon,66% or the white-lipped peccary and 34% or tapirs. Paca, agouti, monkeys, parrots,macaws and other wildli e also depend on ruit or their survival. Likewise, most o thesetrees depend on the animals to disperse their seeds. Forests with various trees that lowerand bear ruit at di erent times o the year are able to support more rugivorous animals.To ensure that there is a continuous supply o game in their orests, some communitiesconserve and manage ruit tree species, especially those that wildli e most enjoy. Thecomposition and quantity o game are key indicators o a orest’s health and abundance.

Certain ruit trees, such as bacuri,uxi and piquiá, are also avoured byloggers, making them “con lict o use species”. To ensure a air deal,villagers need to negotiate well andto remember the “invisible income,”– ruit, game and medicine –which some species provide whendetermining the sale price o a log.It is also instructive to note that oreach tree extracted, up to 27 treescan be damaged during the logging

process.9

1 Prance, G. & Silva, M.F. 19732 Cavalcante, P.B. 19913 Shanley, P 20004 Serra, M.et al . unpublished manuscript.5 Silvius, K, Bodmer, R.E. & Fragoso, J.M.V. 20046 Kanashiroet al . 20027 Albuquerque, D. 20028 Bodmer, R.E. & Ward, D. 20069 Johns, J., Barreto, P. & Uhl, C. 1998

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Hevea brasiliensis(Willd. ex A. Juss.) Müll. Arg.

Alexandre Dias de SouzaRenaxon S. de Oliveira

Edson Luiz FurtadoPaulo Yoshio Kageyama

Raimundo Graça S. FreitasPedro de Albuquerque Ferraz

One hundred years ago, when the rubber industry was strong, there were thousands morerubber tappers in the Amazon region than there are today. In those days, latex productiongenerated a substantial amount o cash. Rubber barons wanting to impress the world withtheir wealth and sophistication attempted to trans orm sleepy jungle towns like Manausand Belém into elegant, cultured cities, with parks and ountains, opera houses and publicbuildings in the grand European style. For poor armers rom northeast Brazil, the alsepromise o riches rom rubber extraction o ered a chance to escape grinding poverty, anda large part o that population migrated to the region to attempt to make their ortunetapping rubber. But the rubber tappers o ten had to ight or their rights and or therubber tree orests. The state o Acre only belongs to Brazil because the rubber tappers

ought Bolivia or possession o it at the end o the nineteenth century.1 In the 1980s, theconcept o extractive reserves, where large tracts o orest are set aside or exclusive use bynon-indigenous orest-dependent populations, grew out o the rubber tappers’ ongoingstruggle to halt the advance o loggers and cattle ranchers into their areas.

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The rubber tree became an extremely important species or the modern, industrial world.When latex is trans ormed into rubber, it can be used to make many use ul products, suchas tyres and surgical gloves. Rubber trees are native to Amazonia, but today there aremany rubber plantations around the world, principally in Southeast Asian countries suchas Malaysia and Indonesia. In Amazonia, most latex continues to be extracted by hand inthe traditional manner by more than 100 000 rubber tappers and their amilies. Rubbertrees naturally occur in Brazil, Peru, Venezuela and Bolivia, and various species o thegenera Hevea are dispersed throughout the region. O all the species,Hevea brasiliensis produces the largest quantity and best quality o latex and is the primary source o rubberproduction by rubber tappers in Brazil.


The rubber tree lowers rom the end o July through September and produces between250 and 500 ruits ( rom 1 to 2 kg) that release their seeds in February and March. The

ruits normally break open and the seeds are dispersed by animals, rivers and streams.The latex tapping season begins a ter the ruits all, in the early dry season. In the Tapajós

region, in Pará, latex is extracted only in the wet season due to low production during thesummer.2

The rubber tree is found in low densities in the forest, as there are only 0.07–3 individuals/ha.In conventional plantations, there are between 250 and 600 rubber trees/ha. In the Tapajósregion, armers have a long tradition o planting rubber tree seeds and other seeds in their

ields, creating agro orestry plantations which have densities o up to 700 rubber trees/ha.

1 tree/ha 5 trees/alqueire

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Rubber tree, seringueira 123

A rubber tapper working in a native orest can tap between 140and 160 trees/day, collecting between 15 and 20 litres o latex.Each tree produces an average o 4.5 litres o latex/year, which istrans ormed into 1.5 kg o dry rubber.3 The rubber tappers taketwo breaks in the rubber harvest: once to collect Brazil nutswhen they are in season, and again when the rubber trees losetheir leaves. A rubber tree lives up to 200 years and, i managedproperly as outlined below, latex can be harvested or many decades. In the Tapajós region,a large number o rubber trees were planted in agro orestry plantations, increasing thenumber o trees that can be tapped each day.

A ter harvesting the rubber, a rubber tapper uses an acid (in Acre they o ten use the milko gameleira, Ficus dendrocida) to coagulate the latex and make a thick blanket o rubbercalled “raw smoked sheet”. This sheet is stored and sold. The government o Acre ishelping with the commercialization o raw, natural rubber. With the Chico Mendes law,rubber tappers receive US$0.41 rom the government in addition to the market price o rubber (which in 2008 was US$0.77–0.94/kg), which means that a rubber tapper earnsUS$1.18–1.35/kg. Extracted natural rubber is still highly sought a ter. In 2006, Brazilproduced more than 175 723 tonnes o coagulated rubber, with a minimum o 3 942 tonnesproduced by rubber tappers, generating more than US$4.7 million in revenue. The states

o Amazonas and Acre are the largest producers o rubber latex in Brazil, with 51.9% and35.7% respectively.4 Some latex extracted by rubber tappers is sold to actories outside theregion or processing.

Extractive cooperatives in Acre are adding value to rubber, increasing its price andproduction. In Xapuri, the cooperative is on its way to ounding the irst latex actoryto produce concentrated latex used in the production o condoms. There are also severalcooperatives in Amazonia working in the production o vegetable leather, a leather-like

inished product, used in bags, backpacks and other products.

Latex: Natural rubber is an elastic material called latex obtainedrom the sap o the rubber tree. Rubber is used extensively

in the production o tyres, and various other componentsand accessories o cars and motors. It is also used to makewaterproo abrics, shoes, backpacks, toys and condoms.Liquid latex is used extensively in the manu acturing o lexiblemasks, or clinical uses and or special e ects in eature ilms.

Seed: Long ago, the Aztec Indians used rubber tree seeds as money. Theyare used today as jewellery.

an average of1.5 kg of dry

rubber/tree/year

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Rubber trees are usually divided into areas worked by individual

amilies. One area covers between 400 and 600 ha, containing between450 and 600 trees distributed along two to our rubber trails Be oredawn, the rubber tapper gathers his headlamp, kni e and a ri le in casesome game is spotted, and heads o to the rubber trail. The rubbertapper works one looped trail per day. He makes diagonal cuts in thebark o the trunk, one below the other, using a kni e called acabrita.A ter the last cut, he places a bowl or cup on the tree to collect thelatex as it drips rom the incisions. Along the way, the rubber tappersmay hunt wild game or lunch , arriving back home at about 11 a.m. Inthe a ternoon, he ollows the same route to collect the latex that hasaccumulated in the bowl, walking between 6 and 10 km/day.

In the 1970s and 1980s, the Brazilian government granted a number o incentives tocattle ranchers to open up the Amazonian rontier. Many rubber tappers were expelled

rom their areas so that the orest could be trans ormed into pasture. In Acre, under theleadership o activist Chico Mendes and others, they devised a way to protect their orests.When loggers arrived to clear an area or cattle, a large group o rubber tappers and their

amilies would gather together side by side holding hands, sometimes circling trees, thuspreventing the tractors rom entering the orest. O ten the tractors would turn back,

leaving the orest intact. These con rontations became known as “empates”, which in localterms means a stando .

Once upon a time, an Indian warrior was punished by thechie s o his tribe and obliged to carry water in a basket madeo wild vines. The gods o the tribe took pity on the greatwarrior and taught him to coat the bowl with latex rom therubber tree. When the chie s saw that the warrior succeeded incarrying water in the basket, they decided to orgive him.5

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Since 1994, rubber producers in Acre have had the bene ito the Forest Products Market (FLORA) at which theycan sell directly to consumers or negotiate larger dealswith companies.6 In 2004 and 2005, between 25 000 and30 000 people visited the event annually, resulting in aboutUS$22 780 in sales each year. Here the communities,cooperatives, local artisans, women’s associations andsmall businesses come to sell their goods.

Rubber is sold in its original orm, or trans ormedinto inexpensive sandals, toys or igurines o birds andother orest animals. Next to the stand selling low-costtraditional products, a new, pricey, chic product called“vegetable leather” can be ound. Vegetable leather ismade rom cotton abric coated in latex, smoked and vulcanized so that it resemblesanimal leather. Many o these products are shipped to upscale stores in the United Stateso America and France.

An unusual assortment o shoppers displayinterest in the vegetable leather booth,including well-to-do women searching or thelatest ashions, environmentalists eager to beecologically correct and motorcyclists seeking

to swap pieces o their animal attire withvegetable wear.

Rubber seeds are large, 2.5–3 cm long, and can provide nutrition or many orest and riveranimals. Peccaries will crush the shell and eat the seed. In the looded orestswhere rubber trees grow, many ish east on the seeds. Black- inned pacu,locally known as tambaqui, use their strong jaws to crack open rubber seedsand east on them. Black piranha use their razor-sharp teeth to open the shelland consume the rubber seeds.

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When the Portuguese arrived in Brazil, they saw the Indians playing with a heavy blackball made o rubber. This centuries old discovery o the Indians, anticipated the laterinvention o the rubber tyre, which trans ormed the industry and spurred a everish rubberboom around the world. From 1880 to 1911, the demand or Amazonian rubber wasenormous, with Brazil exporting 80 000 tonnes annually. This led to such extravagances asthe construction o the Manaus Amazon Theatre, an opera house located mid-way up theAmazon River and at the time only accessible by river. But such riches rarely reached therubber tappers, who toiled on in wretched conditions.

To increase production and retain labourers in this di icult work, the rubber baronsimposed a system o debt peonage on the Indians and caboclos who collected andprocessed latex. In this system, rubber tappers could buy household products sold by thebarons, but prices were in lated. The rubber tappers could never earn enough to purchase

everything they needed, so they would all into debt and in this way were orced to workinde initely or the barons as virtual slaves.

Visitors to Brazil, wanting to experiment withplanting rubber trees in other countries, dispatchedseeds to Europe. The irst seeds that were sent didpoorly, and it was only in 1876 that the EnglishmanSir Henry Wickham succeeded in bringing 70 000healthy seeds rom Boim, on the Tapajós River, near Santarém, to the Royal BotanicalGardens in Kew, England. The seeds were care ully wrapped in banana leaves andsurvived the journey to orm the basis o rubber plantations in the British colonies inAsia. Since the ungus that attacks the seeds in Brazil is absent in Asia, the seedlings

grew well, and the cultivation and improvement o rubber madethe countries o that region the greatest plantation producers in theworld. It was a crushing blow to the Brazilian rubber market and itspelled the end o the dream o in inite wealth in Amazonia.7 Thisdream was revived brie ly during the Second World War, when Brazilsupplied the Allies with rubber or the war e ort.

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Rubber seeds need to be planted quickly; within 30 days o being collected, hal the seeds

will ail to germinate and, a ter 45 days, only 10% will still germinate. Once planted, theertile seed will begin to germinate in ten days. In the orest, a rubber tree needs light togrow. As competition or light is intense among the various species, the great majority o seedlings are unable to develop. In lower Acre, less than 20% o the rubber trees are greaterthan 60 cm in diameter, and they begin to lower only a ter 25 years.7 In plantations, themaximum production o latex is attained at around 20 years and this level o extractioncontinues or another 40–50 years.

When it is time to tap the tree, it is important not to cut very deeply. Ideally one should cutno more than 2–3 mm deep. Do not tap thin trees as this greatly reduces the trees’ growth.Mature rubber trees produce little latex the irst time they are tapped, but productionincreases over time. Rubber tappers say that rubber trees which have not been tappedbe ore are stubborn, but that they become tame a ter a while.

germination10 days

growth1 m/year

production of latexafter 25 years in the forest

after 10 years in plantations

GÖtz Schroth

In the Tapajós region, where the ungusmal-das- olhas is less prevalent, rubber tappers have enriched theiragricultural ields by planting rubber trees togetherwith other ruit- and wood-producing species. For

over a century, these plantations have evolved into realagro orests as they have been extensively managed.When prices have allen, however, management hasceased and the orests are temporarily abandoned.2

When prices were low in the 1980s and 1990s, a ewrubber tappers cut down their rubber orests to plantcrops. Others re used to do this, saying that these

orests were meant to live orever. With recent increasesin rubber prices in Brazil, many who traded their

orests or ields are regret ul. As one rubber tappersaid, “Even i your rubber orest isn’t use ul to youtoday, it may be use ul or your children tomorrow.”

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For 40 years people have been trying to plantrubber trees in Amazonia in order to increaseproduction. In plantations, trees are much closer toone another, acilitating the rubber tapper’s work.However, rubber trees in plantations in Brazil arevulnerable tomal-das- olhas, or lea blight. This

ungus moves rapidly rom one tree to another.

In Acre, mixed plantings are being experimentedwith in small clearings in the orest. Rubber treesare planted together with other species like manioc, co ee, banana and orange. Eachtree is planted in a 4 x 20 m area. In these areas o plantings, called Islands o HighProductivity (IAP),8 researchers believe it is possible to extract between 400 and 800 kgo rubber/ha/year.9 In native rubber orests, a rubber tapper extracts an average o 1 kg o dry rubber/ha/year. There are two kinds o IAP: those rom seeds and those rom clones.In seed IAPs, seeds are taken rom the most productive rubber trees and planted in theground, protected rom animals by pieces o bamboo. In clone IAPs, new trees grow romsprouts that have been bred to produce more and to have a greater resistance tomal-das- olhas.

1 Tocantins, L. 1979 / Dean, W. 1989 / Moro, J. 19932 Schroth, G.et al.20033 Vasconcelos, S.S. 20014 IBGE 20065 Neves, C.A. 19816 Wallace, R.H.et al.20087 Dean, W. 19898 Fadell, M.J.S. 19979 Maciel, R.C.G.; Saldanha, C.L. & Batista, G.E. 2000

Traditional:1 kg/ha

Seeds:400 kg/ha

Clones:800 kg/ha

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Heteropsisspp.

Richard WallaceLuciano Pereira

Campbell Plowden

During a dark, rainy night in the orest, a small house covered with palm ronds is struck bygusting winds and pelting rain. Inside, seven worn out hammocks hang. Wrapped tightlyinside, like cocoons, six children and their parents sleep soundly. In spite o the ragingweather, the house will not collapse in the night. Like thousands o Amazonian homes, itis stitched together with the strong and lexible aerial roots o a orest vine locally calledcipó titica. Tremendously versatile, titica roots are used to tote game home rom the hunt,to make strainers or producing manioc lour and to weave baskets to carry ruit. Titica isalso used to make hats, urniture and sturdy pack baskets or horses. The availability o titica has declined in areas o heavy harvest and where logging and ire are prevalent. Thisscarcity has required rural people to travel ever-greater distances to collect it.

Titica is a secondary hemi-epiphyte, a vine that germinates on the ground and climbs tothe canopy where the mother plant establishes itsel . From high up the trunk o its hosttree, a ew aerial roots descend rom the mother plant in search o the soil. These aerialroots, also re erred to as vines, are harvested or use. Titica vine re ers to numerous specieso the genusHeteropsiswhich produce aerial roots, 13 o which occur in Brazil, Guyana,Venezuela and Peru, pre erring terra irme orest.

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The lowering and ruiting period o the vine varies greatly throughout Amazonia.However, in most o the Brazilian Amazon, the vine lowers between September and May,and ruits rom March through November. In Suriname, titica ruits between April and July.1 The aerial roots o titica may be collected throughout the year.

The density o trees hosting titica vines varies considerably, rom one tree to over 400trees/ha (see table below). Titica grows best in mature closed orest. It can thrive on a widevariety o host trees, but is rarely ound on certain palm trees and pioneer species, as thetrunk and bark o some o these trees are generally un avourable to climbing vines. Unlikemany vines, titica does not climb to the tallest and sunniest parts o a host tree canopy. Thisapparent aversion to strong light may explain its virtual absence in secondary orests. Onestudy in Pará ound only 2 titica plants/ha in an area recovering rom a ire 20 years earlier.2

The number o mature vines/ha – those that are ready or harvest – also varies. In onestudy o trees hosting titica vine, 36% o the roots had the potential to be commerciallyexploited, because the roots were long, thick and had ew knots – desirable characteristics

or making cra ts.3

Location Number o treeshosting titica/ha

Number o matureroots/ha

Tembé Reserve, Pará, Brazil3 143–453 554–1 748 Jaú National Park, Amazonas,

Brazil4

1–5 –

Guyana1 61–232 997–1 175Porto de Moz, Pará, Brazil 36–176 (mean 85) 180–944 (mean 457)

143–453 treeshost titica vine/ha

686–2 174 treeshost titica vine/alqueire

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Titica 131

The production o titica varies greatly rom place to place –both the number o roots/tree as well as the number o trees hosting the vine. A study in Pará ound an averageo 3 roots/plant. One root weighs an average o 175 g. Onaverage, 0.5 kg o titica root is collected rom each tree, sothe plant yields about 36–88 kg o resh roots/ha. Once thebark and the unusable sections o root have been removedand the roots dried, 7–18 kg remain ready or sale. Anaverage o 350 kg o titica roots/ha have been extracted rom Amapá state, but this highyield may be related to the recent start o commercial harvest there.5

In cities close to Belém, in Pará, the price o dried titica in the 1990s varied between US$1and US$2/kg. In 2004, 1 kg etched an average o US$1 without bark. In 2008 in RioBranco, 1 kg with bark sold or US$1.18 and without bark or US$1.77. Because it requiresintensive labour not only to collect titica rom the orest but also to remove the bark, somecollectors pre er to sell the vine with the bark still on the plant.

Construction: Titica roots are used to bind housing rames, to constructencing and as a substitute or nails in rural areas.

Domestic utensils: Baskets, bags, brooms, strainers, saddlebags and wickerurniture are made with titica roots.

average of 50 kg freshroot and 13 kg dried

root/ha

The A rican and Amazonian tradition

o sweeping the ground in the ronto your home to keep the area ree o plants and debris is rough on brooms.When there is no titica available,women grumble that scrawny plasticbrooms are costly and last but a scantwhile as compared to the robust, hand-cra ted titica brooms.

PlasticTitica

US$4.50–6.706 months

US$2.201 year

CostDurability

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A collector needs to know not only how toidenti y titica but also where it grows, whichroots are best to harvest and how to extractthem rom high in the canopy. It takes anexperienced eye to identi y titica correctlybecause there are o ten many types o hemi-ephiphytic vines hanging on the trees. The aerialroots o other vines may look similar to titica roots,but they lack titica’s unique strength and lexibilityand may break when bent during the construction o baskets or urniture. Be ore harvesting a titica root, harvesters in Paráconsider three actors to determine i it is suitableto use and sell. First, collectors select roots at least 4mm in diameter because urniture makers do not buyvery thin ones. Second, they avoid roots with manyknots or nodes as these sections do not work well orlashing and weaving. Finally, harvesters only collecttough and lexible mature vines. A collector o ten teststhe readiness o a root strand by scraping his or her

ingernail across the bark and bending a small piece o the root in hal . I it is green underneath or breaks, the

strand is too young and not ready to be harvested. Harvesting titica requires strength, skill and grit. Acollector usually grabs the aerial root with one hand just above his or her head, and the other below his orher shoulder, and jerks sharply and with great orce.Some collectors use the ull weight o their bodies tohelp break a root by standing on the bottom sectiono a taut root. Although most collectors work alone,working in pairs is common in Amapá and Acre. Rootsgenerally break at 5–10 m rom the ground. Harvestingrarely dislodges the well-anchored mother plant ( romwhich branches with roots, leaves and lowers emerge),but when pulling on a root inally orces it to break, a hail o lea debris and branches – andsometimes spiders, biting ants and snakes – can rain down on the collector. A ter a root is brought to the ground, harvesters remove any knots, which orm weak spotsin the vine and reduce its use ulness. Collectors carry the vines home where they generallyremove the bark using a kni e. Although drying and bark removal lessen the weight byhal , most customers pre er debarked vine and the bark is much easier to remove soona ter harvest than i it dries and hardens on the vine. Once the bark has been removed, thepale golden roots are tied in long bundles o several hundred strands or rolled into a largedoughnut shape until they are sold or used. Artisans store the bundles in a cool, dark placeso the roots do not buckle or become stained by ungus.

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Titica 133

In Amazonian cities, artisans traditionally make so as, chairs and baskets rom titica roots.In addition, roots o titica and other vines have long been extracted in large quantities orshipment to industrial urniture manu acturers in São Paulo and other southern Braziliancities. Even the seats in the irst class cabins on the trains in Rio de Janeiro and São Pauloare made with titica.6 In Macapá, Amapá, a handcra ted chair o titica cost US$119 in 2004.During the same time rame, in the metropolis o São Paulo, one titica chair manu acturedindustrially cost US$1 530. Although orest peoples may not always be able to sell inecra ted products, it may be possible or them to engage these markets by providingmanaged, air-trade raw material.

Trans orming raw ibres into cra ts greatly adds to their value. Some people who harvesttitica have increased their income by learning to shape it into inished products. In 1997,in Rio Branco, Acre’s state capital, 1 kg o titica without bark sold or US$2. In one hourand with less than 1 kg o titica roots, a cra tsperson could make a bread basket that sells

or US$17. One skil ul artisan rom Rio Branco said that he had a list o orders romhis neighbours and that his clients pre er handcra ted goods because they o ten are o better quality than manu actured goods. And i a handmade product breaks or wears out,consumers know where to go to get it ixed.

In Rio Branco, artisans carefully process titica roots beforefashioning them into products. Dry roots are first soaked in waterto make them less brittle and easier to bend and shape. Theyuse a file to smooth and reduce the roots until they are the rightthickness to make baskets, serving platters, flower vases, magazineholders or chairs. Fibre crafts are now found in supermarkets,snack shops and restaurants, as well as available by individual

order for custom-made products. The diverse assortment of fibrecrafts now available can be seen at the city’s open air Sundaymarket and at Acre’s Annual Forest Products Fair.7

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Many hunters use titica to construct hunting blinds intrees. The roots are used to tie a wooden pole or plankbetween two trees, or to a tree and a standing support pole.The hunter sits on top o the plank to wait or unsuspectinggame to pass by below. To boost their chances, huntersplace hunting stands on or nearby trees with alling ruitsor lowers which attract game animals.

Even under ideal circumstances, titica grows very slowly and is vulnerable to intensiveharvesting. It takes up to 66 years or titica to grow, rom the climbing stage to when the

irst root reaches maturity in the ground.1 Several studies in Brazil and Guyana have shownthat most o the roots that were severed in experimental harvests died within six months.Taking too many roots can kill the plant itsel . Heavy harvesting has virtually wiped outtitica populations in some regions. In areas where only a portion o mature roots had beencollected, the total combined growth o all surviving harvested roots was 0.8–2.4 m/year.2 This slow growth rate means that it will take many decades or titica to recover be ore rootsmay be commercially harvested again. A study onHeteropsis lexuosain Amapá ound thati the growing tip o the root is not damaged the root can grow up to 1 m/month during the

rainy season, but roots that have been cut or broken during collection stop growing.6

Thusit is necessary to leave some roots intact to nourish the plant and allow new roots to growor a minimum o our to ive years. For success ul successive extractions, it is important

to take a ew management precautions when harvesting titica vine.

Per tree:• Avoid collecting more than hal o the roots rom any individual titica plant, being

sure to leave at least two thick roots intact. Harvesters in Guyana only take rootshanging down rom a branch; they leave all roots wrapped around the trunk o thehost tree.

• Take extra care when harvesting during the dry season. Titica mortality is higherwhen water is scarce.

germination9 months

growthcut roots, when theysurvive, grow about

1–2 m/year


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Titica 135

• Only harvest mature roots because immatureones are not strong.

• Leave roots which have less than 1.5 m betweenknots because artisans and urniture makersonly use stems that are ree o these bulges.

Per area:• Establish zones o extraction where roots are

collected in rotation systems.• Extract the maximum possible number o vines

in heavily logged areas, and rom trees that aregoing to be harvested.

• Once a year, in Porto de Moz, Pará, womenin the Emanuela Women’s Asociation cleanbetween the root strands, removing the deadones and anything else that might impede theirhealthy growth.8 The debris rom the cleaning isspread on the ground, maintaining soil humidityand discouraging undergrowth.

Titica is an important resource or Amazonian extractors and artisans, both or home useand or bringing important cash income into the household. However, increasing demand

or this durable and multi-use aerial root or industrial-scale production has raised newconcerns regarding the uture sustainability o titica extraction and placed in question

continued local access. A major challenge now acingextractors is the sustainable management o titica,and the development o management initiatives thatprovide local peoples’ continued access while regulatingunsustainable extraction. This, in turn, brings up newquestions: How can local communities engage largerregional and national markets? How can extractorsachieve long-term sustainable management o this

valuable and important orest resource?Since small-scale extractors provide ibres and ibre-based cra ts to local markets, they now compete or theirraw materials with large-scale enterprises that harvest –and requently over-harvest – titica or industrial-scale production. For example, as titica populationsin southeastern Amazonia declined, large industriestransported scores o workers rom these regions toharvest the roots in the northeastern Amazonian stateo Amapá. Teams o 60 men mounted on mules scoured

the orest and extracted all the titica they could ind.Artisans rom Amapá protested, as they were le t withlittle material to ply their trade.

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In 2001, the government o Amapá responded to complaints rom these artisans and passedthe irst state law in Brazil requiring management plans to extract titica. The law de inesthe period, the quantity and the location o legal harvests, as well as establishing norms toobtain a harvesting license. Local collectors, however, have di iculty in navigating the statebureaucracy or management plan development and approval. A better approach mightinclude a system that allows local people to harvest small amounts o titica or subsistenceand commercial activity, but closely regulates and manages large-scale harvesting. Theprocess to develop legislation could be participatory and could bring together diversestakeholders, including local communities, artisans, industry players and governmentagencies. An example o this might be ound in the state o Amazonas, which went throughan extensive process o consulting with a wide range o people who had experiencestudying and working with titica be ore passing their regulations o titica harvest.

Maria CreuzaMaria Olivia

With so many orest management specialists, why is it thatno one knows how to manage titica vine? The EmanuelaWomen’s Association, in Porto de Moz, Pará, discoveredthis when they began to research the production potential o titica. Finding no pro essional orester or botanist to advisethem, they went into the orest to experiment and to discover

or themselves the secrets o this mysterious plant.They developed methods or inventorying, managing andextracting the vine. Each woman in the Association, composed

o 35 women rom seven communities, was responsible or researching the production o titica in her own plot o orest. The inventory was conducted along a 250-m transect whereplants were counted within 5 m on both sides o the centre line. The women recordedthe number o trees that had titica growing on them, the number o aerial roots hanging

rom each tree, and lastly, they identi ied the green and the mature roots. Based on theirinitial inventory, they estimated that they could harvest and produce 150 kg o titica rootswithout bark rom a orest area o 50 ha. Next, they estimated that each woman could

harvest enough roots to bring 5 kg o roots to a urniture making workshop sponsored bythe Association. A longer-term study would be necessary to actually determine sustainableyield; however, the social network the women developed to regulate harvest is a crucialstep towards ensuring sustainability.

At the workshop, each strand o dry root was separated into three thinner strands thatincluded one central and two outer parts. Each o the three strands is scraped with a kni eand then sanded smooth. Next, the women apply one layer o sealant and three layers o varnish. I the root’s bark had been removed days a ter it was collected and had le t markson its sur ace, the women discovered that three washings in caustic soda turned it whiteagain.

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Titica 137

Using this home-grown technique, the women o Porto de Moz began making chairs,baskets, mirror rames, trunks, suitcases, jewellery boxes, shelves and ruit display vessels.Prices in 2004 ranged rom US$3.40 or a mirror rame to US$34 or a chair, using 1–5 kgo titica or each object. Even considering the time needed to make the cra ts, the womennoted it was ar more pro itable to sell inished products than either unprocessed roots orUS$0.50/kg or roots with bark removed or US$0.85/kg. For the irst time in their lives,the women o Porto de Moz have been able to walk around town with their own moneyin their pockets.

In Porto de Moz where titica extraction is relatively new, women are more experienced incollecting titica and making cra ts rom their roots than men. Women note, “He sees thevine and straight away hacks down many strands on the tree. When we come to a tree,

we are more care ul; we irst test the vines and then only collect the mature ones that areuse ul or making things.”

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Titica and Amazon olklore

As with many plants that are widely used by orest people in the Amazon, there are manypopular belie s about the biology and harvesting o titica. Since titica has small lowers andknobby green ruits that are well hidden in the canopy o the host tree, several legendsrelate to the plant’s reproduction. In Amapá, some caboclos believe that i someone seesthe lower or ruit o this plant, the world will end. Many indigenous people believe thattitica regenerates rom the legs o dying tucandeira ants (Paraponeraspp.). Although thismay seem like a strange connection, observations o these ants attacked byCordyceps

ungus show that the ruiting bodies that emerge rom the dead ants resemble the tinyanchor roots that secure a climbing titica stem to its host tree.

Collectors in Porto de Moz adamantly assert that thephase o the moon must be considered when collecting

titica. Although a ull moon may act as a torch, lightingone’s way to the trees, there is no sense in trying at thattime. They say that during ull moons titica is brittle, weakand pale and breaks when doubled over. There ore, theypre er to harvest titica in the new or quarter moon whenthe roots are strong and lexible.

As commercial demand or products like titica increases, there is a need to appreciateindigenous and other orest people’s knowledge about the biology and harvesting o theseplants. These lessons should be combined with research-based studies o harvesting e ectsand sustainable management to o er economic opportunities or orest-based communities

and to ensure long-term conservation o the species.

1 Ho man, B. 19972 Plowden, C., Uhl, C. & Oliveira, F. de A. 20033 Plowden, C. 20014 Durigan, C.C. 19985 Pereira, L.A. 20016 de Carvalho, A.C.A. & de Queiroz, J.A.L. 20087 Wallace, R. & Ferreira, E. 19988 Emanuela Women’s Association, 2003

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Endopleura uchi(Huber)Cuatrec.

Patricia Shanley Jos Edmar Urano Carvalho

Until recently, uxi was known disparagingly by the middle class as the “ ruit o the poor”because it was so inexpensive. Today its rich, woody lavour has gained popularity and thegreen egg-sized ruit etches a good price in the market. Uxi’s large oval pits are coveredwith a thin oily pulp which can be eaten raw, but it is most loved in ice cream, in additionto being a widely sold popsicle lavour in Belém. Other parts o the tree are also used:the bark has medicinal properties, and artisans cut and polish the star-patterned pits intounique amulets that are believed to bring good ortune and to protect the wearer rom ill.

Uxi is native to the Brazilian Amazon. The uxi tree is quite large, reaching rom 25 to 30 min height, 1 m in diameter and 3 m in circum erence. It can typically be ound in terra irme

orests, requently in the region o the Pará river estuary and the regions o Bragantina,Guamá and Capim, on the western side o Marajó near Breves.1

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In Pará, the uxi tree lowers rom October through November and bears ruit romFebruary through May. In managed areas near Belém, like Boa Vista, Viseu and Mosqueiro,some trees produce between seasons, in the months o July and August.

Uxi can be ound in densities o less than 1/ha; however, in some orests up to 9 uxis/ha

may occur. In intensively managed areas, such as on the islands close to Belém, as many as35 mature uxis can grow in 1 ha.

Many uxi trees produce ruit every year, but the number o ruit varies. For example in 1994, the average production out

o a sample o 24 trees was about 1 530 ruits/tree. In 1995,the average production or the same group o trees ell to 546

ruits/tree. A tree can bear as many as 3 500 ruits in a goodyear, with the majority o trees producing between 700 and2 000 ruits. In years when the tree rests, average production

alls to between 400 and 500 ruits. Over a ive-year period, 80% o a sample group o 24 trees produced every year. Below is the average production o these 24 uxi trees.

0.03–3 trees/ha 1.4–14 trees/alqueire

an average of1 000 fruits/tree

1 530

5461 336

462479

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

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Uxi, uchi 141

I a villager intends to produce uxi to sell, he or she mustbe sure to reach the tree be ore the armadillos, paca,agoutis and deer, who love the savoury ruit as much aspeople do. Squirrels can even gnaw through the extremely

hard endocarp to eat the small seeds. And one must becare ul, because the macaws and parrots knock down theruits even when they are green. Along the Capim River,

in Pará, some villagers never look up to the top o the uxi tree. They believe that i theyspot an uxi ruit on the upper branches, they will depart rom this li e that same year.Fortunately, the small, egg-shaped ruit are well camou laged and di icult to discern inthe lo ty crown.

In 2004, in the ten major Belém airs, about 477 000uxis were sold, generating more than US$22 100. InBelém in 1995, one uxi went or US$0.05, and in 1998one uxi cost US$0.07. In 2008, each uxi cost an averageo US$0.12. In Ver-o-Peso in 2008, you could buy

ive uxis or US$0.59. In between ruiting seasons,the price o the ruit is highest. The pulp o uxi is alsoincreasingly in demand; in 2003, 1 kg o pulp costUS$1.30, and by 2009, pulp prices had risen to US$3.Uxi powder, ound inside the seed, is another valuableproduct in today’s market; it is used or its medicinaland cosmetic properties, and 1 kg costs US$7.

As recently as the 1980s, when there were plenty o uxi trees close to Belém, dozens o boats used to land at the “rock” (as the Ver-o-Peso market was known), piled high withthousands and thousands o uxis. Today, it is rare to see a boat loaded exclusively withuxi, and sometimes buyers complain that there is insu icient supply to meet the demand.Fortunately, there are estuarine communities near Belém that manage, plant, prune,clean and protect uxi and in this way are able to supply the markets in the city. Some

amilies earn 20% o their annual incomerom selling uxi ruit.2 Communities in the

municipality o Acara supply the Porto doAçaí market each Wednesday and Saturdaywith about 25 000 uxis. Uxi has risen invalue in recent years, appearing in the largesupermarkets and becoming a popular icecream lavour. Furthermore, one uxi sapling,which is di icult to ind or sale, can cost upto US$9.

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Fruit: The fruit is used to make frozen ice treats, ice cream, juice, and oil.

Wood: The wood o the uxi is o average quality, extracted by the timberindustry and used in carpentry.

Bark: Teas made rom the bark are used to treat high cholesterol, diabetes,rheumatism and arthritis. In 2001, a Brazilian TV programme showed howtea made rom uxi bark could be e ective in lowering high cholesteroland in healing rheumatism and arthritis. A ter the programme aired, manymedicinal plant shops began to sell the bark.

Wildli e: Numerous species, such as paca, peccary, tapir, squirrel, deer and

macaw east on the ruit o uxi.Oil: Uxi produces good quality oil, used both or rying ood and or itsmedicinal properties.

Seed and endocarp: Squirrels eat the small (2–3 cm) seeds hidden deep insidethe hard, ibrous endocarp (pit). Artists use the egg-shaped, star-like endocarpin cra ts and to make amulets. Powder produced rom the endocarp relievesitching and is also used as a cosmetic oundation. When the endocarps areburned, they produce smoke that deters insects.

Cut an uxi endocarp and within it you will ind apowder used to cover skin blemishes and relieveitching. To discourage mosquitoes or ward o evilspirits, broken uxi seeds are lit on ires inside a can.The smoke does the trick!

When the endocarp is cut through the middle, various star shapesare revealed. These can be used as beads to make beauti ul necklaces, earrings and belts by

cutting the seed into thin discs.In the Macapá air, in the Brazilian state o Amapá, a small, elderly woman care ullyappraised a variety o seed necklaces or sale. She showed most interest in a particular one.The cra tsperson, Delomarque Fernandes, commented that the large, central bead was uxi.Delighted, the woman placed her weathered hand irmly over the uxi pit and proclaimed,“Then this necklace is mine, as uxi has a special power!”

In Belém, Delomarque makes beauti ul jewellery (necklaces,rings, bracelets and earrings) usings parts rom various regionaltrees. The palm trees she uses are tucumã, inajá, babaçu, dendê,murumuru, mucajá, jupati, mumbaca, açaí branco, regional açaí,bacaba and coconut. In addition to palms, Delomarque likes to useuxi, uxirana, tento, cedro and Brazil nut. She says, “The jupati is

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Uxi, uchi 143

our discovery, no one worked with jupati or uxi be ore. It’s a marvellous discovery thatmakes unique pieces.” Some small Amazonian seeds, such as açaí, are being purchased inbulk at low prices and shipped to São Paulo to be industrially processed into jewellery. But jewellery rom hard-to-work, unique ruits such as uxi and jupati are still hand cra ted inBel m.

As an experiment, a Mothers Club o a village along theCapim River gathered about 400 ruits (uxi, piquiá andbacuri) and or the irst time ever, took them by boatto the ruit market in Paragominas. The mothers soldalmost all o the ruit and bought enough used clothing

or ten amilies, caustic soda to make soap and a little

pig to rear. Walking through town on Sunday, a terMass, girls and boys proudly wore their “ ruit clothes”.The little pig grew at and was eventually sold.

Mangueira, Maria, Neca, Simeão, Marcidia and Poca

Mangueira’s amily marked o 1 ha o orest containing one piquiá, one bacuri

and two uxi trees. For ten years, theycounted and weighed all the ruit and gamethey had caught on this piece o land. Withthese data, they were able to perceive theinvisible income they had earned romthis 1-ha plot. They compared this valuewith the money they would have earnedhad they sold the trees on this hectare tologgers.

They noted that the quantity o NWFPs extracted rom the hectare varied rom year to

year. For example, in 1993 the amily ate 2 544 uxis. In 1994, they ate 3 654 uxis, but in1995 and 1997, not a single one. Did they get sick o eating uxi? No! The uxi trees on thathectare simply did not produce in 1995 or 1997. Consequently, some years they caught

a lot o game under the uxi trees, andothers not.

Mangueira’s amily consumed 14 248ruits rom that 1-ha plot during a ten-year

period. These ruits could earn US$1 307i they were sold in the Paragominas

air. I we discount the substantial costsassociated with collection, transport,time and perishability, the net pro itUS$26 US$872

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would be approximately US$872. I sold to a logger,Mangueira would earn US$26/ha (US$129/alqueire) and allthe trees o commercial value would be extracted, includingthe ruit and medicinal trees.

Like many ruiting trees, uxi, piquia and bacuri produceruit or many decades. Having learned to see the “invisible

income” that the orest has to o er and the importantcontribution ruit trees make to the health and nutritiono his amily, Mangueira decided to conserve his orest orhis grandchildren and great-grandchildren. The initiative o Mangueira’s amily has helped to teach other orest amiliesin the region about the value o the standing orest.

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 No.ruit

US$/ruit

IncomeUS$

Piquiá 937 0 0 430 0 0 0 0 0 208 1 575 0.13 205

Bacuri 298 417 0 618 0 0 0 0 0 814 2 147 0.17 365

Uxi 2 544 3 654 0 1 321 0 0 2 0 2 500 505 10 526 0.07 737

Total 3 779 4 071 0 2 369 0 0 2 0 2 500 1 527 14 248

Gross income 1 307

– Est. costs (33%) 435Est. pro it 872

A distinguishing characteristic o tropical trees is that many orest species produceruit only every other year. Between uxi, bacuri and piquiá, which do you think

produces more o ten? A ive-year study demonstrated that uxi is the species whichproduces most consistently, as many uxi trees produce annually. On average, 80% o the 24 uxi trees studied produced every year. In contrast, 55% o the 16 bacuri treesand 36% o the 68 piquiá trees produced each year.

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Uxi, uchi 145

In 2001, a community upriver rom Mangueira’samily sold 140 alqueires (672 ha) o orest or

US$3 010, receiving US$22/alqueire. From eachalqueire, the loggers took ten trees, each one orUS$2.15. In one o these alqueires, there was anuxi tree that produced an average o 1 000 ruitseach year. I the community had access to theParagominas ruit market, 120 km away, theycould have sold each ruit or US$0.03 and earnedUS$34. Subtracting the costs o transportation andlabour, they may have earned US$22, the samevalue received rom the loggers or the alqueire. Byleaving the trees standing, they might have eaten

ruit rom the hectare every year instead o realizingonly one timber sale.

Ronaldo Farias

Sometimes, a group o hungry kids in my neighbourhood with a craving or ruit wouldgather and whistle together. My mother had taught us a special whistle to call the windthat would then bring down the ruit. We were taught to whistle and wait, whistle andwait. Then we would chant: “Send the wind, Saint Lorenzo!” The more children whowhistled, the stronger the wind blew. The more we believed, the more we whistled. Whenwe believed, the wind came, the ruit ell and we ate.

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Uxi is an excellent source o calories: each 100 g o pulp contains 284 calories, six timesmore than oranges. The ruit pulp is low in sugar and high in ibre. Uxi also strengthensthe body with important vitamins, contributing close to the World Health Organization’srecommended daily allowance o vitamin C (with 22 mg/100 g) and vitamin E (with6.8 mg/100 g). Uxi has more vitamin B than many ruits, with 0.13 mg o vitamin B1 and0.10 mg o vitamin B2 /100 g o pulp.4 Each 100 g o uxi pulp also has 7.8 mg o iron. Inaddition, 100 g o uxi pulp has between 10 and 21 g o ibre; ibre helps to maintain ahealthy intestinal track.

Uxi is also rich in minerals: each 100 g o pulp has 460 mg o potassium, 64–96 mgo calcium, 53–70 mg o magnesium, 30–46 mg o phosphorus and 22 mg o sodium.Furthermore, the oil is rich in phytosterols (1.4 mg/100 g o oil) more than double thato soybean oil. The presence o phytosterols in ood reduces the level o cholesterol inthe blood and has possible anticarcinogenic e ects. Uxi oil is also a good choice to use incooking because it is high in oleic acids (7.4%), similar to olive oil and avocado oil.

In the community o Nazaré in the Rio Capim region, Nenzinho and his amily ate 1 123uxis in just one month. His neighbours, the João Brito amily, ate around 6 000 ruits! I they had had to purchase these, the estimated value would have been between US$177 andUS$413. Caboclos say that during the uxi season, no one gets a cold or a cough. Othervillagers proudly remark that they gain weight. Neusa do Limão is happy to say she gains2 kg during uxi season.

Ingredients:pulp o 15–20 ripe uxis or 300 g o rozen pulp1 can o condensed milk (395 g)1 can o cream (300 g)sugar to taste

Preparation:Wash the ruits and remove the peel with a kni e. Scoop out the pulp with a spoon. Beatthe cream, the condensed milk and the pulp by hand or in a blender or three minute).Pour the mixture into a mould and place in the re rigerator or two hours. Decorate asyou please.

Protein: 1% Lipids: 15%Carbohydrates: 4% Fibre: 21%

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Uxi, uchi 147

Ingredients:500 g o uxi pulp

500 g o sugar1/2 cup water

Preparation:Mix the sugar, the pulp and the water until smooth. Heat the mixture over a medium lame,stirring constantly, until the mixture easily pulls away rom the pan. Remove rom thestove, cool, cut and serve.

Senhorinha o Nanaí is one o the ew villagers who recall how to extract uxi oil. Sherelated that uxi oil is o high quality and can be used both in cooking and as medicine.Senhorinha recommends uxi oil to treat sinusitis in children (rub warm oil on their noses)and or intestinal gas in adults (rub the warm oil on the belly).

To extract the oil, select 500 ripe ruit and wash them care ully. Grate them and put thepulp and the rind in a basin with water. Place the mixture over a lame and mix with aspoon while it boils. The oil is ready when the water evaporates. I you are using only asmall amount o pulp, it requires approximately one hour to extract the oil; with 500 ruitit takes about two hours. Five hundred meaty ruit can potentially yield 2.5 litres o oil.

Gloria Gaia

Ingredients:200 grated uxis yields approx. 2 kg o pulp1 small can o caustic soda (250 g)1 litre o water500 g o glycerine150 g o breu jutaicica (The breu jutaicica – a tree resin – adds ragrance and binds withthe soap.)

Preparation: Dissolve 250 g o caustic soda in 1 litre o water. Add the uxi pulp and place over a low

lame, simmering or 20 minutes. Next, add the glycerine and the breu jutaicica. The soapwill acquire a very thick consistency. Place the soap in moulds to cool.

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Uxi ruit has an important role in the diet o wildli e. In onestudy on uxi production, animals consumed up to 80% o the

ruit that ell rom the trees. Deer, tapir, collared peccary, white-lipped peccary, armadillo, paca, agouti, coati, monkeys, macawand other birds eat uxi. Tropical squirrels patiently gnaw thehard, thick endocarp until they reach and eat the small seedswithin.

Sometimes hunters place loaded guns with tripwires alongwildli e paths near the uxi trees to catch agoutis and armadillos.During the rainy ruit season, a hunter named Chuva rom avillage along the Capim river, o ten placed these traps near uxi trees. At this time o the

year it was as i Chuva had a meat market alongside his home because he and his amilycaught and ate an armadillo almost every day. Although hunters generally place warningsignals made o plants nearby traps, it is wise to use caution when walking in areas wherehunters use tripwires.

Let’s look at what happened to the ruit production o 24 uxi trees in three CapimRiver communities. Only 14% o the ruit was le t over to eat or to sell.

Immaturefruit: 17%

Fruit eaten byanimals: 37%

Fruit and seeds eatenby animals: 32%

Ripe intact fruit: 14%

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Uxi, uchi 149

In 1972, the distinguished Brazilian authority on edible ruits, Paulo Calvacante, publishedin his classic work Frutas Comestíveis da Amazôniathat uxi is hard to manage and, unlessthe ruit prices improved, would be economically unviable to domesticate.1 Indeed, inthe ollowing three decades, the increasing value o uxi ruit has incentivized peri-urbancommunities to work on improving the productivity o uxi. Today, there are scores o

amilies near Belém that are planting, managing and transporting millions o ruit tomarket. In the municipality o Acara, practices or increasing the density and improvingthe production o uxi include: enriching the area to be planted, cutting the vegetation thatcompetes or nutrients and light, ertilizing with natural compost, using ire to control antson the trunk and the branches and cleaning beneath the trees every six months to make iteasier to spot allen ruits. As Senhor Roxinho says, “when we rake the leaves and cleanthe orest loor, we always push the compost towards the uxi trees.”

When uxi ruit all rom the tree and become bruised, villagers leave them on the ground.In this way they ensure a substantial number o good seeds are available or naturalregeneration the ollowing year. To enrich the orest with uxi trees, wise producers say,“You have to move the young ones care ully because uxis are tricky.” Caboclos only selectthe saplings that have sprouted naturally and choose saplings rom trees that produce theplumpest and tastiest ruits. When an uxi tree begins to age and ruit production declines,it is cut down to o er space and sunlight or younger trees to grow.2 The wood does notgo to waste, but is valuable or construction.


growthslow in the shade,

up to 1 m/year in the sun

productionin plantations,

begins from 7–15 years

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Sr. Roxinho

Roxinho’s peri-urban home in themunicipality o Acara, a 40-minuteboat ride rom Belém, initially had6 uxis on 1 ha. A ter 30 years, hehas 60 uxis on 10 ha. Sometimeshe even cuts down a cupuaçu oranother ruit tree in avour o an uxi. To discover the economicvalue o uxi, Roxinho and a groupo researchers marked o 1 hao his property and kept track o all the ruits that were sold romthis hectare. During the harvesto 1996, in only two months(February and March), Roxinhoearned US$475 selling uxis rom that hectare. Even discounting the costs o transportationand labour, uxi is more pro itable than other ruits because it produces large quantities. Inone year, an average o 20% o Sr. Roxinho’s and his neighbours’ income originated romthe sale o uxi ruit.2

Apart rom uxi, Roxinho has many other ruit trees on his land, like biribá, pupunha,

piquiá and cupuaçu. The diversity o productive ruit trees on his property is due to hishard work, experimentation and innovative management practices. Without discountingall the expenses, he earned US$1 181 in 1996 rom ruit sales rom that one hectare alone.

To ensure production into the uture, Roxinho is care ul to choose the best seeds romthe most productive trees to plant. The harvest o uxi supplies most o his income and hisneighbours’ incomes as well. His amily waits or the uxi season to be able to buy extrathings or the house or or the children, such as clothing, books, notebooks, tools andpans. And guess what kind o wood he uses to build his house?

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Uxi, uchi 151

Enrico Bernard

Uxi is a avourite ood o some ruit-eating bats. Through sight and smell they are able tolocate the ripest ruits on the trees. The bats grab the ruits and twist them until they arereleased rom the tree. With the ruit in their mouths, they ly to a sa e place to savour theirtreat. Bats don’t eat the whole ruit; they just nibble the thin layer o tender and deliciouspulp and drop the large ibrous seed. When they are done, the bats will either race backto the same tree or search or another one with more ruits until they are satis ied. Rarelywill they stay in the same tree while they eat because there are o ten predators around thetree, such as owls, alcons, opossum and even other carnivorous bats. The wise bat will ly

ar away to escape being attacked.

The bats that eat uxi are generally large. One common species called the great ruit-eatingbat ( Artibeus lituratus) weighs between 40 and 80 g and can be up to 70 cm long rom wingto wing. When a bat grabs an uxi and takes it ar rom the mother tree, it is acting as a seeddisperser. In this way, new uxis can grow ar rom the shade o the mother tree where nouxis had existed be ore.

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1 Cavalcante, P.B. 19912 Shanley, P. & Gaia, G. 20043 Marx, F.et al . 20024 IBGE 19995 Carvalho, J.E.U., Müller, C.H. & Benchimol, R.L. 2007

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and diverse other species

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PageAçaí (Euterpe oleracea) 157Açaí (solitary) (Euterpe precatoria) 169Buriti (Mauritia lexuosa) 175Inajá ( Attalea maripa) 183Patauá (Oenocarpus bataua) 191Pupunha, peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) 197Tucumã o Amazonas ( Astrocaryum aculeatum) 205Diverse other species 215

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Euterpe oleraceaMart.

Margaret CymerysNathan Vogt

Eduardo BrondizioIn the darkness be ore dawn, thousands o Amazonian river dwellers ill their largewoven baskets with purple, pebble-sized açaí ruit and make the trip in small canoes orlarge boats to the scattered outdoor markets o the city o Belém. As the boats near Ver-o-Peso, the largest market at the mouth o the Amazon River, a seller shouts, “blood o the cow!” Buyers run to the boat, pressing their nails into the ruits to see i they are o good quality. “Blood o the cow” is a local re erence or the meaty açaí ruit with wine-coloured pulp. From an age o six months, children o eastern Amazonia drink açaí juice.As one airgoer says, “At a young age, the intestines o the Paráense natives are alreadyaccustomed to açaí.” And with great bene its – açaí is being touted as a “super ruit” or itsanti-in lammatory, antioxidant and anti-cancer e ects. Because o its growing reputation,demand or açaí is expanding around the world.

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Açaí is a multi-stemmed palm native to eastern Amazonia, with the greatest occurrencein the estuary o the Amazon River, where it occupies most o the loodplain orest o theregion. The palm is also ound in the Brazilian states o Amapá, Amazonas and Maranhão,as well as in Guyana, French Guiana and Venezuela. Açaí palms grow at various densitiesin both seasonally looded orests and permanently looded orests. Birds, monkeys,people and water are responsible or the dispersal o the açaí seeds. The açaí ruit growsbest in open areas with substantial sun, such as loodplain orests where canopy trees havebeen thinned. The palms can reach a height o over 25 m, with trunks between 9 cm and16 cm in diameter. The palms generally grow with 4–9 stems per clump, but up to 25 stemsis possible.


Flowers and ruit grow all year long, but there are periods when production peaks. These

peaks vary across the açaí’s region, thus lengthening the number o months the drink isavailable to supply enthusiastic consumers. In general, the period o the greatest ruitabundance occurs during the dry season, rom July through December. When mature, the

ruit becomes hard and blackish, like a pebble.

In one Marajó municipality, clumps o açaí in unmanaged loodplain orest varied between128 palms and 208 palms/ha.1 In the looded orests o the estuary o the Amazon

River, there are between 300 and 400 adult açaí trees and an average o 800 juveniles/ha.Intensively managed orests can reach densities o 1 200 clumps/ha. In poorer soils, it iscommon to ind densities o 100–200 clumps/ha.

170 clumps/ha inunmanaged forest

820 clumps/alqueire inunmanaged forest

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Açaí 159

During the peak season, between 10 000 and 20 000 baskets o açaí ruit, weighing 14–15 kg each, arrive at the Açaí Fair eachday.2 Pará is the largest producer o açaí juice; in 1997 aloneit produced more than 1 million litres.3 Each adult açaí stemproduces 4–8 ruit bunches/year. Each bunch contains 4 kg o

ruit, giving a total o about 120 kg o ruit/açaí palm/year. Onthe island o Onças, where the river dwellers manage açaí or themarkets o Belém, an average production o 1 160 kg/ha/year wasproduced on control plots. The palms, which are managed bypruning most o the young stems and thinning other plants thatgrow up around them, can produce 10 000 or 12 000 kg/ha/yearin terra irme orest and up to 15 000 kg in looded orest.1

In the early hours of the morning, 70–120 sellers arrive at the Açaí Fair in Belém; by8 a.m., all the açaí has been sold – disappearing into the trucks, carts, and sacks of willingcustomers and large firms that fan out into the city. Guess how many açaí home shops andstreet vendors there were in Belém in 1995? More than 2 000! Imagine how many thereare now. Most of the açaí consumed in Belémis produced on the neighbouring islands of Marajó, the island of Onças, and in the regionof Acará. The majority of that productioncomes fromEuterpe oleracea.

The amount o açaí sold at the ports o Belémvaries throughout the year, with prices risingwhen the ruit is scarce and dropping duringpeak ruit production. During the 2007/2008harvest in the municipality o Ponta de Pedras,two producers recorded the arm gate price o a basket to be US$3.50 at the beginning o theseason (in August) and US$9 at the end o the

season (in January). Not surprising, the priceis slightly below that sold at the ports o Belémbecause the transporters take their share.

Açaí prices and the quantity o açaí consumed have both skyrocketed in recent years.In 1995, a 14-kg basket o açaí sold in Belém or between US$1 and US$5, a raction o its current price. In April 2003, that basket o açaí sold or an average o US$4, and byApril 2008, with growing international and national markets, one basket sold or morethan US$30. However, this is not the reality or most producers around Belém whereproduction rarely stretches through April. Only occasionally they strike it lucky with asmall amount o o -season harvesting. Traders, on the other hand, usually bring açaí rom

distant regions to capture these opportunities. Producers rom the state o Amapá whoharvest açaí during Pará’s o season are increasingly sending their product to Belém andsurrounding regions.

an average of120 kg of

fruit/palm/year

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In 2008, the price o one litre o açaí juice in Belém ranged rom US$2 or thin juice andup to US$5 or very thick juice. Pressure rom export markets has in luenced the qualityo açaí juice sold to those who consume açaí as a resh staple ood. When açaí ruit pricesare high, processors who sell it resh or daily consumption increase the amount o waterand, in some cases, add thickening and colouring products. This way they can keep pricesaccessible to low income consumers, but at the expense o quality. While most Amazonians

only consume it resh, those who like smoothies and açaí desserts can ensure they have itout o season by purchasing rozen pulp or US$5/kg.

National and international consumption o açaí has grown dramatically in recentdecades. In the Amazonian city o Macapá in 1998, people consumed between 27 000and 34 000 litres a day, and the açaí industry earned more than US$15 million/year.4 InBelém, consumption has risen rom 90 000 litres/day in the late 1980s to an estimated400 000 litres/day in the late 1990s.5 In 2006, the Brazilian national statistics estimated thatmore than 101 000 tonnes o ruit were sold, or a value o US$47 million6, but that missesmuch o the regional production vastly underestimating the actual trade.1

Açaí has become less important as a source o palm hearts as producers ocus on supplyingruit to this growing market. Likewise, technological advances providing ice or re rigerationon cargo boats allow more remote producers to manage their açaí stands or the perishable

ruit but palm hearts can be collected during stand thinning. Over 99% o the palm heartsharvested in the Amazon region come rom açaí. In 1996, more than 86 000 tonnes o palm hearts were produced rom açaí, at a value o more than US$13 million.6 In 2006,palm heart production in the Brazilian Amazon had dropped to around 6 100 tonnes, stillgenerating almost US$3.9 million7 in supplemental income or riverine communities.

Mean monthly price and volume of açai sold in ports of Belém 2004/05

0

2

4

6

8

10

12


A m o u n

t s o

l d ( k g , m

i l l i o n s )

0

12

3

45

6

78

9Av

er a

g e

b a s k e t pr i c e

( U S $ )

Volume (kg) Basket pri ce (US$)

Source: SECOM

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Açaí 161

Fruit: Açaí ruit is sold as rozen pulp, jam and juice. It is used tolavour ice cream and other rozen treats, cakes, porridges and bonbons.

It is also sold as powder and pigments.

Palm hearts: The palm hearts are eaten resh or canned.

Leaves: The leaves are constructed into houses, baskets, carpets, ans andropes or climbing trees. They also provide ertilizer and animal eed. Thespathe that covers the ruit bunch can be taken by children to make toyboats or utilized by parents to make hammocks or babies.

Seed: The seeds make excellent ertilizer and, when dry, are cra ted into

jewellery.Trunk: The trunks are used or raming in the construction o rural housesand to make bridges across small streams.

Young roots: When made into a medicinal tea, theyoung roots help to get rid o worms.

Fruit stem: The stem remaining a ter the ruitare removed is used as a ertilizer or as a gardenbroom. When burned, the stem serves as an insectrepellent.

Scientists learn rom caboclos

Mário Jardim

Black, purple, tinted, speckled and white – who canrecognize so many types o açaí? Although scientists

have only one name or açaí, people who live along therivers identi y distinct varieties. Black and purple açaí are considered the most common, while other varietiesare distinguished by the characteristics o their ruitand palm. Some scientists are incorporating such localknowledge into their botanical identi ications and arecalling these di erences “ethnovarieties”.7

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In the 1970s, when the palm heart industry began in Pará, extraction was intense, o tendestroying the açaí palms and leaving disgruntled people without açaí ruit juice. In the1980s, the açaí stands started to show signs o unsustainable exploitation, and in 1989IBAMA, the Brazilian ederal environmental institute, created a law that only permittedthe managed cutting o açaí palms. Today, the açaí merchants closer to the city can earnmore through the sale o açaí ruit; and palm hearts are extracted rom stands arther rommetropolitan areas, but there are still cases o illegal açaí cutting.9

In managed açaí palm groves, 700 large açaí palms growon each hectare, translating to 190 kg/ha o palm hearts

or each harvest. Palm hearts can be harvested repeatedlyrom the same plant, as the açaí orms shoots o numerous

stems. This way, smaller stems can be le t and a ewlarger stems removed without killing the tree. However,extracting a substantial number o palm heart stems romone tree can diminish the number o valuable ruits a palmis able to produce. Consumers can judge i the canned palmhearts in their house were harvested sustainably or not. Asimple technique to monitor the pressure on açaí palms rom the palm heart industry wasdeveloped by Harrison Pollak, Marli Mattos and Chris Uhl: count the number o palm

hearts in the can. When there are more than 17 palm hearts in a can, you know this camerom an area o overextraction as it indicates too many small stems are being harvested.A 1 kg can containing 17 palm hearts or less indicates a sustainable practice o harvestinglarger stems and only a ew smaller stems.9

When the açaí harvest is at a peak, peoplein some cities in eastern Amazonia, likeAbaetetuba, Cametá, Ponta de Pedras

and Moções, have an Açaí Festival. Streetcompetitions include: the largest varietyo oods made rom açaí; the largest orsmallest bunch o ruit; the person whocan drink the most juice; and olk dancing.Revellers in the streets stroll by withsomething in common, their lips stainedpurple by the ruit o açaí, singing an açaí-inspired song, “It’s the plant that eeds thepassion o our people….”

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Açaí 163

I someone has an accident in the woods, cut the top o an açaí palm heart and squeeze the juice over the wound. This shouldstem the bleeding. Also, in riverine areas an extract preparedrom açaí roots as a tea or tonic is o ten used as an anthelminticto expel parasitic worms rom the body.

João Batista da Silva, an orchidophile atthe Goeldi Museum, in Belém, made ahandy discovery regarding the cultivationo orchids and açaí seeds. A ter the pulp isremoved rom the seeds o açaí, the seeds arenormally tossed aside as garbage. However,this garbage is a rich planting mix or orchidsand ornamental plants. Açaí seeds can evenserve as a substitute or expensive ertilizers

ound in the market. To make the ertilizer,gather together the açaí seeds, wash them and boil them to prevent germination. Let themdry be ore using them. Joao’s discovery has become a widespread practice – seed sellersnow sell açaí ertilizer door to door.

There are di erent legends associated with the açaí palm. Apopular one goes as ollows.

In ancient times, there was an indigenous tribe o Pará thatpassed through a long and di icult hunger season. To savesome o his people, the chie elt that he had to order thatall the children o the village be killed, including his own

daughter Iaça. The daughter was heartbroken and set o or awalk through the woods. The chie went to look or Iaça andound her standing near a palm. The chie walked closer to his

daughter and ound her embracing a palm ull o small blackruits. The chie prepared a drink rom the ruit and brought it

to his tribe to relieve their hunger. In homage to the palm treethat still eeds people today, the chie inverted her name andcalled the tree “açaí”.

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People rom Pará cannot live without açaí juice. The table can be laid with roast bee ,salad, ish or barbeque, but without açaí,it just is not a meal. In some Amazoniancaboclo communities, açaí was ound tomake up 42% o their daily intake byweight.10 Some people in Belém drink upto 3 litres o açaí/day. In the 1990s, anaverage person rom Belém consumed 60litres o açaí/year.5 An estimated 180 000tonnes o açaí are consumed each year inthe city.

Açaí tastes good and is also good oryou. The pulp has a high number o calories, up to 247 calories/100 g.Açaí juice is rich in calcium, iron,phosphorous and vitamin B1. It isalso high in the bene icial atty acidsomega-6 and omega-9. The level o

vitamin A is higher than many othertropical ruits. One hundred gramso açaí contains 2 g o protein,12.2 g o lipids, 11.8 g o iron, 0.36 go vitamin B1 and 9 mg o vitaminC.12 The level o protein in açaí is similar to milk. The palm hearto açaí has ew calories, but is agood source o minerals, containingsodium, potassium, magnesium,iron, phosphorus, copper andsilicon. Riverine caboclos indicate that it is not advisable to eat açaí with milk, alcohol or

ruits such as cupuaçu, mango, cacao and watermelon. Scientists con irm that acidic ruitsshould not be eaten together with açaí, although this is a common practice outside theregion where açaí consumption became popular in ruit smoothies.

Açaí is being marketed in the United States o Americaand Europe as a “super ood”. In 2006, a study oundthat extracts rom açaí berries initiated a sel -destructresponse in up to 86% o the leukaemia cancer cells testedin the lab.13 These e ects have not yet been demonstratedon cancer in humans. Açaí is rich in lavonoids, whichgive it its dark purple colour and provide a high dose o antioxidants.

Nutrition facts

Quantity/100 g % of daily intake*

Calories

Total fat

Saturated fat

Omega 6

Omega 9Cholesterol

Sodium

Total carbohydrate

Fibre

Sugars

Protein

80

6 g

1.5 g

860 mg

3 360 mg0 mg

10 mg

7 g

1 g

0 g

2 g

-

9

7

-

-0

0

2

5

-

-

Vitamin A 15%

Vitamin C 8%

Calcium 4%

Iron 6%

* Daily values are based on a 2 000 calorie diet. 11

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Açaí 165

Açaí pulp has become a ad in gyms in the south o Brazil. Athletesenjoy açaí mixed with guaraná and oats to give them a burst o energy. Dona Maria is one o the people in Belém who exports

rozen pulp. She said she sent açaí to a snack shop in Rio de Janeiroor the irst time in 1980. Twenty years later, she was sending up to800 tonnes per year to di erent cities throughout Brazil.

Açaí is important in the diet o many mammals and birds, such as toucans, tinamous,chachalacas, spider monkeys, capuchin monkeys, deer, tapirs, peccaries and agouti. Fishand turtles also like açaí. Guans enjoy both the ruit and the leaves o the açaí tree. People

rom the Kayapó Indian group place açaí ruit on their ields to attract and eed wildli e.

Açaí palms regenerate easily in the seasonally looded orests o the estuary o the AmazonRiver, where the seeds are spread by people, animals and water. In the terra irme orests,the palm is cultivated by planting sprouts. The seeds germinate quickly (in 30–40 daysin humid conditions) and in our or ive months (at 30 cm in height) the sprouts areready to be planted. In the natural environment, less that 50% o the seeds germinate.Light is the principal requirement or rapid growth. Açaí agro orestry systems in theestuary loodplains are developed primarily by the planting o açaí seedlings in swiddenagriculture plots a ter planting o annual and biannual crops or by the management o native loodplain orests, or a combination o the two.1


growth2 m/year


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Estuarine producers increase açaí productivity in loodplain orests by managing boththe entire orest stand and the individual palm tree. To increase the productivity o theentire stand, it is necessary to thin the large canopy trees shading the açaí palms, but manyproducers keep the economically important species, such as andiroba, ucúuba and rubbertrees. It is also wise to cut the vines and branches o neighbouring trees so they do notinter ere with the crowns o adult açaí palms. But do not throw them away; they makegood ertilizer.

For the individual palm, some amilies who manage açaí have discovered that removingsome o the stems o the clump or palm heart extraction can also increase ruitproduction.14 They remove the older stems that are too tall or ruit collection, as well assome o the smaller stems to take advantage o their inner, tender palm hearts. Experiencedharvesters leave both the productive and nonproductive medium-sized stems. In onehighly productive Marajó municipality, managed açaí groves contained an average 500palms/ha, with some containing more than 870 palms/ha.2

Açaí ruits last between 36 and 48hours without re rigeration. Inareas where the ruits cannot besold because o the long distancesto markets, managing or palmhearts is an important alternative.To avoid harming the açaí palms,remove only three stems percluster o the larger palms (those

10 cm or more dbh) every threeor ive years.

When your açaí ruit season isover, do not worry; açaí armershave been experimenting withways to extend the productionseason o açaí ruit. To encourageproduction out o season, theypick the lowers when they arestill young as a way to alter theseason when the tree gives ruit.

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Açaí 167

When rural amilies began establishing urban residences in large numbers in the 1960s,they brought their habits and their cultural pre erence or açaí ruit with them, creating ademand that has grown during the past 50 years.15 In addition to contributing to culturalcontinuity regarding ood pre erences, açaí ruit has provided a ordable nourishment andremains a caloric staple particularly important to low-income urban residents.16 How didthis regional demand, and later the national and international craving or açaí ruit, impactthe estuary? Let’s take a look.

From the air, the loodplains o the Amazon estuary appear as a continuous blanketo homogenous orests, sometimes misinterpreted as pristine. From the ground, orestlandscapes reveal the legacies o past economic booms, with large areas increasinglydominated by intensively managed patches o açaí agro orestry, a process some have calledthe “acaization” (açaização) o the Amazon estuary. Up closer, we see clearly de ined orest

arms where care ul managers take up unmanaged orest patches (producing an average o 1 400 kg/ha/year, or 200 açaí clumps/ha) and intensi y production to as high as 12 000 kg/ha/year, or 1 200 palms/ha. Although the productivity is modi ied year to year, the extento these intensively managed patches has spread across the region in recent decades andis now the dominant land use, all done without external capital or agricultural extensionagents.

Widely available throughout urban stalls and restaurants in the 1990s, açaí came underthe radar o ood companies who saw the potential to sell it as an energy and healthdrink in national and international markets, where products deemed both socially and

environmentally responsible are ashionable and may reach astounding prices. Forinstance, pills and vitamin supplements claiming the health and anti-aging bene its o açaí can reach US$50 or a 60-capsule container. The combination o international interest,national consumption and regional urban demand o açaí as a staple has caused the overalldemand or açaí ruit to skyrocket in recent decades.

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Ironically, companies and many Brazilian agencies, both new to the açaí business, andthe media at large, still give the impression that açaí is extracted rom native orests. Theyo ten believe that they need to guide the riverine caboclos in intensi ying production.In reality, the production systems being developed by companies and governmentinstitutions are built upon those designed over the years by riverine caboclos. The newmanagement and planting techniques, such as the agronomically sophisticated “roçadosde várzea,” ( loodplain gardens), are based on local knowledge o the loodplain orests.The initiatives and e orts o the riverine caboclos to intensi y production since the 1970sare responsible or the present high-density açaí “native” orests. Caboclo ingenuity hasallowed production to reach its current levels in national and international markets.

However, with the expansion and industrialization o açaí, these same producers are theones that receive an ever-decreasing proportion o this enormous and growing economy.The story o açaí ruit and its producers demonstrate an important lesson or sustainabledevelopment o the Amazon. It is possible to value the orest and increase production byimproving on local techniques, but merely exporting unprocessed resources is not enoughto generate local development. The region needs a “trans ormative economy” where thevalue o the ruit (and other products) can be aggregated locally. Incentives towards atrans ormative economy could help increase the economic return or those who produceas well as encourage the creation o regional businesses and create jobs or both rural andurban people.

1

Brondizio, E. 20082 Weinstein, S. 20003 Clay, J.W.C.; Clement, C.R. & Sampaio, P.B. 20004 Poulet, D. 19985 Padoch, C.et al.20086 Jardim, M.A.G. 19967 IBGE 20068 Jardim, M.A.G. 20009 Pollak, H; Mattos, M. & Uhl, C. 199710 Murrieta, R.S.S.; Du our, D.L. & Siqueira, A.D. 199911 http://www.sambazon.com/nutrition/ rozenPure.jpg (accessed August 14, 2008)12 Calzavara, B.B.G. 198713 Del Pozo-Ins ran, D.; Percival, S.S. & Talcott, S.T. 200614 Jardim, M.A.G. 199515 Brondizio, E.S., C.C.M. Sa ar & Siqueira, A.D. 200216 Brondízio E.S. & Siqueira, A.D. 1997

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Euterpe precatoriaMart.

Evandro FerreiraIndians and rubber tappers in Acre have loved the rich, purple juice made rom theberries o this palm or generations, but it has only recently begun to appear in themarkets. Urbanites have also discovered açaí and are becoming accustomed to serving it –sometimes as a sweet, and sometimes as a savoury – at every meal. The solitary açaí thatgrows in Acre is di erent rom the multi-stemmed açaí that is ound in Pará. As its namewould indicate, solitary açaí grows a single stem, or trunk, and is generally taller than theaçaí rom Pará, reaching heights o more than 23 m. It is native to the western Amazon andgenerally ound in mature orests, occurring in wetlands, looded orest and terra irme

orest. Solitary açaí is only slightly resistant to ire and is rarely ound in de orested areas.The heart o this palm is a great delicacy, which, sadly, has led to a massive reduction in itsnative population.

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Fruit trees and use ul plants in the lives o Amazonians170

In wetlands


In terra irme


The lowers and ruits can be ound throughout the year, but there are seasonal peaks o production. In Acre, the solitary açaí growing in looded areas produce irst, rom Marchthrough June, then the palms growing on terra irme start to produce, rom June throughOctober.1

The greatest density o palms occurs in swampy areas. For example, in wetland areas o Epitaciolândia, 57 productive individuals were ound per hectare,2 while in the terra irme

orest there were only 39/ha.3 Another study in Acre ound adult densities o 23 palms/ha interra irme orest and 60 palms/ha in looded orests.4 It is possible to ind up to ive timesas many solitary açaí palms in the looded areas as in the terra irme.

39 palms/ha in terra firme 57 palms/ha in wetlands

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Açaí (solitary) 171

During the year, each palm produces between 2 and 6 bunches o ruit.One hectare o terra irme orest can produce more than 140 kg o ruit,and in looded orest the production can reach more than 270 kg/ha.5 Despite this, the large, meaty berries o the terra irme palms are moresought a ter than the smaller and more abundant variety that grows inthe looded orest. A palm rom the looded orest produces an averageo 7.5 kg o ruit, while a palm rom the terra irme produces 8.5 kg o

ruit. The per ect time to collect açaí is when the ruit are almost black and beginning toall. A ter being harvested, the ruits should be kept out o the sun. They can last or up to

three days be ore they begin to turn.

In Rio Branco, the capital o the state o Acre, the berries rom solitary açaí were sold in2005 or US$2–2.50/12-kg can. In August 2002, there were 19 places to buy açaí equippedwith machines to extract the juice rom the seeds; these sold a total o 7 500 litres/week, orbetween US$0.54 and US$0.72/litre. Based on the sale o açaí juice, we can deduce that 22tonnes o açaí ruit were sold each week in Rio Branco during that year. Solitary açaí hasa lovely white seed that is in high demand by local artisans or jewellery-making. Hal akilogram o polished and punctured açaí seeds sold or US$3.40 in 2004. Necklaces made

rom guaraná, coconut and açaí are being sold as ar away as New York City. The mostelaborate and spectacular o these necklaces can cost as much as US$167.

Fruit: Palm berries are used to prepare açaí juice, ice cream and other rozenice treats, and chicha, a ermented drink loved by local indigenous people.The juice can be served as a cold soup; thick, unsweetened and with arinhaadded, or thinner with sugar as a beverage. Seeds: Jewellery made rom pure white açaí seeds hasbecome a ad across Brazil, and the most popular seed is

rom single açaí. Multi-stemmed açaí seeds are violet. Palm heart: Palm hearts can be eaten resh, alone or in salads.

Oil: In Peru, some Indians use the oil as a beauty product for hair.6

Leaves and roots: The juice obtained rom pressing new roots and newleaves is used to cure snake bites, as well as to treat anaemia.7 In Bolivia, theleaves are used by Indians to make brooms and as roo ing or houses.8 InPeru, the root is used to cure liver and kidney disorders.9

Trunk: The trunks are used as beams or house construction in rural areas.

8 kg offruit/palm

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Since the rubber era, single açaí has been adored and consumedin great quantities by rubber tappers, who a ter a long day o walking through the orest look orward to large gourds o açaí juice with their meals, o ten accompanied by arinha, seasonedwith pieces o ried meat or salted shrimp. Açaí continues tobe very important in today’s diet: the 111 amilies in the Acrecommunity o São Luiz do Remanso consume approximately1 665 kg o ruit/year.10 Many people in Acre drink up to onelitre/day o açaí, which is impressive considering that açaí juice is loaded with calories: rom 80 calories/100 g o the thin,commercial type, to 265 calories/100 g or the thick kind.11

According to the locals who live in thecommunities o Dois Irmãos and Caquetá,parrots, macaws, toucans and curassows arethe primary dispersers o solitary açaí seedsthroughout the orest. Scientists agree anddiscovered that açaí composes 59% o thered brocket deer’s diet and 80% o the greybrocket deer’s diet.5

These days you do not have to be concernedabout drinking açaí in the streets o RioBranco. The majority o açaí vendors use clean“de-pulping” machines and mineral water toextract the juice and store it in re rigerators.You can also ind açaí juice or sale in thesupermarkets. This is a recent improvement,however. In the past, açaí pulp was removed

rom the seed by hand. The vendor would thentie 15 to 20 bags o reshly squeezed juice ona pole to carry on his shoulders as he walkedthrough the streets under the blazing equatorialsun, calling out, “Açaí! Açaí!” The juice would bake all day inside plastic bags andwas o ten spoiled by the time it reached the table.

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Açaí (solitary) 173

In comparison to multi-stemmed açaí, there are ew studies about the management o solitary açaí. However, scientists do have one important tip: I you collect solitary açaí bunches at the height o the season and let them all the rest o the year, everyone wins –the animals can eat, the açaí can reproduce and people can have their beloved juice.2

The process o extracting palm heart results in the death o solitary-stemmed palm trees.There are no examples o sustainable palm heart harvesting in the whole state o Acre.

Along the road that links Acre to thestate o Amazonas (BR-317), extractiono palm heart destined or the citieso Rio Branco and Senador Guiomardpractically destroyed the solitary açaí population by the end o the 1990s.In those days, palm heart merchantstravelled along the back roads in thecountryside convincing local armers tosell their açaí palms. In 1994, the goingprice was US$0.22/palm stem, alreadyextracted and prepared or sale. I themerchants extracted the palm themselves,however, the price ell to US$0.11. Theowners o those palms have had to waitmany years or them to grow back to areasonable size.

In Bolivia, predatory exploitationthreatens the regional extinction o açaí.12 Palm heart producers in Bolivia shouldtake a lesson rom Acre, where the palm

heart companies went out o businessbecause the stock was decimated. The


growth5 m/year

production4 years

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increasing popularity o açaí juice is making the managed harvest o pulp rom thismarvellous palm more and more attractive.

1 Costa, J.A. 2001 / Denslow, J.L. 19802 Costa, J.A. 20013 Denslow, J.L. 19804 Rocha, E. 20045 Rocha, E. 20016 Bodley, J.H. & Benson, F.C. 19797 Ming, L.C.; Guadêncio, P. & Santos, V.P. 19978 Boom, B.M. 19879 Mejia K. 199210 CTA 1997 / CNS 199311 Bovi, M.L.A & De Castro, A. 199312 Zuidema, P.A. & Boot, R.G.A. 2000

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Mauritia lexuosaL. .

Margaret CymerysNivia Maria de Paula Fernandes

Ono ra Cleuza Rigamonte-Azevedo

The buriti is one o the largest and he tiest palms in Amazonia, reaching 20–35 m in heightand 30–50 cm in diameter. The trunks are so massive that when elled they are used asbridges. People, as well as a wide assortment o animals, enjoy its nutritious ruit. Theleaves, stems, seeds and oil are also used or a plethora o products. The buriti palm playsa celebrated role in many o Amazonia’s popular estivals, when adults and children alikeparade through the streets with brightly painted igurines carved rom the buriti stem.Buriti is distributed throughout Amazonia, rom the north o South America extendingto the northeast and central south o Brazil. This palm pre ers wetland areas, seasonally

looded orests, stream banks and riversides, where it is ound in abundant concentrations.1

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The buriti is a dioecious species, having both male and emale plants. The male palmslower in the same months as the emale, but without producing ruit. Near Belém, buritilowers in September through December and produces ruit rom January through July,

sometimes producing again in November or December. The buritis in Acre lower romApril through October. Fruit maturation can be heterogeneous in the same plant, varying

rom 7 to 11 months. Ripe ruits can be ound rom March through October.2

The buriti occurs with greater requency in wetland areas. It is common to indapproximately 60–70 emale buritis and 75–85 male buritis/ha.2 Extrapolated to alqueires,this density becomes 290–335 emale buritis and 360–410 male buritis/alqueire.

Buriti palms are extremely productive: one buriti palm can producebetween 40 and 360 kg o ruit/year. I a hectare o buriti is managed,it can produce between 2.5 and 23 tonnes o ruit/year. Based on

orest inventories in Acre, it has been estimated that annually aemale buriti palm produces between 1 and 9 bunches o ruit, and

each bunch has rom 600 to 1 200 individual ruits.2 Considering anaverage o 64 emale palms/ha and an average production o 200 kg

o ruit, it is possible to obtain 384 kg o oil and pulp/ha. A buriti palm lives a long andertile li e – production declines only a ter 40–60 years.

60–70 fruitingpalms/ha

290–335 fruitingpalms / alqueire

average of200 kg / palm

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Buriti, moriche palm 177

Street corners in Iquitos, Peru, are dotted with women selling buriti rozen ice treats. In1985, it was estimated that these sellers earned about US$11/day. By the end o the month,the women’s salary was eight times the minimum wage.3 In the western Amazon, thepeople o Iquitos enjoy eating buriti as much as people rom the eastern Amazonian stateo Pará enjoy açaí. In Belém, in 2007, 1 kg o pulp cost US$2.60 and a bunch o 15 ruitscost US$0.52. A small basket o cooked buriti ruit, sold rom January through May, costsUS$5. One litre o buriti juice costs rom US$0.52 to US$1, and a 5-kg bag o grated buriti

or preparing juice costs up to US$8. Prices or toys made rom buriti vary rom US$0.30to US$300.

During the second Sunday o October each year,antastically coloured animals made rom buriti

adorn the streets, parks and sidewalks in the city o Belém. It is Círio de Nazaré, one o Brazil’s mostrenowned religious estivals, in which millions o people line the streets to see the “Saint”, a smallwooden statue o Mary and the in ant Jesus. Asthe Saint passes, they make promises and wishes

or the year to come. Traditionally, vendorsparade around the streets with large crosses made

o buriti on which hang scores o buriti olktoys. In 2006, an estimated 36 000 buriti toyswere sold, generating over US$349 600. In 2007,there were more than 90 di erent kinds o burititoys or sale during the Círio de Nazaré, such as boats, canoes, animals and even radios,computers and airplanes. Sales rose to 51 000 pieces that year, earning over US$520 000 inrevenue. In the area o Bacarena, hundreds o amilies are involved in the production andsale o these hand-cra ted igurines. The toys are very popular in other regional estivalsas well, especially the Muriti est, in Abaetetuba, Pará, a estival devoted exclusively to thecelebration o this colour ul cra t. In recent years, their ame has spread across Brazil, andstores as ar away as São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro have begun to commission buriti cra ts

or sale.

Pulp: The pulp is used in juice, sweets, ice cream andother rozen ice treats.

Seed: The seeds appear in buttons, cra ts and jewellery (with gold and

silver), in addition to having a role in the production o alcohol uel.4

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Oil: The oil is used to ry ish and to make soap and cosmetics. It also actsas lamp uel. Buriti oil is said to have puri ying and detoxi ying qualities.

New leaves: When they are still closed, the new leavesare called “eyes”. These are used to make cords,baskets, belts, purses, mats, hats, sandals, book coversand hammocks. In the Bragança region o Pará, manyleaves are extracted to make tobacco pouches. Leavesare also used as organic ertilizer.

Adult leaves: In Acre, the stalks are o ten used to make kites. In Pará,the leaves are used to weave colanders and sieves (tipiti) or extractingtucupi liquid rom manioc root used in regional cuisine. In the past, theTupinambá Indians boiled buriti leaves to obtain a tawny brown powderused as a salt substitute.5

Stems: The stem supplies a light, so t material used in cra ts. The “branch”has a spongy inner part that is used in the manu acture o toys, toilet paperand birdcages. Stems can reach up to 4 m in length.

Trunk: The trunk is used or bridge construction and, because it loats,the trunk can be used to transport other logs along rivers. Male buritisare o ten selected so as not to destroy ruiting trees. Rotten buriti palmsare also highly prized. Children and adults scout out logs decaying in thewater to collect wood eating mollusks called turus. Containing a highconcentration o protein, these marine bivalves also known as shipwormsare considered a delicacy both raw and cooked.

Wildli e: The ruit o buriti is an important source o nutrition or manyanimals, including tapir, peccaries and deer.

Husbands and wives to be in the Apinayé Indian tribeawait and greet the ruiting o the buriti palm withgreat happiness, as this is the season during whichthe Apinayé hold their inest parties and weddings.6 When a man rom the Apinayé Indian tribe wants tomarry, he must pass a tough test. To prove himsel worthy o his bride, he publicly demonstrates hisvigour by carrying a 1-m (or more) long buriti trunk

rom the orest to the centre o the village. When,and i , he arrives in the village with the buriti trunk,the sister and godmother o the bride proudly escorthim to the bride. The contented husband and cheer ulbride then share a meal to consummate the marriage.7

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Palm researchers discovered that the buriti ruit produces two types o oil widely usedin the chemical and ood industries. Oil extracted rom the palm seeds are high in lauricacid, a saturated atty acid o ten used in the production o soaps and shampoos. The oilextracted rom the ruit pulp is high in oleic acid, a monounsaturated omega-9 atty acid

ound in many vegetable oils. It is estimated that with a density o 150 emale plants/ha,the buriti can produce 3.6 tonnes o vegetable oil/ha. This yield is ar superior to theproduction o the most commonly used vegetable oils in the world, such as soy, sun lowerand peanut, though it is less than the yield rom the palm oil, dendê.8

Buriti vegetable oil can also be used to produce sunscreen because it absorbs electromagneticradiation between the wavelengths o 519 nanometres (green) and 350 nanometres(ultraviolet), rays which are harm ul to human skin.9 Currently, cosmetic companies areselling buriti oil over the Internet to re-hydrate and revitalize the skin or US$23 or 8 ozand US$256 or a gallon10 and also utilizing it in the production o natural deodorants.

For remote communities in Amazonia,buriti oil could represent a source o alternative electricity. In Rondônia,buriti oil is used in the production o e icient and low-cost electric energyin a pilot project developed by theFederal Universities o Brasília andRio de Janeiro.6

Apinayé Indians commonly walk through the orest with wovenbaskets ull o buriti ruit. When they eel like a snack, they removethe skin with their teeth and suck on the pulp.11 They are clever todo so as the nutritional richness o buriti ruit is ar greater than mostsupermarket snacks. Buriti possesses one o the highest quantities o

carotene among all the plants o the world;12

it has 30 mg o caroteneper 100 g o pulp13 – 20 times more than the amount in the equivalentweight o carrots.

However, in certain regions o Brazil, vitamin A de iciency is a requent problem, leadingto illnesses, such as eye and mouth in ections, toothaches and poor night vision. Innortheast Brazil, children are able to combat these de iciencies by eating sweets – buritisweets. One group o undernourished children was given buriti sweets or 20 days. In ashort while, the symptoms caused by vitamin A de iciency disappeared.14

The pulp o buriti also o ers good quality protein. Almost equivalent to corn ornourishment, the pulp o buriti is composed o 11% protein. Due to its outstandingnutritional value, the ruit is now being used in the recuperation o malnourishedchildren.

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Buriti oil has many uses. It is expensive to purchase, so it is worthwhileto know how to express the oil at home. To extract buriti oil, mash each

ruit with a spoon or a piece o wood. Place the ruit in a drum or canilled with water and cover it with green leaves. Place the can over a ire

or in the sun or our or ive hours, without stirring, until the ruit so tens(do not allow the water to boil). When very so t, remove the ruit andscrape the pulp o the skin with a spoon. Place the pulp in water andheat; when the oil begins to rise, remove it with a spoon. This oil is great

or rying ish, and the le tover ibres and pulp are an excellent ertilizeror the ield or garden.

In certain regions o Pará, people bore holes in the trunk o the male buritis and collect rom 8 to 10 litres o sap toproduce a light yellow sugar. Don Antonio de AlmeidaLustosa, Archbishop o Pará, wrote in the 1930s: “Thecaboclo cuts down the male palm and punctures itstrunk to reach the sap.” The sap is thickened byevaporation, trans orming it to honey.9

The interior o the buriti trunk can be ground up toorm starchy lour used to prepare porridge similar

to sago, a staple ood or many people in PapuaNew Guinea. The Native Amazonians call thisipuruna lour.7

Buriti pulp can be made at home. Place the ruits inwarm iltered or boiled water. Once so t, squeeze thepulp out through a sieve or mash it with your hands. A de-pulping machine,like those used or açai, works well. The thickness o the buriti pulp will dependon the amount o water used.

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Ingredients:– 10 cups o buriti pulp

– 10 cups o sugar– 1/2 cup o water– ground cloves to taste

Preparation:Mix the pulp with the sugar, adding water while it is cooking. When the sweets are close toready (when the mixture begins to pull away rom the bottom o the pan), add powderedclove. I you pre er the sweets in tablets, remove the batter rom the pan, spread it on aclean cutting board and when cool, cut it into pieces.

In the Northeast o Brazil, these delicious buriti sweets are sold in small boxes made rom

buriti branches. In Teresina, capital o the state o Piauí, the sweets are commonly oundin markets, sold in small packets or in large cans.8

Ingredients:– 700 g o buriti pulp– 2 cans o sweetened condensed milk– 2 cans o thick cream– 1/4 cup o lemon juice

Preparation:Place the pulp, condensed milk and cream in a blender. Bit by bit, add lemon juice to giveconsistency to the cream. Mix until it acquires the desired consistency. Pour the mixtureinto a bowl, and cool it in the re rigerator or several hours.

Large birds, such as chachalacas and guans, eat the lowerso the buriti, and dead standing buriti serve as importantnesting spots or some parrots. A study in southeastern Peru

ound that 47 o 50 known nests o blue and yellow macaws( Ara ararauna) and all the observed red-bellied macaw(Orthopsittaca manilata) nests were in buritis.15 Fork-tailedpalm swi ts (Tachornis squamata) on the other hand maketheir nests in the dead leaves hanging rom the buriti palm.

The ruits are sought a ter by a multitude o other wildli e. Knowing this,cunning hunters set up ri les with trap lines beneath buriti to capturethe deer, peccaries, tapirs, pacas or coatis that visit the palm or ruit.Monkeys, tortoises and even ish also dine on buriti. A valuable study inPeru ranked the importance o di erent orest ruits in animal diets.16 Buriti came irst orthe Brazilian tapir, 5th or the white-lipped peccary, 10th or the collared peccary, 16th orthe grey brocket deer and 18th or the red brocket deer. To improve ruit

production and attract game, Amazonians cut back the plants encircling theburiti and place organic material at the base o the palm.

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To increase the rate o germination, seek out the seeds o mature bunches o ruit that are

still attached to the palm. They should be the colour o red wine. A ter removing the skinand pulp rom these ruit, leave the palm seeds to soak in water or at least 12 days. Next,place them in the sun to dry or one day. Bury the seeds 2 cm down in the sand and wetthem at least twice a day. A ter 24 days, the seeds will begin to germinate, and a ter 42 days,95% o them should have sprouted.2

The buriti sprouts can be planted in looded soils, but they will not survive i they arealways submerged in water. The seedlings also require plenty o sunlight; in the beginning,the sprout uses nutrients rom the seed to grow and can tolerate shade, but it requires sunto grow into adulthood. To develop, the buriti bene its rom organic ertilizer that can beobtained rom the palm itsel .2

Near Iquitos, Peru, the tremendous popularity o the ruit has caused some collectorsto cut down many o the buriti palms surrounding the city to collect the ruit rapidly.Consequently, to ill the high demand o Peruvians in Iquitos, the ruit must now come

rom long distances, up to three days by canoe. As the subsistence and market value o the ruit is substantial, it makes sense to collect them without harming the tree so as toguarantee production year a ter year.

Managers o buriti palm o er the ollowing suggestions to help them grow. Cut back theplants without economic value to provide more space and sunlight or the productiveburiti to grow. It is possible to cut down some o the male buriti palms in order to harvestthe sap, utilize the wood and make other products, but be sure that at least 15–20% o theremaining palm trees are male to pollinate the emales. To improve the quality o the ruit,collect the seeds o the best specimens and seed them in open areas.11 1 Henderson, A. 19952 Paula-Fernandes, N.M. 20013 Padoch, C. 19884 Pesce, C. 19415 Levi-Straus, C. 19976 Castro, A. 20007 Cavalcante, P. 19918 Lleras, E.E. & Coradin, L. 19889 Moreira, G.C.; Morais, A.V. & Matias, J.G.N.S. 199810 http://www.grasshuttreasures.com/amazonoils.html 200811 Balick, M. 1986 and 1988b


growthin shade initially, then sun


12 Santos, L.M.P. 200513 Lima, M.C.C. 198714 Pio Correa, M. 192615 Brightsmith, Donald J. 200516 Bodmer, R. 1993

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Attalea maripa(Aubl.) Mart.[syn.:Maximiliana maripa(Aublet) Drude]

Margaret CymerysEvandro Ferreira

The inajá palm is common in Amazonia and occurs in abundance in terra firme with poorsandy soils. Extremely resistant to fire, inajá is often found in pastures, secondary forests andon community lands, sometimes in conjunction with other palms, such as babaçu ( Attaleaspeciosa), uricuri ( Attalea phalerata) or jaci ( Attalea butyracea). Inajá is easily distinguishedfrom these similar palms by its coated fruit, the long thin stalks of the fronds and the spathe,which has a long pointed tip. Inajá can reach 14 m in height and 69 cm in diameter.

In the past, many houses and arinha work sheds were covered with palm ronds rominajá. The ruit is sought out by wild and domestic animals alike, and or this reasonhunters o ten use it as bait. Those who protect this palm are increasing the amount o oodavailable or wildli e.

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In the eastern Amazonia, inajá lowers rom October through March. The ruit maturerom January through March o the ollowing year. In the western Amazonia, inajá lowers

around July and starts to bear ruit in November.

In primary orests, inajá occurs in low densities and pre ers areas o terra irme. Pasturesin the state o Acre were ound to contain between 16 and 100 palms/ha.

One palm normally produces 5 or 6 bunches o ruit/year,with 800 to 1 000 ruit/bunch.

There is not a large market or inajá ruit, but it is sold at the street airs o the city o Belém at the start o the year. In March 2004, 30 ruit could be purchased or US$0.34 atthe large Ver-o-Peso market. During the height o the season, it was possible to ind 20

ruit or US$0.20 at other open air markets. By 2007, 20 ruit sold or more than doublewhat it was our years earlier costing US$0.52. In the Praça da Rupública, a central squarein the city, jewellery utilizing inajá seeds is o ten sold, etching high prices. In 2008, a 60kg sack o seeds or artisans sold or US$89. In 2004, a ring sold or US$0.34, earrings costUS$1.36, bracelets sold or US$2 and necklaces cost US$5. By 2008, necklaces were selling

or US$2–18.

60 palms/ha 300 palms/alqueire

An average of 5 000fruit/palm

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Inajá 185

Fruit: The ruit provides ood or people, livestock andwildli e. In the past, the ruit was also used as uel in thesmoking o natural rubber latex. The pulp o the mature

ruit was also used to prepare a rustic soap, but this practicehas subsided owing to the availability o commercial soaps.

Fronds: Inajá ronds are used as roo ing or temporary houses. Dependingon the size o the structure, 120–250 leaves may be needed. Lea steams areused to make ish traps.

Palm hearts: People enjoy eating the palm hearts, and they are also ed tocattle to atten the animals, increasing milk production.

Spathe: The bract surrounding the inajá ruit cluster is used as a containerthat can last up to three months. It is used to collect water and to holdrations or pigs, chickens or horses. Children also like to play with them.

In lorescence stalk: The in lorescence stalk is the stalk connecting the ruitor lower cluster to the tree. It can be used like a eather duster once it iscut rom the tree and the ruit is shaken o .

In contrast to its use in the eastern Amazonia, inajá is rarely utilized in Acre. This palm isless accessible to rubber tappers or communities along the rivers because o its low densityin the orest; it is only abundant on cattle ranches. Still, inajá palms are important or thesegroups as a source o ood or game species in the area. The ronds are not used much bythe rubber tappers because they ind the leaves deteriorate too quickly.

Jurandir Galvão

As recent as the 1980s, almost all o the houses in the rural areas o Belém were coveredwith ronds rom inajá palms. Today, the inhabitants use a mixture o roo ing tiles, woodenshingles and palm ronds to build their houses. The traditional olks say that the best timeto collect the rondsis during the timeo the new moon orwhen the nights aredarker. That way theleaves break downmore slowly and areless susceptible toinsects. However,the palm rond roo sremain vulnerableto ire, a signi icantdisadvantage.

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Inajá ruit can be eaten straight rom the tree or cooked. Most people liketo eat the raw ruit with arinha. Mature ruit have a 15% oil content. Thepulp, light and sweet in lavour, is also used to prepare a mush that is givento individuals su ering rom general weakness. Inajá pulp is a good sourceo protein and calories, thus it has become an important part o the li e o therural people o the Amazon.

Inajá ruits have an oil similar in quality and use to that o the babaçu palm. The red-orangeoil’s spicy taste makes it desirable or cooking. The oil can also be used to produce soaps.However, inajá oil is really only used when other types o oils are scarce.1 Mechanicalequipment can extract up to 23% o the oil rom the inajá. The process involves heatingbunches o ruit in steam or eight hours and then kneading the ruit to remove the pulp.The pulp is then heated to more than 90ºC and pressed to extract the oil.

Peel the ruit, scrape the pulp o with a spoon, mash it up with water and add sugarto taste.

Inajá ruit are used as bait to attract animals. The mature ruit arespread on the ground by hunters or two or more days, a ter whichthey return to wait in a hide or the game to arrive. In Bragança,the hunter João Lima would travel 50 km to visit his parents inCapanema. During these visits, he always brought bunches o inajá

ruit to spread in the orest near their house. Six days later, hisriends enjoyed a good meal o game. Inajá ruit is well liked by agoutis, pacas, peccaries,

deer, armadillos, coatis and monkeys and is one o the ruits most requently consumedby tapirs. They also eat the seeds.2 Cattle, pigs, squirrels and opossums also east on inajá.The seeds are dispersed by rodents and other mammals. Pigs and cows swallow the ruits

during the day and regurgitate the seeds at night. Rodents serve animportant role because they bury the ruits or later use but o tendo not retrieve them. These ruit orm a dormant seed bank thatcan later germinate.

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Inajá 187

Even though it is illegal to hunt in Brazil, subsistence hunting – a necessity or manyrural amilies – is tolerated. But commercial hunting o any type is not permitted. Even i subsistence game is not sold, it can be seen as a source o income because it rees up moneythat would have been used to purchase meat. A amily that has game available on their landcan have ood in their stomach and money in their pockets.

The majority o the amilies living in the rural river community o Rio Capim, Pará, willbuy meat at some point during the year. But amilies with hunters do not need to usetheir earnings on store-bought meat, thus saving on their ood bills. Most amilies maketheir income by growing and processing the local staple, arinha. So the orest armercan assess how much less arinha the amily would need to produce i the amily’s diet issupplemented by game.

In 1995, an expert hunter rom the region was able to catch about 35 kg/month o game.About 40% o the game weight is inedible (such as bone, skin and hair), leaving anequivalent o 21 kg o game meat. I he had purchased the same 21 kg o meat or his amilyat the town butcher’s shop, he would have paid US$3.75/kg. Thus, it is as i he earnedUS$79/month rom his orest. Or, i instead o meat, he had purchased dried bee , whichcan usually be ound locally in the community canteen, it would have cost him US$115/month, or nearly US$1 400/year. This amily saved the same amount o money that theycould have earned rom the sale o eight bags o arinha per month.

US$22game

buckshotgunpowdertime

US$115dried beef

US$79beef

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O course, not all the amilies in the Rio Capim community have hunters and not allthe hunters catch a lot o game. Thus, not everyone gains as much as this amily with askilled hunter. But based on the consumption o game in the entire community, we cancalculate the amount an average amily saved on ood because o game, and how much thecommunity as a whole gained rom their orests.

Group Timeperiod

Game(kg)

Meatrom game

(kg)

Bee US$3.75/kg

(US$)

Dried bee US$5.50/kg

(US$)

FarinhaUS$15/sack

(no. o sacks

Hunter’s amily month 35 21 79 115 8year 420 252 945 1 386 92

Average amily year 94 56 210 308 20Community year 2 808 1 685 6 319 9 267 618

In one year, 30 amilies living in a community along the Capim River captured a total o 2 808 kg o game. An average amily caught 94 kg o game in a year and were able to consumeabout 56 kg o game meat. Purchasing this meat at the closest meat market would costUS$210/year, or about US$17/month. I the amily could not make the trip to town andhad to purchase dried bee rom the community store, it would cost about US$308/year,or the equivalent o 20 bags o arinha. Due to the orest wildli e, the entire communitygained the equivalent o 620 bags/year, almost 52 bags o arinha/month.

The villagers were able to save a lot o money thanks to the animals that live in their orest.And this is not a unique case. In Chino, a community in the Peruvian Amazon near acommunity orest reserve, 34 amilies captured on average 54 kg/month o game, or morethan 600 kg/ amily/year.3 Also, a hunter in a neighbouring community caught more than700 kg o game in a year. At the time, this quantity was equal to about 155 bags o arinha,or US$2 300 or dried bee .

But the forest can only offer these great benefits if it is protected. Forests are the home andfood source of game animals. If the forest is cut down in an unsustainable manner, it becomespoorer and cannot support as many animals. The greater the area of forest, the greater theamount of game that can live there. Many wildlife species need a large expanse of forest sothey can search for food throughout the year. Some trees will only bear fruit for one to fourmonths out of the year. With this in mind, some communities work together to protect theirpatches of forest, uniting them into larger community forest reserves or connecting themusing forest fragments as corridors. Part of the reserves may be designated free of huntingas a refuge for animals to reproduce. They work out community agreements so that onlysecondary forests are cleared for agricultural plots. The more resources that are available inthe primary forest, the less slashing and burning is necessary to produce farinha.

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Inajá 189

Some animal populations are sensitive to hunting and may disappear with increasedpressure. Animals that reproduce slowly, such as tapirs, howler moneys and other primates,macaws and parrots, should be captured rarely i at all. Other animals that have large litterseach year (armadillos, agoutis, pacas, and collared peccaries) can be hunted more regularly.

Inajá is a slow-growing palm that starts to ruit only a ter our or ive years, but bothanimals and people assist in dispersing it. To hasten the sprouting o inajá, leave the seedsin the creek or 30 days then they can be planted out in the ields. Generally, inajá is le tstanding in cleared garden patches to attract game and thus tends to be abundant in areaso swidden agriculture. These palms survive swidden agriculture and then spread in thesecondary orest during the allow period. Thus inajá can be managed to supplement ood

or wildli e in secondary orest and degraded pastures.

germination

90–180 days

growth

slow

production

after 4 or 5 years

700 kg of game = 155 sacks of farinha = US$2 300

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Throughout the Amazon it is possible to ind various palm species mixed within pasturesand in agricultural areas. Inajá, babaçu, jaci, uricuri and tucumã o ten orm large standsand become invasive in armlands due to the mature plants’ natural resistance to ire. Theirstems are very thick and hard. Their thick bark orms an e ective barrier to the heat,protecting the inner part o the plant. Initially the plant grows down into the soil and thenew leaves appear only a ter some time. Because the apical meristem, the part responsible

or producing the new leaves, remains buried, it is protected rom the ire. There ore,when people burn the land, it encourages the development o these palms and eliminatesother competitive plants. I ires are set annually, it stimulates seed germination, and withtime the land will be covered with large quantities o palms, generally o a single species.That is how we now ind the large concentrations o palms in the Amazon region. In the

orest, where the ire cannot penetrate, palms occur in much lower densities and growmore slowly.

1 Blaak, G. 19842 Oglethorpe, Jet al . 19973 Bodmer, R.E. 1989

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Oenocarpus batauaMart.

Daisy A. Pereira Gomes-Silva

The scienti ic name or patauá (Oenocarpus) means “wine ruit”.Oeno is the Greekgoddess o wine andcarpusmeans ruit.Batauais the common name used or patauá in a

ew countries. Patauá is most loved by caboclo communities, who use it to make juice andoil. The juice is consumed with game meat and arinha, and the oil is used to ry ish. Onlythe juice is sold in cities, but i you ind the delicate and delicious patauá oil, it can be usedinstead o olive oil in salads and sautés, as its scent and lavour are similar.

The patauá tree is a palm that pre ers humid soils. It grows or many years in the shade o the orest. As an adult, however, it needs light. Patauá palms can be ound in Peru, Bolivia,Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela. In Brazil, they grow in the states o Acre, Amazonas,Pará and Rondônia. Patauá can grow up to 25 m in height, possessing only one stem withvery large leaves that can extend up to 10 m in length. The small white lowers and ruit

are arranged in a horse tail and can have up to 350 racemes on which the ruit are attached.

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In Acre, patauá’s ruit season is more intense rom December through March, which arerainy months, but ruit can also appear rom July to September. The ruit takes rom 10 to14 months to ripen and mature. For this reason it is not di icult to ind plants with both

lowers and ruit at the same time.1

The patauá occurs both in upland dry orest, swamp orests and along streams. It is oundsparsely in upland dry orest, with 1–2 palms/ha,2 but in lower elevations it can become adominant species with up to 100 species/ha. In Acre, patauá occurs throughout the state,and in the Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve, 48 palms/ha were ound in the marshier areas,while 16 palms were ound in dry orest. In Pará, in the past, the patauá was overexploited

and nearly disappeared in some locales. But in other areas, like the lower Tocantins, it ispossible to ind large patauá palms that are used both or their juice and their oil.

The patauá takes from 8 to 15 years to bear fruit3 and produces upto three bunches of fruit/year, with about 16 kg of fruit/bunch.4 Astudy in Ecuador found that the production of patauá palms variedfrom approximately 500–7 000 fruits biennially.5 Patauá fruit, aswith the fruit of other palms, is measured in 18-litre cans. About13 kg of fruit fit into one can. In Colombia, the collectors go on a

special diet before they go in to harvest patauá, and only womenwho refrain from certain foods are allowed to extract the oil.

1.5 palms/ha 7.5 palms/alqueire

an average of32 kg/tree/year

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Patauá 193

In Rio Branco, in Acre, it is common to ind patauá or sale together with açaí and buriti,both in the in ormal markets and in the supermarkets. A can o ruit (18 litres) costs aboutUS$2 when purchased directly rom collectors. A litre o juice is sold or about US$0.80.In Belém there is also a market or patauá. I you like, stop by the Ver-o-Peso market andpick up a litre o juice or about US$1.

The seeds can also be used to make jewellery. In 2008, necklaces and earings made withpatauá sold or US$2–6. Bracelets sold or a bit less, US$2–3. And in 2007, 500 g o theseeds sold or US$1.

These days, in Brazil, sales o patauá juice exceed those o oil. During the Second WorldWar there was a global shortage o olive oil, and Brazil exported more than 200 tonnes o

patauá oil/year.6

Un ortunately, during this period, the palms were cut to harvest the ruit,which killed o a large percentage o them. When the war ended, the sale o patauá oil ell.In Brazil it is rarely ound or commercial sale, but in Peru sales are strong. You can buythe oil in Brazil rom herb sellers or about US$2 or US$2.50/litre, but it is hard to ind.

Fruit: The ruit is used to make juice and oil. The ruits are round, almostoval-shaped, and have a pulp that can be white, green or purple.

Seeds: The seeds are used to make necklaces, bracelets and earrings.Oil: The oil is used as a laxative and as a remedyfor tuberculosis, asthma and other respiratoryproblems. The oil also acts as a hair softener. Afamous researcher who lived in a Kayapó villagesaid that the Indians became more beautiful, sleekand healthy in the patauá fruit season.7 Residentsof the Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve say thatpurple patauá contains more oil.

Heart o palm: The hearts o palm are eaten raw and served in salads.Leaves: The palm leaves are used in construction. They provide a goodcovering, but last only two or three years because insects attack them. Thefibres are used in the manufacture of hunting implements, cords and weaving.

Trunk: The trunks are use ul or making bridges and garden ences. Indiansalso leave the trunks to rot so thattapurus, a type o edible larvae, willgrow.

Fruit stalks: Once the ruit has been removed rom the bunch, the remainingstalks can be roasted and ground up as a salt supplement or cattle.

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Patauá oil and olive oil contain similar ats. For this reason, patauá oil can be used as asubstitute or olive oil.3 Both these oils contain large quantities o healthy, monounsaturated

ats and are increasingly sought a ter by consumers. For every 100 g o oil, patauá has 317calories and 47 g o carbohydrates. Both patauá oil and juice have high concentrationso important proteins, comparable to milk and bee .4 Patauá juice is oilier than açaí andbacaba (Oenocarpus bacaba), and is highly nutritious.2

Nutritional value Milk (100 ml) Bee (100 g) Patauá oil (100 g)

Fat 3.5 g 10.8 g 12.8 gProtein 3.1 g 27.5 g 3.3 gCarbohydrates 5 g 0 g 47.2 gCalories 120 235 317.2

Patauá juice looks like chocolate milk and is prepared in the same way as açai juice. First,select the mature ruits. A good way to test i the ruits are mature is to hit the basket witha slingshot; i a ew ruits bounce out, it is a good basket o ruit. Soak the mature ruitin hot water over a low ire to so ten. Remove the pan rom the ire, cover and let stand

or ten minutes. Crush the ruit with a mortar and pestle until the pulp separates rom theseed. Finally, strain the ruit in a sieve to separate the remaining seeds. The juice is nowready to drink. In the city, the juice is sometimes made swi tly with an electric depulper.

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Patauá 195

Ingredients:– 2½ cups o lour– 1½ cups o sugar– 1 cup o patauá juice– 3 egg whites, beaten sti – 1 teaspoon yeast

Preparation:Mix all the ingredients well. Place the batter in a cake pan and bake in a hot oven. Thepatauá juice is used in place o milk and butter. The cake will look like chocolate, and iseven better i you add some grated Brazil nuts.8

Everyone has his or her own recipe or extracting patauá oil. One basic recipe is to leavethe juice to sour or a day so that the water will separate rom the pulp. Some insist onkeeping the container closed during this process, while others pre er to leave it open. Thenext day, the pulp is put in a pan and heated until the oil appears. It is also possible to usea tipiti(a strainer made o natural ibres commonly used to separatetucupi rom manioc)to squeeze the pulp and remove the oil.2 Using traditional methods, about one can o ruitproduces approximately 150 ml o oil. But do not be too curious! Villagers rom Acre saythat only the person making the oil can look in the pan, otherwise the oil will not appear.

Hunters note that a lot o animals, like tapir, deer, white-lippedpeccary, the Brazilian porcupine and various types o monkeys eatpatauá. One study in Colombia ound that the white-bellied spidermonkey ( Ateles belzebuth) relied heavily on patauá ruit.9 Largebirds, such as white-throated toucans, aracaris, macaws, guans,

curassow and larger parrots, most appreciate thisruit. Other animals, such as Brazilian porcupines

and monkeys, eat the ruit but not the seed,dispersing the seeds intact throughout the orest where they have thepotential to germinate. But there are also seed predators, like peccaries,

who crush the seeds when eating the ruit and in doing so eliminate theirreproductive potential. People also help to disperse patauá seeds; a termaking juice, they o ten scatter the seeds onto the ground.10

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In the orest, the patauá palm grows slowly or the irst ew years. It can take more thanive years or the irst ruits to appear. Farmers say that you are guaranteed to get ruit

within ive years i patauá is planted out in the yard in ull sun. The patauá palm canproduce ruit two years a ter stem ormation.3 To collect the ruit, you need a climbing

strap to secure yoursel around the trunk o thepalm while you shimmy up.

To manage patauá, it is important to leave someo the ruit behind or wildli e. As a general rule,it is best not to remove more than two bunches/palm. Because it is a slow-growing species, avoid

cutting the leaves o the young palms.

A ter making juice or oil, spread the seeds near your houseor anywhere you might like to start a plantation. Someriver olk believe that to get the best oil, the leaves o thepalm should be closed when you collect the ruit.

1 Pedersen, H.B. & Balslev, H. 19932 Balik, M.J. 1986 and 1988a3 Gomes-Silva, D.A.P. 20014 Clay, J.W.C.; Sampaio, P.B. & Clement, C.R. 20005 Miller, C. 20026 Pereira, P.G. 19517 Balik, M.J. 1988a8 Peneiredo, F.M. 20029

Stevenson, P.R.; Quiñones, M. J. & Ahumada, J.A. 200010 Zona, S. & Henderson , A. 1989


growth14–72 cm/year


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Bactris gasipaesKunth

Margaret CymerysCharles R. Clement

The pupunha palm was one o the irst plants domesticated by Native Amazonians in pre-Columbian times,1 probably in southwestern Amazonia. It is believed that pupunha wasdomesticated primarily or its durable, striped wood, which is still valued or handicra ts,and only later or its ruit. The original ruit was oily, but with advancing domestication

acquired more starch. Over time, the spiny palm, with its brightly coloured nutritiousruit, spread throughout the lowland humid tropics o South America and southernCentral America, gaining new names along the way. It is called pupunha in Brazil, pijuayo in Peru,chontaruruin Ecuador,chontaduroin Colombia, gachipaesin Venezuela, pejibaye in Costa Rica, and peach palm in English. The tender leaves above the growing point o thestem are also extracted to supply the national and international demand or palm hearts.

The pupunha palm reaches 20 m in height. The plant grows in multi-stemmed clusterscontaining up to 15 spiny stems, each attaining approximately 10 to 25 cm in diameterand crowned with 15 to 20 pinnate leaves. The shiny-skinned ruit comes in a multitudeo vibrant colours: red, yellow, orange, white and even striped. The size o the ruit varies

greatly, weighing rom 10 to 200 g, with the smaller ruit containing more oil and the largerruit more starch. Seedless types also exist.

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In Central Amazonia, pupunha generally lowers rom August through October, andproduces ruit rom December through March, occasionally until April. In other regions,the lowering and ruiting season varies according to local climate. Some trees produce

ruit between the main seasons, especially in nutrient-rich soils or in years with heavy

rain all. During the lowering season, pupunha’s small cream-coloured lowers are visitedand pollinated by thousands o weevils, a kind o very small beetle.

The high density of pupunha in agricultural systems directly reflects the demands of people forthe palm and their use and management of it. Typically, a few plants are interspersed with otherfruit trees in agricultural fields or in home gardens. Commercial plantations for fruit generallyhave 400 palms/ha, requiring fertilizer and intensive management. Commercial plantations for

palm heart generally have between 5 000 and 10 000 palms/ha and require even larger inputsof fertilizer and more intensive management. In addition, operators must have significantbusiness experience to ensure that the plantations run smoothly.2

The pupunha palm produces between 5 and 10 bunches o ruit peryear. However, some palms growing in rich soil may produce up to 25bunches in a year o heavy rain. Each bunch weighs between 2 and 12kg and contains between 100 and 400 ruits/bunch. A single pupunhapalm can produce rom 10 to 120 kg o ruit. The harvest rom 1 ha

can vary between 4 and 10 tonnes/year. Low production can be causedby insu icient pollination, lack o rain, lack o ertilizer, compactedsoil, or a combination o these conditions.

100 palms/ha 500 palms/alquiere

500 to 1 000fruit/palm

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Pupunha, peach palm 199

A plantation o 5 000 palms/ha or palm heart production can produce 1.2 tonnes o exportquality palm heart/year. In addition to palm heart, the pupunha produces rom 2 to 3tonnes o tender stem, which is the part just below the palm heart.

Pupunha ruit is enjoyed not only by Native Amazonians but also by rural and urbanpeople throughout its region. Bunches o colour ul pupunha ruit are sold in open-airmarkets, at roadside stands and in supermarkets. Cooked pupunha is sold as a nutritioussnack in ca és, on street corners and along local beaches. In the Belém market in 2008,1 kg o pupunha sold or US$1.20–2.40. Prices have remained stable since 2004. Pricesin Manaus are somewhat lower, and pupunha is sold by the bunch, not the kilogram. Abunch costs between US$2.40 and US$12, depending upon the size. Production is o tenhigher than demand. In the state o Amazonas, the pupunha harvest in 1999 was doublethe market sales, representing a large excess, which though unsold was o ten used as eed

or pigs, chickens, ducks and ish. Pupunha commands a much higher price in Colombia,perhaps because in Colombia it is reputed to have aphrodisiacal properties.3

The demand or palm heart is very strong in southeastern Brazil, the national and worldcentre o consumption. Processing plants send teams to harvest palm heart in the armer’s

ield and pay as much as US$3.50/stem. In Amazonia, however, demand is much lower,and the price or a stem varies between US$0.30 and US$0.60 at the arm gate.

USES

Fruit: Cook with salt or 30 minutes in a pressure cooker or 60 minutes ina pot. The cooked ruit is also made into a jam or sale. Pupunha pulp canalso be ground into a lour and used to make bread, cake, or as domesticanimal eed.

Palm heart: Pupunha is cultivated or palm hearts in southeastern Brazil,especially in Bahia, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, MatoGrosso do Sul, São Paulo, and Paraná, as well as in Costa Rica andEcuador.

Oil: The oil is used to beauti y hair. In Oeiras-do-Pará, the oil is used as acure or earaches and sore throats.

Wood: The wood is black, with yellow streaks, and attractive when it iswell worked, and is used or urniture and handicra ts.

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The advantage to using pupunha or palm heart production in relation toother palms in the same genera is that pupunha orms high quality palmhearts quickly and is a multi-stemmed palm, which allows the palm heartsto be harvested without killing the palm. The initial palm is cut a ter 12–18months in the ield, and new stems that can be harvested or palm hearts areproduced 6–9 months later.

The large pupunha ruit consists o 90–95% pulp and 5–10% seed. The colour o the pulpvaries rom creamy to orange, depending upon the amount o beta-carotene, the mainingredient o vitamin A. The pulp varies in texture depending upon the amount o water,starch and oil. The resh pulp has between 1% and 9% protein, 2% and 30% oil and 10%to 40% carbohydrates, principally starch. The nutritional value varies among the di erent

ruit types; or example, the redder the pulp, the more carotene it possesses, contributingto good eyesight as well as healthy hair, skin and nails. Pupunha also contains the mineralelements potassium, selenium and chromium, respectively corresponding to 12%, 9% and9% o daily recommended allowances.4

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Ingredients:– 500 g cooked pupunha– salt to taste– butter or oil to ry the onions– 250 ml milk– 1 medium onion– 1 tomato– 1 bunch o cilantro

Preparation:Cook the pupunha in water with salt or 30–60 minutes, remove the skin and mash thepulp with a ork. Fry the chopped onion in butter and add the tomato, cilantro and salt.Mix together. Finally, add the pupunha and the milk, and let them simmer until they orma puree.

Pupunha can also be prepared like French ries. Cut the boiled ruit intothin slices, ry the slices in hot oil, and eat them with salt.

Ingredients:– 2 cups cooked mashed pupunha– 2 cups coconut milk or cow’s milk– 5 eggs– 1 tablespoon butter or margarine– 2 cups sugar– wheat lour as needed– pinch o salt

Preparation:Beat the pupunha and milk in a blender or ive minutes. Place butter, sugar and egg yolksin a bowl and beat them well. Beat the egg whites in a separate bowl. Next, mix all theingredients together with the beaten egg whites and add the wheat lour until the doughbecomes sti . Place the dough in a buttered cake mould and bake or 30 minutes or untilthe cake becomes golden brown and a toothpick comes out dry.

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Many wild animals enjoypupunha ruit. Deer, agoutisand large birds, such as guans,eat the ruit when it alls

rom the palm. By attractinggame, the pupunha tree helpsto sustain the people wholive nearby. Because variousparrot species love to easton the ruit, the trees alsohelp to maintain these o tenendangered birds.

The Native Amazonian tribes o the upper Solimões and Negro rivers, in theBrazilian state o Amazonas and nearby Peru and Colombia, have celebrations duringthe pupunha harvest. The estival is replete with oods made with pupunha lour andboiled pupunha ruit. A special drink, calledcaissumain Brazil and asatoin Peru,is made rom ermented pupunha ruit. It has the scent o resh ripe peaches and thealcoholic content o beer. When sni ing reshly brewedcaissumathe naturalist andexplorer Alexander Von Humboldt detected a amiliar aroma and identi ied it aspeach. Thus the European names or pupunha all mean ‘peach palm’: palmeira de pêssego(Portugal), palmera de melacotón(Spain) and peach palm (England).

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The pupunha palm is native to the humid tropics, where it grows in a variety o soils

in various climates. It grows best in rich volcanic soils along the Andes and in CentralAmerica, as well as in soils created by Native Amazonians, called Amazonian dark earth(terra preta), but can also produce well on the poorer clay soils typical o Amazonia inthe irst years a ter clearing and burning. In southeastern Amazonia, pupunha produces

ruit with only 1 700 mm o rain all, but more abundant harvests occur in northwesternAmazonia, where over 3 000 mm o rain is common. Extreme droughts, such as thoseoccurring during El Niño events, can eliminate ruit production.

To plant pupunha, irst wash the seeds to eliminate any pulp residue. Next, place the seedsin a shady, well-ventilated place to dry or 24 hours. Plant the seeds inside plastic bags orin beds with sandy organic soil. When planted this way, germination takes place in 1–3months, in contrast to the couple o years it can take in the wild. The seedlings are readyto be transplanted to nursery bags when the irst lea opens. The nursery bags shouldhave 1–3 kg o organic, rich clay-sand soil. A ter 6–9 months, the seedlings are ready

or planting in the ground. They should be planted at the beginning o the rainy season.Pupunha generally begins to produce ruit a ter the third year and produces regularly a ter6 years.

Pupunha palms grow in multi-stemmed clusters. Considering that pupunha’s stems

re-grow rapidly, its management consists o removing old or excessive stems and those thatare too high or collecting ruit easily. Thus, while renewing the vigour o the palm cluster,armers can take advantage o the palm heart or ood by pruning o young o shoots.

Likewise, they can use the trunks o the palm or wood when they remove older tall stems.This management technique, known as thinning, encourages the production o morevigorous and productive plants by catalysing the growth o new stems. For best results,only the our best young stems should be le t to grow during annual management.

Native Amazonians o ten plant pupunha in manioc ields. A ter the manioc is collected,the pupunha is le t to attract game, as well as to o er a source o ood or the amily.Agro orestry systems such as this illustrate the success in planting pupunha in association

with other products, such as pineapple, passion ruit or herbs.

germination30 days to 2 years

growth1 m/year

production7 years

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Douglas C. Daly

Wild pupunha ( Aiphanes aculeata) also seems to have economicpotential, as its pulp is sweeter than pupunha. In addition, its seedis also edible. The ruits o the wild pupunha are sold in Colombia,both or the seeds and or the pulp, which is used to make sweets.Wild pupunha grows 3–10 m in height. Its ruits are red, orangeor white, with orange pulp, suggesting the presence o carotene.

The species occurs in upland dry orests and other open orest types. The nativedistribution accompanies the Cordillera de la Costa, in Venezuela, and the eastern

oothills o the Andes, rom Colombia to Bolivia, including Acre in Brazil.

1 Mora Urpí, J.; Weber, J.C. & Clement, C.R. 1997 2 Mora Urpí, J. & Gainza Echeverria, J. (Eds.) 19993 Clement, C.R. 20084 Yuyama, L.K.O.et al.20035 Kerr, L.S.et al.1997

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Astrocaryum aculeatumG. Mey

Joanne Régis da Costa Johannes van Leeuwen Jarbas Anute Costa

Tucumã o Amazonas is among the larger palms, reaching up to 25 m. It is covered withlong, nasty spines to discourage visitors who would climb its trunk to reach the large,meaty and nutritious ruits loved by people and animals alike. Tucumã o Amazonas growseasily in the poor soils o the terra irme where it can produce, without ertilizer, or years.Its high tolerance to ire and its abundant seed production make it a common sight indisturbed areas like agricultural ields, pasture and secondary orest. Tucumã o Amazonasoccurs primarily in the Brazilian states o Amazonas, Acre, Rondônia and Roraima, butalso in a ew parts o Pará, Brazil, in Peru and in Colombia. This palm is also known as Astrocaryum tucuma.

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Near Manaus, tucumã o Amazonas usually lowers rom June to January, and producesruit rom February to August.1 There are palms that produce out o season, however, and

in Manaus, there are tucumã o Amazonas ruits or sale all year long.

In primary orest there may be up to 10 adults/ha.2 In secondary orest and pastures,where the original orest may have had only a ew scattered palms, agouti and ire helpin the ormation o new groups o tucumã o Amazonas palms. Farmers sometimes plantlarge groves exclusively o tucumã o Amazonas, numbering in the hundreds per hectare.

Generally, the density o this species is twice as high in secondary orest than in terrairme.2 A study in the area o Manaus ound an average o 30 palms/ha in disturbed areas,with the highest densities (43/ha) in secondary orests.3

One palm produces on average 3–4 bunches o ruit/year, thoughsome palms produce only two bunches while others produce upto seven. The size o the bunch varies; an average bunch containsabout 240 ruits, but there are bunches that contain rom 35 to 700.1 The weight o a single ruit also varies greatly, rom 20 to 100 g.4 In a two-year study on a population o tucumãs in Manaus, theaverage productivity per palm was 12 kg/year.3 Ten percent o the

10 reproductive palms/hain the forest

50 reproductivepalms/alqueire in the forest

an average of

720 fruits/palm(12 kg)

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Tucumã o Amazonas 207

most productive palms produced over 28 kg/year. An exceptionally good tree can produceup to 50 kg/year.5 And although, in the Manaus study, tucumã had a greater density in thesecondary orest, the percentage o productive palms was highest in pastures (93%) andhome gardens (88%) versus allow plots (66%) and secondary orest (50%). Fructi icationbegins late, when the plant is close to seven years old and is between 6 and 9 m tall.

Researchers working jointly with an indigenous tribe wanted to help them calculate howmany productive tucumã palms were in their area. They used a mapping method withan excessively complicated name: “Post-exploratory systematized orest inventory withmultiple beginnings”. The researchers discovered that in an area where there should havebeen about 400 tucumã palms, their survey only located 16! While they asked themselveswhere the others were, a hard rain began to all. As they stood around looking at eachother and getting drenched, they decided that their method with the complicated namewas worthless. One o them decided to inquire o the Indians: “Do you know where thetucumãs are?” The Indians swi tly proceeded to identi y and map every tucumã palm inthe project area.

The researchers planned to study how much each palm produced per year and multiplythis amount by the number o tucumã palms in the area. The indigenous artisans woulduse this in ormation to calculate how much material they would have to work with or theyear and how much they could earn selling it at the market.

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Tucumã o Amazonas has always sold well in Manaus, but since local ca és started servingsandwiches with tucumã instead o cheese, it has become even more popular. During the

ruit season o 2003, the ruit sold in the street markets o Manaus or about US$0.70/dozen, US$1.30–3.30/100, and rom US$4–26/50- to 60-kg sack. Out o season, 100 ruitsare never sold or less than US$2.60, or a sack or less than US$13 and up to US$33. Onekilogram o pulp sells or about US$7 all year round. A complete regional break ast,including a tucumã sandwich, costs rom US$1.50 to US$3. In the lower Tocantins region,in Oeiras, Pará, where it is known as jabarana, people adore tucumã o Amazonas and useit in place o dried meat in some traditional dishes. You will see people lining up to buy jabaranain these parts, and many amilies support themselves exclusively on the sale o this delicious ruit.

Vendors in Manaus distinguish three qualities o tucumã o Amazonas: bad, good andexcellent. A sack o good tucumã sells or up to ive times the value o a bad sack. Tucumão Amazonas is widely sold in the cities o Porto Velho (Rondônia) and Rio Branco (Acre),where you can buy a little basket o 12 ruits or US$0.30.

In Acre, the Apurinã Indians make beauti ul necklaceso tucumã. To make 48 necklaces, they use about twobunches o ruit, or one can (18 litres) o seeds, which,a ter they are cut, make 4 litres o beads. In 2005, eachnecklace etched rom US$2 to US$3. Each tucumãseason the Apurinã are care ul to collect only enoughseeds to produce their cra ts and in so doing assure their

amilies’ income and the conservation o the orest.

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Fruit: The ruit pulp is amously eaten in the tucumã sandwich and also asa illing or tapioca pancakes.

Seed: The seeds are used to eed domestic animals, smoke rubber and makenecklaces and bracelets. The Apurinã Indians say that the black skin o the ruit contains energetic properties and wards o evil spirits. The seedcannot be used to make rings as its diameter is too large; however, anotherspecies ound in Amazonas and Acre called tucumã-i ( Astrocaryum acaule)is smaller and per ect or ring making.

Leaves: Tucumã leaves are woven into mats.

Trunk: The trunk is very sturdy and ideal or rural construction.

Tucumã o Amazonas( A. aculeatum)

Tucumã o Pará( A. vulgare)

Number o stemsStem diameterColour o bark and ruit

Length o ruitDiameter o ruitColour o pulpConsistency o pulp

115–33 cmgreen, yellow

4.5–6 cm3.5–4.5 cmorange or yellowcompact, irm

2–2015–20 cmorange

3.5–4.5 cm2.5–3.5 cmorangepasty and oily, a bit ibrous

Tucumã pulp is loaded with calories, protein and vitamin A. Fresh pulp contains 3.5 mgo carotene/100 g.4 Vitamin A is created in the process o digesting carotene, whichstrengthens the eyes to help you spot tucumã ruits way up near the top o the palm. The

pulp represents 22% o the ruit’s weight6

; it is 9% protein and 55% oil.4

The irst regional ca é opened in Manaus in the 1980s. It served a special weekend brunchwith traditional Amazonian oods like manioc, corn, sweet potato, cará (a yam), pupunha,banana, Brazil nuts, eggs, ruit, sandwiches and a variety o juices. More and more regionalca es started to pop up and today you can ind a air number, both in Manaus and in othercities, some o which are quite chic and expensive. These ca es are always trying newrecipes, one o which is the tucumã sandwich in which tucumã replaces cheese. Customersalso enjoy the tucumã tapioca pancake, which is made rom tapioca gum and illed withtasty tucumã pulp. Tucumã sandwiches represent rom 60% to 80% o all the sandwiches

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sold in regional break asts, while between 16% and 30% o all tapioca pancakes sold areilled with tucumã. This trend spiked sales o tucumã pulp, as many wanted to enjoy the

sandwiches and tapioca pancakes at home.

For a long time, only older, experienced people would buy tucumã in the market. Howto tell which ruits were ripe was considered something o a amily secret, handed downrom parents to their children. Tucumã was never considered to be good or a quick snack,

and most visitors rom out o town never tried it. But the recent ad o tucumã sandwicheshas changed that, and nowyou can see all kinds o people snacking on tucumãeverywhere you go, addictedto its rich, savoury lavour.Who knows i tucumã’snew ound celebrity statuswill last, but or the older

olks rom the region, tucumãeaten straight o the seed willalways be a avourite.

Many wild animals, like macaws, parrots, curassows, deer, peccaries,agouti, paca, armadillos and monkeys, eat tucumã. Agouti are theprincipal dispersers o tucumã seeds. Like squirrels, they bury theseeds or later and some o these seeds end up germinating. Other

animals also like to eat tucumã seeds. I you want to help animals survive lean timesbetween ruit seasons, save your tucumã seeds and break them open or the orest animalswhen there are ew ruits available.

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Farmers mainly tend tucumã palms that grow naturally without being planted. When theyburn a piece o land to prepare agricultural ields, the heat helps tucumã seeds to germinate.There are people who plant tucumã as well. It is simple – just ollow the agouti’s example:open a little hole in the earth with a kni e and drop the seed inside, then cover it up.Germination takes up to two years. In the beginning, the plant grows slowly and toleratesshade well. Choose the largest and most delicious ruits to plant rom palms bearingsubstantial quantities o ruit.

Sidney FerreiraYou don’t have to wait around or years while your seed decides when it wants to grow.When the ruits are ripe, or even a bit overripe, remove the pulp, wash the pits and drythem in the shade or a week or two. Shake the pits to see i the seeds are loose inside them,then break the pits open and remove the seeds. Soak the seeds or 3–5 days, taking care tochange the water each day to prevent them rom rotting. Finally, plant the seeds in a raised

lowerbed; within 30 days they will begin to germinate. When the sprouts have 4–5 leaves,they can be transplanted to a permanent location.

germination30 days to 1 year(with treatment)

growth1 m/year

production7 years

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Götz Schroth, Maria do Socorro Mota,Ricardo Lopes, Aurélio Freitas

Eighty kilometres rom Manaus, on the Pindorama ranch along the Preto da Eva River, agroup o researchers managed and monitored 272 tucumã palms over a two-year period.The objective o the study was to increase the production o high-quality ruits to expandtheir markets. The management o spontaneous populations o palms that grow reely inpastures and secondary orest (in situ domestication) does not require inancial investmentsand helps to improve the native population. The management plan called or the ollowingsteps:

1) Check the palm population or mature bunches every 10–14 days.

2) Clear away vegetation rom around the base o the ruiting palms to acilitate ruitcollection and monitoring. This will also reduce the density o palms. There shouldbe at least 2 m between individual palm trees.

3) Monitor the productivity and quality o the ruits; identi y individuals that combine

high quantity and quality.

4) Eliminate palms that produce ruits o in erior quality(bitter or without lavour) but maintain unique individualsthat can be marketed or other ends. For example, keepsome o the trees that produce smaller ruits use ul ormaking cra ts.

5) Collect all o the bunches, including the small ones,so as not to promote the regeneration o unsuitableindividuals. Take care to eliminate excessively high palmswhose ruits are di icult to collect, with the exception o the ones which produce lots o tasty ruits.

6) Use a rotating system o ruit collection, excluding a part

o the collection area each year in order to acilitate the

natural regeneration o the palms and preserve the aunathat eeds on the ruits (agoutis, pacas and others).

7) Eliminate individuals o the species tucumã-i( Astrocaryum acaule) that orm hybrids with tucumã.

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1 Kahn, F. & Moussa, F. 19992 Costa, J.A.; Duarte, A.P. and the Indigenous Community o Apurinã 20023 Schroth, G.et al.20044

FAO 19875 Milliken, W.et al.19926 Cavalcante, P.B. 1991

Douglas C. Daly

The murumuru ( Astrocaryum murumuruWallace) isanother palm o the same genus as tucumã. It is native toalmost all o Amazonia. The pulp o the ruit is deliciousand contains an oil with marvellous hydrating properties.Murumuru oil is being sold in Acre. One entrepreneurwith a small actory in Cruzeiro do Sul is buying the

ruits rom Indians and producing soaps and otherproducts in addition to selling the pure oil to cosmeticcompanies.

There is a single-stemmed and multi-stemmed murumuru, ranging between 1.5 and15 m in height. The ruits are yellow with brown ur or with short black spines. Thepulp is meaty and slightly ibrous, covering a hard pit which protects the oily seeds.The murumuru is an understorey palm rom the terra irme, but likes to be near

looded areas like riversides, lakes and streams. In the orest o Alto Purús, a spinelessmurumuru can be ound, a characteristic which would be valuable in domestication.

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Douglas C. Daly

Relatives o some o the best-known species o ruit trees also produce valuable ruits thatshould be more widely appreciated, and some parts o Amazonia are particularly rich in

ruits. In the southwestern Amazon, the state o Acre constitutes a centre o diversity orvarious groups o ruit trees: in addition to the many ingás and the abius and abioranas,there are the cacaus (more than 7 species), the biribás and ata brava (more than 7 species),the cajás and cajaranas (5 species and 1 hybrid), the apuruís (8 species) and the araçás

and

azeitonas da mata (more than 23 species).

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Some ruit species are unknown outside parts o southwestern Amazonia, like cajarana orcajá de jaboti (Spondias testudinis, known only in Acre, in Huánuco and Ucayali/Peru,and in Pando/Bolivia), envira caju (Onychopetalum krukovii, in Acre and Madre de Dios,Peru) and 2 atas bravas (Rollinia calcarata, only in Acre, andR. mammi era, in Acre andin San Martin/Peru). Finally, the so-called bacuri da várzea (a species o Tovomita), whosedelicious ruit is common in the várzea or loodplain o the Purus river and a ew smallertributaries, has not yet been identi ied and may even be a species unknown to science. Thishighlights the importance and urgency o accelerating the inventory o the Acre lora.

At the eastern end o Amazonia is the state o Pará. Asin the rest o Amazonia, the loodplains o Pará are richin ruit trees, principally palms like açaí, buriti, patauáand murumuru, but also trees such as bacuripari (Garcinia [Rheedia] brasiliensis, a ew araçás (e.g.,Eugenia eijoi), the

amous camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia) and a ew ingás ( orexample,Inga cinnamomeaandI. nobilis).

The people o Pará value several ruits with an oily pulp,among them uxi (Endopleura uchi), most common in Guyanaand French Guiana, eastern and central Amazonia, andsouthern Venezuela, and two species o umari (Poraqueiba paraensisand P. guianensis), apparently nonexistent inwestern Amazonia. In contrast,P. sericea, very popular in Iquitos, Peru, occurs only inwestern and central Amazoniaa.

The ollowing tables show some o the many species o great importance to Amazonianpeople that have been studied little or not at all.

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Diverse other species 217

Amazonia has abiorana ruits o various sizes, shapes andcolours – all edible. Abiorana trees contain white latexthroughout, and many are large and valued or their wood.The majority o these species are not common; the best-known arePouteria caimito, P. glomeratasubsp. glomerata, andP. macrophylla, all known as abiu, andP. pariry, knownas pariri. See the speci ic characteristics o each speciesbelow1.

Species of Pouteria Fruit Occurrence Tree size/fruitingseason

AbiuP. caimito (Ruiz &Pavón) Radlk.

Elongate or globose,2.7–7.5 cm long; apexsharp or rounded, baserounded or truncate;skin with or withouthairs; smooth; 1–4seeds

Various environments; widelycultivated in the Neotropics

Up to 30 m tall, butfruits from a youngage / sporadic

P. glomerata (Miq.)Radlk. subsp.glomerata

Globose, 2.5–9 cm indiameter; apex andbase truncate

River margins and várzeaforests; widely distributed inAmazonia and Central America

Up to 30 m tall / sporadic

P. macrophylla (Lam.) Eyma

Flobose or slightlyelongate, 2.5–3.5 cmlong; apex and baserounded; smooth

Primary and secondary terrafirme forests and semi-deciduous forests in Suriname,French Guiana and the Amazonof Brazil, Peru and Bolivia

Up to 30 m tall; hassmall buttress roots/ from October toFebruary

PaririP. pariry (Ducke)Baehni

Globose but slightlyflattened, 9–10 cm indiameter; smooth; 2–3seeds, each 3–4.5 cmlong; pulp consumedfresh or in juices

Terra firme forests in theBrazilian Amazon

Up to 30 m tall / from December toApril

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The ameixeira or ameixa tree is 25–37 m tall and up to 80 cmin diameter, normally with large buttress roots. The ruit isyellow or orange, globose but slightly lattened, smooth,6 cm in diameter. The skin is thin and the sweet pulpsurrounds the hard pit. It is ound in requently in terra

irme orests in Acre, Pará and Roraima. It ruits in Octoberand November, or in March. Ameixa is highly valued whereit occurs; the pulp is used to make juices.

In Acre, besides the araçá-boi(Eugenia stipitata) – a tree native to Peru but widelycultivated in Amazonia – there are wild relativesthat also have edible ruits, including theollowing:

Species of Eugenia Fruit Occurrence Tree size/fruiting season

Azeitona bravaE. egensis DC. Black and red, globose,

about 1 cm diameterTerra firme and várzea,in South and CentralAmerica, Amazonia,and northernParaguay; widelydistributed in Acre

Shrub or small tree,3–6 m tall / November

AraçáE. feijoi O. Berg Floats; orange and globose;

2.5 cm in diameter; rindsimilar to tangerine; pulpsoft and sweet

Flooded areas (várzeaand river margins),but also in bamboothickets

Shrub or small tree, 3–4m tall / November toMarch

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Piero Delprete

Alibertia(now includingBorojoa) is a genus with about 21 species that occur in humid

orests in Central and South America. Most o the species produce edible ruits that areconsumed resh or in some cases used to make juices and ice creams. The ruits, whichvary in size rom 5 to 15 cm in diameter, have a leshy pulp. The genus is represented byshrubs and trees 4 to 25 m tall.

There are various other species o Alibertiain Acre, but the two that produce the mostpopular ruits are Alibertia sorbilisand Alibertia clavi lora. These species are not availablein the market, but they are well loved by locals, who know the locations o apuruí treesand when they ruit. Because these species grow in the shade o the canopy in seasonally

looded orests, an area to which ew Amazonian crops are adapted, they could bedomesticated with minimal impact on the natural vegetation.

Species of Alibertia Fruit Occurrence Tree size/fruiting season

A. sorbilis J. Huberex Ducke

Globose, 12–15 cm indiameter

Understorey of seasonallyflooded forests

4–7 m/July to November

A. claviflora K.Schum.

Globose, 5–7 cm indiameter, with a fleshymesocarp 1–2 cm thick

Understorey of seasonallyflooded forests; mostlysouthwestern Amazonia

5–12 m/March to June

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Most kinds o biribá ruits have large, so t ‘scales’, as in the true ata ( Annonaspp.), whileothers are smooth and irregularly lobed when the seeds are mature. In some, the scalesare sharply pointed but never very hard. O the seven known species o biribá, three areound only in Acre and small parts o adjacent Peru or Bolivia2.

Species of Rollinia Fruit Occurrence Tree size/fruitingseason

Ata bravaR. calcarata R.E.Fries

Globose Rare, found in terrafirme forests but alsoin low-lying areas,apparently restricted toAcre

About 25 mtall / end ofthe year

Biribá brava, atabrava, ata pretaR. mucosa (Jacq.)Baill.

Yellow; egg-shaped, 2–20 cm longand 2.5–15 cm in diameter; coveredwith brown hairs; scales smooth orwith curved ‘spines’ near the tip

Terra firme forest onrolling terrain, bambooforest, and sometimesvárzea forest. Welldistributed throughouttropical America

Up to 20 mtall / much ofthe year

R. peruviana Diels Green to yellow, globose but slightlyflattened, 1.5–2 cm long and 2–2.5cm in diameter; when immaturedensely covered with brown hairs,scales with a curved tip 1–3 mm long

Primary or secondaryterra firme forest;restricted to westernAmazonia

Up to 15 mtall / Octoberto February

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The Brazilian Amazon is home to ive genera in the Burseraceae amily—Crepidospermum,Dacryodes, Protium, TetragastrisandTrattinnickia—with some 100 species, a ew o whichproduce ragrant resins used as medicine and insect repellent, or illumination and tocaulk boats. In the indigenous reserve o Tembé, in Pará, the average abundance o maturebreu trees that produce such resins is 1 tree/ha, but can be up to 10 trees/ha. The resin isproduced in special conducting tissues under the bark and is exuded in response to variouskinds o injuries. In some species o breu, insect attacks provoke release o resin.

Dacryodeshas some 36 species in the American tropics, at least 21 occurring in Amazonia.The ruits o most are olive-shaped, some reach the size o olives, and like olives theyhave an oil-rich pulp around the stone. At least two Amazonian species are known to bemanaged by indigenous groups.

The ruits o Protium, Tetragastrisand Crepidospermumare generally red, opening atmaturity to expose a stone with a sweet white covering that attracts animals like pacas,peccaries and tortoises, which disperse some seeds throughout the orest. Many huntersbuild plat orms and wait near breu trees to hunt game animals, and orest people snack onthe white pulp when the stones all.

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Besides the universally known cacao and the well-known cupuaçu, there are at least iveadditional species o this same group in the Brazilian Amazon that deserve attention.The ruits o all these trees grow either on the trunk or on the principal branches; insidethe ruit are ive columns o seeds along a central axis, each is surrounded by a sweet,succulent pulp. The roasted seeds o some o these species produce chocolate, while thoseo Theobroma bicolor are roasted or grilled and salted to make ‘nuts’.

It is a genus with approximately 20 species o understorey trees3. The pulp o the ruits isused to make juices, sweets, rozen ice treats, ice creams, jams and other products.

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Species Fruit Occurrence Tree size/fruiting season

CacaoTheobroma cacao L. Yellow or multi-coloured (yellow,red, purple), egg-shaped or elongate,variable in size, with 10 grooves.Contains 40–60 seeds, each 2–4 cmby 1.2–2 cm, that can be roasted tomake chocolate. The seed pulp isused to make a delicious drink

Widely cultivatedin tropical America,but also occurringspontaneously in theunderstorey of terrafirme forests in parts ofAmazonia

10–12 m tall/ various timesof the year,depending onthe region

Cacao jacaréHerrania(Theobroma)mariae (Mart.)Decne. ex Goudot,

H. nitida (Poepp.) R.E. Schultes

Green or yellow, egg-shaped toslightly elongate, 10–12 cm by 5–7cm diameter, with 10 longitudinalridges and (in H. nitida ) fibrousribs between the ridges; when the

fruit is ripe, the rind is covered inirritating hairs; contains 30–40 seeds

Small understorey tree interra firme forests, neverabundant, but widelydistributed throughoutAmazonia

Shrub orslender treenot tallerthan 10 m,normally with

few branches / sporadic

Cacau de macaco,cacaurana, cabeçade urubuT. obovatumKlotzsch exBernoulli

Brownish yellow, inverse egg-shaped, slightly elongate, the apexround, 5–7 cm by 3–4 cm diameter;the rind is bumpy

Restricted to terrafirme forests in westernAmazonia

Up to 15 mtall / betweenOctober andJune

CacauranaT. microcarpum Mart.

Egg-shaped and elongate, greenishyellow, up to 12 cm long

Rare in terra firmeforests of westernAmazonia, includingColombia (caquetá), alsoalong the Tapajós river;cultivated in Trinidadand Tobago

Up to 18 mtall / varioustimes of theyear

CacauíT. speciosum Willd.ex Spreng.

Yellow, slightly elongate-globose,about 10 cm by 7–8 cm diametercontaining 20–26 seeds; the rind issmooth, slightly velvety and hard;some make chocolate from the seeds

Normally in terra firmeforests, sometimes foundin secondary forests butnever abundant; widelydistributed in Amazoniawith the exception of thenortheast of the region

7–15 m tall / September toNovember inthe majorityof the region,November toMarch in Pará

CupuaçuT. grandiflorum (Willd. ex Spreng.)K. Schum.

Green but covered with brownhairs, oblong or elongate-oblong,12–25 cm long by 10–12 cmdiameter; weighing up to 1.5 kgand containing 20–50 seeds; therind is smooth; among various otherproducts, the pulp can be mixedwith Brazil nuts and coconut tomake the ‘cupuaçu salami’ of Pará

Native to southern paráand western maranhão,but widely cultivatedthroughout theBrazilian Amazon andin Colombia, Costa Rica,Ecuador and Venezuela

4–10 m tall,reaching 18 m

/ first semesterof the year

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The genusSpondiasis represented by at leastten species o ruit trees in tropical America,hal o them ound in Amazonia. All producegreat quantities o leshy, orange or yellow

ruits. The skin o the ruit is relatively thin,and the pulp (same colour as the skin) is acidic,sweet, aromatic and lavour ul. Fallen ruits canbe collected and eaten right beneath the tree,but most people take them home to remove theskin and separate the pulp with a sieve. In smallcommunities, people usually consume them as juices. In the cities, ice cream and rozen pulpare made or sale. A ew riverine communities

in Acre make a spicy pepper sauce with the ruits o cajá de jaboti. In the orest, the nativespecies serve as ‘waiting trees’ or hunters because the allen ruits attract various animalslike peccaries, tapirs and tortoises.

species Fruit Occurrence Tree size/fruiting season

Cajarana, cajá de jabotiS. testudinis J.D.Mitch. & Daly

Greenish-brown, oblong,5–6.5 cm by 2.5–3 cmdiameter; rough withraised spots

Restricted to Acre;Huánuco and Ucayaliin Peru; and Pando inBolivia

Up to 38 m tall and 65cm in diameter / Marchto April

CajáS. mombin L.

Yellow or orange, usuallyegg-shaped, 2–4 cm by1.8–2.7 cm diameter

Widely distributed intropical America andcultivated in the restof the tropics

Up to at least 28 m talland 56 cm in diameter;the trunk can have thicknodules or ridges whenit grows in the sun / November to May

Taperibá, taperebá,cajá S. globosa J.D.Mitch. & Daly

Yellow; globose, 3.5–4 cmin diameter; less sweetthan mombin

Temporarily floodedareas in westernAmazonia andVenezuela

Canopy tree up to 40m tall and 105 cm indiameter / March to June

CajaranaS. dulcis Parkinson Yellow or orange, oblong,5–10 cm by 3–8 cm indiameter, stone spiny

Tree native to Asia butcultivated throughoutthe humid tropics

Cultivated, reaching25 m tall / August andSeptember

Cajá-açuS. “mombin x testudinis ”

Like the cajá de jaboti butlarger (the largest fruit ofthe group)

Tree apparentlyrestricted to Acre, interra firme forest

Likely a hybrid of cajáwith cajá de jaboti / February

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The castanha de porco, also called castanhola and castaninha,is cultivated on a modest scale in Venezuela or the sale o itsoil-rich edible seeds, which are normally roasted. It ruits

rom October to November and in April, when it serves asa hunting site or game such as peccaries.

It is a medium- to large-sized tree 15–40 m tall. Itgrows in terra irme orest, o ten in rolling terrain. Itis primarily a western Amazonian species, but it canalso be ound along the Jari River in Pará.

The essentially globose ruit is approximately 4 cmin diameter; it has three lobes and opens in three parts. Theseeds are about 3 cm long.

The cocão is a single-stemmed palm that occurs, however, in dense clusters o individuals.Oil extracted rom the cocão seed is used in the preparation o various oods. Rubber-tappers burn the woody endocarp or stone o the ruit to smoke rubber. This speciesmerits special attention because it is native and seems to be abundant where it occurs, andat least one o its products, the oil, is not immediately perishable, making it a good marketproduct.

Each plant is robust, reaching a height o 8–19 m. The ruits are brown, elongate egg-shaped, and 12–13 cm long by about 7 cm diameter. The outside o the ruit is hard and

ibrous, while within a ine layer o starch covers a woody pit or stone containing 2–3 oil-rich seeds. It occurs in the understorey or in the canopy in terra irme orest. The cocão isnative to western and southwestern Amazonia, occurring in Peru and in Acre in the upper Juruá River basin.

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The sweet pulp o the envira caju tree is highly prized bytraditional communities, which know the species well. Westill lack detailed knowledge o certain key characteristicso the ruit in order to evaluate its market potential in theregion. For example, the ruits are astringent until they arecompletely ripe; moreover, the local abundance o the trees,and the quantity and consistency o production per tree, areunknown. The envira caju has a red, globose ruit about4 cm in diameter. The tree is 8–28 m tall, and it is ound

requently in terra irme orests, o ten on hilly terrain. It isapparently restricted to Acre and the Department o Madre

de Dios in Peru. In Acre, it occurs only rom Tarauacá tothe east. Envira caju ruits in October and November.

Ingá is one o the most important tree groups in Amazonia. In addition to its diversity(approximately 130 species in the region), it possesses characteristics that increase itspotential as a resource or agro orestry systems, recuperation o degraded areas, and ruitcommercialization. The genus is abundant in various environments and various ingásoccur in secondary orests or in várzea. Many o the trees are small, ast-growing, and

highly productive. As legumes (the bean amily), they contribute to soil ertility, which inthe tropics is normally poor. Both Acre and Pará have more than 50 species o ingá each.

Depending on the species, ingá ruits can measure rom 5 cm to 1 m long. Though theydo not open spontaneously, they are easy to open by hand. The seeds o most speciesare surrounded by a sweet, white, lu y pulp, and the ruits o some o these species aresold in the markets o Belém, Manaus, Iquitos (Peru) and other Amazonian cities, but themajority are collected and consumed in the orest; ew species are cultivated.

The ollowing table summarizes the natural geographic distribution or a ew ingás, as wellas the environments in which they are ound4.

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Species of Inga Distribution Habitat

I. alba (Sw.) Willd. Southern Mexico, Central

America, northern South America

Terra firme

I. cayennensis Sagot ex Benth. Northern South America south toPeru, also northeastern Brazil

Terra firme

I. capitata Desv. Costa Rica; northern SouthAmerica south to Bolivia; AtlanticForest of Brazil

Terra firme and várzea

I. chartacea Poepp. Southwestern Amazonia andsouthern Pará

Terra firme

I. cinnamomea Spruce ex Benth. Widespread in Amazonia Várzea; cultivated

I. edulis Mart. Northern South America eastof the Andes; Atlantic Forest ofBrazil

Clearings in terra firme

I. grandis T.D. Penn. Restricted to southwesternAmazonia

Terra firme

I. ingoides (Rich.) Willd. Northern South America, Bolivia,Central Brazil, Atlantic Forest ofBrazil, northeastern Brazil, LesserAntilles

Terra firme and várzea

I. laurina (Sw.) Willd. Northern Mexico south to north-ern Argentina; Caribbean Often in dry forests

I. macrophylla Humb. & Bonpl.ex Willd.

Amazonia and Pacific coast ofnorthwestern South America

Secondary and disturbed for-ests; cultivated

I. nobilis Willd. var. nobilis Amazonia, Guyana, FrenchGuiana, central and southernparts of Venezuela, Central Brazil

Várzea

I. stipularis DC. Amazonia, Guyana and FrenchGuiana

Terra firme and river margins

I. velutina Willd. Amazonia Terra firme and várzea

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Sapota and sapota macho are large trees up to 40 m tall in terra irme orests. The sapotaruit is slightly egg-shaped or sometimes globose, smooth, 7–15 cm long by 5–15 cm in

diameter. Thesapota macho ruit is smaller, round, wrinkled, and up to 7 cm in diameter.The ruits o both species are yellowish brown or orange, with irm leathery skin (thinnerin M. bicolor ). The orange pulp that surrounds the hard pit or stone resembles that o amango and is ibrous and sweet.

Species of Matisia Fruit Distribution

SapotaM. cordata Bonpl.

Cultivated trees are smaller butcan produce 700–1 000 fruits / year; fruit matures between

February and May and is soldin the markets of Iquitos, Peru

Native to western and possiblycentral Amazonia, but alsowidely cultivated there, in

Belém, and on both sides of theAndes in Colombia and Ecuador

Sapota macho M. bicolor Ducke

Not cultivated, but it can befrequent where it occurs; fruitsOctober–November

Restricted distribution, recordedonly in the south-western cornerof Amazonia (Acre and south-eastern Peru) and in the XinguRiver basin

1 Pennington, T. D. 19902 Maas, P. J. M., Westra, L.Y. Th. and collaborators 1992.3 Cuatrecasas. J. 19644 Pennington, T.D. 1997

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Page

Con licting uses: diverseperspectives o orest value 233Multiple-use management 255Forest culture 267

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Patricia ShanleyMurilo Serra

Margaret CymerysGabriel Medina

Lêda Luz

The orest o ers di erent goods and values or each person. For instance, a hunter entersthe woods and scans the ground or armadillo tracks. A logger eyes the high-quality woodo ipê, a midwi e seeks andiroba’s oily seeds, while a geologist searches or rocks andminerals. The orest o ers something or everyone, but to maintain its abundance over timeit must be managed, keeping in mind this great diversity o needs. There are substantialcon licts over orest use in Amazonia today. In the 1960s and 1970s, new roads openedup areas that had previously been accessible only by boat. Ranchers, loggers and landlesspeasants rom throughout Brazil were drawn to the Amazon by government incentivesto take advantage o the seemingly limitless land and timber resources.1 The divergentinterests o these various stakeholders have requently resulted in bloody con licts thathave claimed hundreds o lives over the last three decades.2 International consumption o Amazonian bee , grain and ethanol is one o the drivers o these con licts.3 And while themajority o timber sales are currently domestic, external demand is rising sharply.4 Forestsin Asia and A rica are swi tly disappearing, with the Amazon potentially poised to becomethe centre o timber production or the world.

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Changes in land use,such as the introductiono logging, swiddenagriculture, intensivehunting and ranching, actas a sieve through whichvulnerable plant species

may be eliminated.Scientists are only nowdiscovering what orestpeople have known orsome time. As SenhorMarcelo o the village o Ananim said, a ter variouscycles o ranching,logging and ire, “The

orest never returns towhat it was.”

At risk species: 20.5%

Species that regenerate well: 35.5%

Threatenedspecies:22.4%

Species sensitiveto disturbance:

21.6%

Studies have demonstrated that the blame or the loss o orestsin Amazonia cannot be laid at the door o any speci ic group;rather it is the requency and intensity o combined activitiesthat make orests vulnerable.5 For example, secondary orestsreturn a ter various cycles o swidden agriculture, but with agreatly diminished diversity o species. Research conductedin the municipality o Peixe Boi, in Pará, by Dr Ima Vieira,an ecologist rom the Goeldi Museum in Belém, revealed thata ter the orest had been cut and burned several times, about65% o the species did not regenerate well, and as much as43% were at risk o local extinction.6 Among these speciesare those which provide the ruits, remedies, and ibres thatare central to the livelihoods o rural and urban Brazilians.

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Con licting uses: diverse perspectives o orest value 235

Species at risk

Farming and ranchingLogging Fire

The forest neverreturns to what it

was!

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Even when villagers understand the value o orest products or their amilies’ incomes, theyo ten still sell timber or a relatively low price. This scenario happens all over the world.Cash poor amilies perceive timber as a source o quick cash. But the money generallygoes as easily as it comes, leaving amilies without a ree supply o ruit and medicine, andno unds to buy them. Some villagers who have lost their orests, have shared their storiesto help others better evaluate the advantages and disadvantages o selling timber. Beloware the stories o villagers who sold their orests or cheap, villagers who negotiated or abetter price and others who conserved their orests.

Senhor Sebastião traded 5 alqueires (24 ha) o pristineorest or an oven that cost US$146. He quickly regretted

it. However, two years later, a new buyer entered and hesold 20 alqueires (96 ha) o virgin orest or US$156 each,which was about US$3.12 to US$4.16 a tree. The loggerpaid only the irst portion o what he owed, le t and neverreturned.

At the end o 1997, a neighbouring community sold148 alqueires (710 ha) o orest or US$104 an alqueire.The loggers took everything, including spindly sticks;soon a ter, ire took the rest. And what happened to theearnings? The remains o broken radios and burnt bicycleparts lie scattered upon the ground.

In many cases, parents o sick children sell timber out o desperation. For example, eeling the pain o his sick child,a ather in Baixo Tocantins sold ive piquiá trees to pay orone injection or his sick son. There was a little money le tover to buy a plate o ood on the roadside in ront o thehospital. I these trees had been sold at the sawmill, theywould be worth US$204. Asked i a logging sale has eversaved the li e o a child, community members routinelyrelate “no”.

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One o the neighbouring villagers, Senhor Zé, pre erredto work or cash; he did not like to work in the ield,to hunt or to collect orest ruits. A logger arrivedand said to him, “I you convince your community tosell their orest, I will pay you well.” The logger putUS$176 in his hand and made a payment o US$1 760to the community. The community quickly agreedto sell 180 alqueires (864 ha) or US$10 588 dividedinto 6 payments. But a ter the wood was taken out,how many payments do you think they received?Only one, and to get it, the spokesperson or thecommunity had to travel 150 km three di erent times,leaving his ields or seven days. In the end, each o the30 amilies in the community received US$117. Themoney quickly disappeared and it became harder andharder to access orest ruits and vines. Senhor Zé moved to the city, but everything therehad to be purchased and was expensive. Out o money, he went back to work with theloggers, convincing other communities to sell their wood. Beware, because a man namedZé could come knocking at your door. I you do plan to do business with loggers, be sureto check out prices irst so that you get a air deal or your wood.

In Baixo Tocantins, a few communities negotiatedwith loggers to receive a better price for theirtimber and to protect the fruit trees, the medicinaloil trees and other useful species in their forest.Communities can also identify the parts of theforest richest in game and in this way draw theboundaries of a reserve or corridor where nologger can enter. Loggers typically offer to create a soccer field in exchange for timber, whichis a welcome sports area for everyone to enjoy. Communities that negotiate well, however,can play soccer without sacrificing the andiroba oil they will need to treat the bumps and

bruises they inevitably suffer after the games.

The community o Muruteuazinho, on theGuamá River, recognized the huge loss o orestthat they su ered rom timber sales and shi tingcultivation and decided to preserve an area o oldgrowth orest and to plant their swidden ieldsonly in the secondary orest. They increased the productivity o the secondary orestby planting orange and coconut trees and passion ruit. In addition, they mapped thereserve and created a cleared area around the orest to keep ires rom entering. To urthersupplement their income rom the land, they began to raise bees or honey.

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The Farmers Union o Paragominas, in Pará, together with three communities along theCapim River, asked researchers which was more valuable: the money raised by sellingwood, or the value o the ruit, game and vines that amilies consume over the longterm. The question seems simple, but the answer depends on a lot o actors, such as theparticular species o tree, its abundance in a given area, its production, the distance o thenearest market and its selling price.

The research team studied the orest, the market and local consumption o orest products.Most o the data was gathered by the community, which counted and weighed all o the

ruit, ibre and game each amily consumed in 1993. When the research began, wood rom3 000 hectares o orest had already been sold ive di erent times. In these cases the saleswere made selectively; only ten species were sold. The results showed that even a ter thesesales, although amilies had to walk arther to ind orest products, they still consumed anaverage o 96 kg o game, 20 kg o vine and 89 kg o ruit per amily that year. I a amilyhad to purchase all o those resources, it would have cost them US$300.

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In 1993, each o the amilies o the three villages studied in the Capim River regionconsumed an average o 383 ruits. By type o ruit, this signi ied an average o 161 bacuris,150 uxis and 72 piquiás per amily. But even with a solid understanding o the value o the standing orest, it is easy to sell wood or land cheaply. From 1993 to 2003 the Capimvillagers sold wood eight more times.7 When sales became requent and intense, involvingmore than 50 species, the availability o ruits and other orest products diminishedsigni icantly.8

Furthermore, studies have shown that or each tree extracted or wood, an additional 27either die or are damaged in the process.9 As the structure o the orest changed with moreextensive logging, uel loads increased on the orest loor and the orest became prone to

ire.10 A ter multiple logging events in the Capim region, ire raged through the orest in

1997, lasting weeks. A ter the orest ire, the average consumption o piquiá ell rom 72ruits (14.5 kg) to 14 ruits (2.8 kg) per amily – an 80% drop. At this point, con lict ensuedbetween the industrial harvest o wood and the communal harvest o non-timber orestproducts.

after 5 selective logging extractions after 8 additional predatorylogging extractions

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Why did the consumption o piquiá ruit all so dramatically? Because o the 109piquiá trees the community collected ruit rom in 1993, only 41 survived in 2003 – aloss o 63%. During the irst ew sales, loggers only took out the ew highest-qualitytimber species, and the ruit trees were spared. But a ter 1996, the number o specieslogged escalated to over 50. In the last ew decades, the number o species extractedby loggers has shot up rom 12 to more than 300. A third o these are valued sourceso ood, medicine, gum and resin.11 In 1996, the 15 species most valued by the Capimcommunities or the game they attract and the ruit and remedies they producebegan to be logged, and piquiá was among them.12

Fruit tree 1993 1998 2003 % lost

Piquiá 109 98 41 63

Bacuri 16 14 3 81

Uxi 24 12 4 83

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Logging was the cause o mortality or 80% o the piquiás (55 trees). Fire in agriculturalields caused the death o another ten trees, wind knocked down another two and a

local amily chopped down one to make a boat.

Number o piquiá, bacuri and uxi trees lost, by cause o death,1993–2003

Fruit treeTimber

extractionAgricultural

ield, ire Wind Construction

Piquiá 55 10 2 1

Bacuri 2 4 2 0

Uxi 3 12 4 0

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There are three types o timber sales in the Capim region, with each successive type havingan increasingly dramatic impact on orest communities. In the irst type o sale, the loggerextracts only the most valuable species. In the next, the logger takes out a much largernumber o species, including the ruit and oil producing trees. And inally, the loggersbuy wood by area (alqueire), extracting all the trees they want that are le t. When the rateo extraction o timber surpasses the ability o the orest to regenerate, the production o

ruit declines, medicinal plants are less available and animals become scarce. This story isrepeated continually throughout the Amazon. However, i communities are aware o thecosts and bene its o logging, they can sell wood conscientiously and maintain the trees theywant to meet their needs.

A v e r a g e c o n s u m p

t i o n

o f

p i q u

i á / f a m

i l y / y e a r

( k g )

72

0 1993 1997 2004

The Capim River example illustrates that:

• The use o timber can be compatible with the use o other orest products, dependingon the requency and intensity o extraction. Logging events by outside companiesoccurred in the Capim communities rom approximately 1988 until the present.During the initial decade, only a ew adult trees were extracted rom a limited numbero species.

• There is an irreversible point a ter which a orest does not readily recover rom lossesdue to logging. In 1997 in the Capim region, a large number o trees rom a varietyo species were extracted and then an accidental ire burned one-quarter o the areasurrounding the communities. A ter that, ruit consumption dropped signi icantly.

• To evaluate the costs and bene its o selling wood, communities and industries needecological, economic and cultural in ormation. In addition, villagers need planningand training to manage their orests or lowest impact and multiple uses.

• In addition to market values, it is important to consider the local importance andinvisible income o non-timber orest products ( ruit, game, medicine and vines).

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I a community or individual plans to sell timber, what is the best way to go about it? Isit pre erable to sell by the tree, by alqueire (4.8 hectares) or by cubic metre? Rememberthat i a villager sells wood by alqueire, a logger can take out as many trees as he wants.Generally, loggers extract between 25 and 50 trees when the timber deal is selective and upto 200 using conventional methods.

Selling timber by tree rather than by area gives a greater measure o control to communitiesover what is harvested. Selling timber by cubic metre is more pro itable, earning manytimes what could be made by alqueire. Using the example o what people rom the CapimRiver were paid by loggers, we can determine which method is most lucrative. In themid-1990s, the price or a tree when sold per alqueire varied between US$2 and US$6(US$100–150 total per alqueire). At the time, individual trees were being sold or betweenUS$11 and US$27. Whereas, selling wood by cubic metre to a sawmill, it is possible tomake between US$21 and US$48/tree (US$7–16/m3).

Value of 1 treesold per cubic metre:

US$9–19

Value of 1 treesold individually:

US$4–11

Value of 1 treesold by alqueire:

US$1–2.50

Reviewing these prices, it is clear that a producer can earn more selling timber by tree andby cubic metre than by alqueire. In Pará, communities eel pressured to sell by alqueire. InMato Grosso, on the other hand, they o ten sell by cubic metre, valuing the product andearning more.

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When broken down mathematically, the di erence in price is clearly signi icant. In 2004,one piquiá tree went or US$1 when sold by alqueire. When it was sold individually,the price jumped by more than 400% to US$4 per tree. When a piquiá tree was soldby cubic metre, it earned approximately US$9 (US$3/m3), 900% more than i it weresold by alqueire. In the case o maçaranduba, the di erence is even more extreme. Onemaçaranduba tree was worth US$1 when sold by alqueire; individually it was worth US$7;and inally when it was sold by cubic metre it etched US$12 (US$4/m3).

Value of 1 tree soldper alqueire

Value of 1 treesold individually

Value of 1 treesold per cubic

metre

Piquiá US$1 US$4 US$9

Maçaranduba US$1 US$7 US$12

Ipê-roxo US$1.50 US$8.50 US$15

It is use ul to try to ind out how much sawmills pay or each species and how much theysell wood or a ter it has been sawn. One maçaranduba tree is purchased in the Capimregion or US$1.40. The logger resells it to the sawmill in Tomé-Açu or US$51, or US$17/m3. Real costs will discount extraction, transportation and management expenses, reducingnet pro it by hal to about US$8.50/m3.13

US$1.40 US$51 US$510

Sold by community Sold by logger Sold by the sawmill

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André Dias and Marli Mattos

To ind out the amount o wood a tree contains, loggers calculate its volume in cubic metres.In order to negotiate e ectively with a logger, communities need to learn the language o logging. To calculate the volume o a standing tree, loggers use a geometric volume equationsimilar to the volume o a cone, which takes into account the tapering nature o the tree’strunk. For the equation, you need to know the distance around the tree (its circum erence)and its height. The circum erence is measured at chest level (approximately 1.3 m rom theground) using a metric measuring tape. I the tree haslow buttress roots, it is better to measure the trunk just above them. I the tree has high buttress roots,you just have to eye it. The length o the trunk canbe estimated using a 4-m stick. As planks sawn at themills are about 4 m long, it’s possible to calculate howmany 4-m planks you can get rom the trunk. Just

hold the stick alongsidethe trunk to estimatehow many times higherthe tree is than thestick. The height andcircum erence should becalculated in metres.

I you know thecircum erence and theheight o the tree, itis easy to calculate itsvolume. Just multiplythe terms using the

ormula below:14

For example, a tree that is 2 m around and has a 20-m long trunk has 4.8 cubic metres o timber:

Volume = circum erence x circum erence x height x 0.06

Volume = 2 x 2 x 20 x 0.06Volume =4.8 cubic metres

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The volume o cubic metres in a tree can also be calculated using the table below. To use thetable you need to locate the tree’s circum erence in the top row o the table and then locatethe tree’s height in the irst column. Then simply connect the circum erence’s column withthe height’s row to ind the number o cubic metres o the tree.

CIRCUMFERENCE1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4

4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.8 4.2 4.66 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.7 2.1 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.7 4.2 4.7 5.2 5.8 6.4 7.08 0.9 1.2 1.6 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.8 4.3 4.9 5.5 6.2 6.9 7.7 8.5 9.3

10 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.7 5.4 6.1 6.9 7.8 8.7 9.6 10.6 11.612 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.9 5.6 6.5 7.4 8.3 9.3 10.4 11.5 12.7 13.914 1.6 2.2 2.7 3.4 4.1 4.8 5.7 6.6 7.6 8.6 9.7 10.9 12.1 13.4 14.8 16.316 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.8 4.6 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.6 9.8 11.1 12.4 13.9 15.4 16.9 18.618 2.1 2.8 3.5 4.3 5.2 6.2 7.3 8.5 9.7 11.1 12.5 14.0 15.6 17.3 19.1 20.920 2.4 3.1 3.9 4.8 5.8 6.9 7.3 9.4 10.8 12.3 13.9 15.6 17.3 19.2 21.2 23.222 2.6 3.4 4.3 5.3 6.4 7.6 8.9 10.3 11.9 13.5 15.3 17.1 19.1 21.1 23.3 25.624 2.8 3.7 4.7 5.8 7.0 8.3 9.7 11.3 13.0 14.7 16.6 18.7 20.8 23.0 25.4 27.926 3.1 4.0 5.1 6.2 7.6 9.0 10.5 12.2 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.2 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.228 3.3 4.3 5.4 6.7 8.1 9.7 11.4 13.2 15.1 17.2 19.4 21.8 24.3 26.9 29.6 32.530 3.5 4.6 5.8 7.2 8.7 10.4 12.2 14.1 16.2 18.4 20.8 23.3 26.0 28.8 31.8 34.8

H E I G H T

Natalino Silva

Forest engineers calculate the volume o standing trees or orest inventories usinga ormula with constants specially designed or the tree species being harvested. Itis called geometric volume, and it is used by IBAMA, the Brazilian Environmentaland Renewable Resource Institute, as a basis to determine authorizations or loggersseeking permission to harvest wood.When the trees have already been cut and trans ormed into logs, their volume canbe calculated in one o two ways: the cylindrical volume or the Francon volume.The cylindrical volume is calculated on the deck holding the cut logs to estimatevolume harvested. The logs are measured as i they were cylinders. In this case thecircum erence is measured in the centre o the log.In contrast, the Francon volume tells you how many cubicmetres (trans ormed into planks) can be obtained rom eachlog. In this method, all parts o the trunk that are not used bythe mill are discounted, including the bark and any internalde ects (such as knots and rot). The accounting o loggingoperations done by IBAMA uses the Francon method.Francon volume is roughly 78% o cylindrical (or geometric) volume. To trans ormthe cylindrical volume (Vc) into Francon volume (V ), just multiply the cylindricalvolume by 0.7854, as shown in the ormula: V = Vc x 0.7854

For example, a tree with a cylindrical volume o 4.8 would have:V = 4.8 x 0.7854V =3.77 cubic metres o wood planks.

Francon volume

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• Research the prices. In 2003, the Capim communities sold the right to log on theirlands or US$33/alqueire (US$7/ha).

• Identi y and mark the use ul trees that should not be taken out ( ruit trees, game-attracting trees and those which supply oils and resins).

• Create a orest reserve based on the density and distribution o use ul trees and thepresence o game. Mark and show the boundaries o the reserve to the logger.

• The logger should contract a orest engineer to oversee the operation. The engineermakes a map based on the distribution o trees he or she plans to harvest and createsa management plan based on this map, showing where the roads and the clearingsshould be. This practice avoids the opening o unnecessary roads that destroy a largerarea o orest.

• Sell wood only to loggers that remove logs with a skidder instead o a tractor. Skiddersthat use a cable system are able to remove logs without getting close to the area wherethey ell, causing less damage to the orest.

• Ask the logger to build a road a ter the harvest. This is more likely to happen i youask be ore the last load o wood is extracted.

• Insist on being paid on a speci ic day and renegotiate i the work takes longer than oneyear.

• Accompany the extraction and note the volume that is being extracted rom the orest.• Have a written and signed contract that includes all o the important points.

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Francis E. Putz

This autobiographical story by a well-known orester shows how easy it is to be ooled all over the world.

As a orestry researcher and ardent advocate o orest management or conservation andincome generation, it does my reputation little good to admit that in selling timber rommy own property, I was cheated not once, but twice. Granted that my second ventureinto timber marketing ailed or di erent reasons than the irst, but in both cases I did notreceive all o the income I deserved. What makes these experiences even more pain ul,is that close colleagues have written extensively on marketing timber, but I did not takeadvantage o their readily available publications on the topic.15

I own about 50 hectares o pine-dominated orest outside Gainesville, Florida. Early in2000s an outbreak o Southern pine beetles threatened my unthinned stands, so I hired alocal logger to harvest some pulpwood logs. When we met to negotiate the deal, the loggerdrove up in one o the most dilapidated pickup trucks I have ever seen. I had consideredasking him or an advance or to post a per ormance bond, but did not bother given hisobvious inancial limitations. We agreed that he would pay me or the timber as he soldthe logs to the mill. About a week later he returned with his two sons in another beat-upold truck, this one with a winch or loading logs. I was occupied with teaching at the timeand could not supervise the logging operation very closely.

I started to wonder about when I was going tobe paid or my timber a ter the logger had beenworking or a ew days and had hauled o a ewtruckloads. When I asked one o the sons aboutgetting paid, he said that I would have to talk tohis ather, who at that time was taking a load tothe mill. The next day I caught up with the ather,who promised me that he would arrange to haveme paid directly by the mill, because he was havingtrouble with his bank and could not write me acheck himsel . Two days later they hauled o thelast log without having paid or the irst.

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Realizing that I was unlikely to be paid unless I took some action, I considered the courseso action open to me. Un ortunately, the best approach I came up with was to hire a lawyerand take the logger to court. Because lawyers cost a lot o money and I could not expectto get much rom the logger anyway, I decided that I would accept the loss and learn rommy mistake.In 2003, it was dry again and the beetles were on the rampage, so despite low prices orsaw timber and pulpwood, it was time to hire another logger. This time I chose to hire amore reputable company. Because the market was bad and getting worse, no loggers inmy region were willing to buy timber in advance, so again I was locked into a pay-as-cutdeal. This time I was care ul to cordon o areas that I did not want the logger to enter and

lagged trees that I wanted protected during elling and extraction operations.

Un ortunately, my elaborate environmental protection requirements, which made it moredi icult to log, coupled with plummeting pulpwood prices resulted in my contractor goingelsewhere or his logs. He paid or what he hauled o site and ollowed the guidelines Iset, but ended up harvesting only about hal o what I needed to be removed, which meantthat my pro it was much lower than expected.

What these experiences taught me is that arranging timber sales is not a trivial undertakingand that there are a multitude o ways a deal can go sour. In the uture, I will ollow theadvice available on various web sites16 or hire a pro essional to broker the deal.

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When you negotiate a good timber sale, you can conserve the ruit and oil trees that areuse ul to your amily. As it isn’t easy or producers who are ar rom the market to selltheir ruit, let’s have a look at some tips rom communities who have learned rom trial anderror how to make a good sale.

Identi y the ruit trees that the community likes best and that produce well.When you know a tree is going to produce a lot, clear the brush out rombeneath the tree so that you will not lose any ruit.

Fruit trees o ten rest on alternating years. Remember where they are, and beaware o their cycles o production so that you can plan to collect, eat and sellduring productive seasons. Making note o the lowering o your trees willhelp you remember when they will come into season. I you have trees thatproduce between seasons, you can o ten get a better price (2–6 times higher).

A ter you collect and carry a bunch o heavy and perishable ruit, thinkcare ully about how you will package them to take to market. I you throw

all the ruits in a sack, they can easily spoil. Use a sack only or the ruitswith a thick rind. For the others, use ventilated containers such as baskets.

Research the market prices so that you don’t end up losing money. And toget a good spot at the market, be sure to get there early. In addition, i yousell your products together with your neighbours or in the cooperative, itis possible you will earn more.

Transportation

For many communities, reaching the market is di icult.The act that the harvest o ten takes place in the rainyseason makes matters even more complicated. That’s why itis important to plan well be ore the harvest. Negotiate withpeople who have transportation (boat owners, mayors,loggers and ranchers). Allow or extra travel time due tomud and bad weather.

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I you send someone to sell your product in the market, makesure you know whom you are dealing with. I he or she is not atrustworthy person, you may see your pro its quickly trans ormedinto a bottle o booze.

Do you want to increase your profit from fruit? Make sweets , jam ,rozen ice treats, pulp or soap. The more products you make, the more you

may earn. But remember: to make these products you irst need to train peoplewell in hygiene and quality control and consider issues such as storage and preservation.

Various seals o quality exist which guarantee to the consumer that yourproduct was made in a sustainable way adhering to rigorous standards o quality. This can increase demand or your product and, subsequently,your pro it. Adherence to the standards o certi ication is o ten moreeasily accomplished i the producers are organized into cooperatives orassociations.

When the ruit seasons are over, what then? A ew women hold onto the pulp, sweets and jam to sell between seasons. In addition, they make home remedies, products rom vinesand hammocks, all or sale. Instead o dividing the total pro it between them, some pre erto use at least 20% or the association to buy more primary material ( abric, line, ruit,etc.). They are intelligent: they are ollowing the rules o big businesses – diversi y to runless risk and earn more money.

As a farm woman from the Tocantins relates: “The best way to save money for thewhole family is being able to eat without having to go to the store.”

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Capim Region, community members (Dona Ana Mendes, Benedito de Souza, João Brito, José Maria Pantoja)

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1 Schmink, M. & Wood, C.H., 19922 Simmonset al.20073 Nepstad, D.C.; Stickler, C.M. & Almdeida, O.T. 20064 Nepstad, D.et al . 20045 Cochrane, M.A. & Laurence, W.F. 2002 / Nepstad, D.et al.19996 Vieira, I.; Nepstad, D. & Roma, J.C. 19967 Medina, G. 20048 Shanley, P.; Luz, L. & Cymerys, M. 20029 Johns, J.; Barreto, P. & Uhl, C. 199810 Nepstad, D.et al.199911 Martini, A.; Rosa, N. A. & Uhl, C. 199812 Shanley, P. & Rosa, N. 200413 Amaral, P.et al.199814 Mattos, M.; Nepstad, D. & Vieira, I.C. 199215 Demers. C. & Long, A. 200616 Savelle, W. & Eshee, W.D. 2002

DatePeriod of extraction (beginning and end)Boundaries of the area to be loggedNumber of trees to be extractedNumber of hectares or alqueires to be loggedTrees that cannot be cutForm of payment (amount of down payment and the otherinstalments)The complete name of the buyer, ID number, telephonenumber and addressName of companySignature of two people from the community (witnesses)Always remember to keep a copy in a safe place.

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Murilo SerraGabriel Medina

Managing the orest means using it with care. Many rural communities, especiallytraditional ones, have a long history o using their orest management skills and practicesto guarantee the availability o certain resources. Community orest management shouldgenerally encompass the multiple uses o the orest and take into account the diversity o

orest resources, including not only wood but also ruit, ibre, game and medicinal plants,collectively known as non-wood orest products (NWFPs).

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A ew communities and ranchers put the needs o their amilies irst and create orestreserves where game can reproduce. By creating reserves, they guarantee the good nutritiono their grandchildren and great-grandchildren. They have not sold their orests or shortterm gain because keeping the ruit trees ensures that no one will go hungry. Having acommunity orest is like having money in a savings account: its value always goes up.

Forest reserves are o greater value to a community i the people know what kind o treesand animals live there. To maintain a community orest, it is necessary to establish a ewrules about the use and management o its resources, such as whether to allow loggingor where to place shi ting cultivation plots. Part o the land can be set aside as a orestreserve or the reproduction o plants and animals, where limited or no extraction takesplace. To ensure ruit production, an area with a high number o ruit trees avoured bythe community and animals can be set aside. To maximize the reproductive potential o reserves, it is use ul to plan care ully and to choose an area connected to other orests,creating a corridor that permits the movement and reproduction o wildli e.

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Multiple-use management 257

M. Almeida, E. Costa, S. Dewi, M. Pantoja,A. Postigo, A. Puntodewo, M. Ruiz

The irst extractive reserve,created in Brazil in 1990,was the Extractive Reserveo Alto Juruá, in Acre,with hal a million hectaresand approximately 5 000people. Rubber has beentheir principal cash crop orthe last 100 years. The crashin rubber prices, however,challenged the localpopulation’s livelihood. Inresponse, they developednew sources o income tosupplement the subsistenceincome they have alwaysearned rom arming andextractivism.

During the 1990s, part o the population moved to the centre o the reserve, where theconcentration o rubber trees is greatest along the margins o the rivers. The movement o

the population resulted in greater pressure on the orest along the riversides and a decreasein pressure in the terra irme areas. Altogether, de orestation in the reserve has reachedonly 0.2%, and 98.5% o the reserve has maintained its orest cover.

By 2004, only 21% o amilies harvested rubber. This shi t has resulted in a decrease inrubber production by 82%. Among the new sources o income are NWFPs, such as soapmade rom murumuru, bags and clothes made o natural rubber and brooms made rompiaçava. In addition, beans grown along the margins o the rivers have replaced rubber asthe primary cash crop. Forty-one percent o amilies are involved in the rearing o cattle,with, on average, two cows/ amily. However, a small number o residents have gatheredtheir herds and created ranches in the interior o the reserve.

Municipal salaries, pensions and administrative positions in the reserve are trans ormingthe local economy, contributing to greater stability or amilies. Following global trends,the economy o the reserve is shi ting rom the agricultural sector to the service sector.

During the irst decade o the reserve, the community adapted to changing economicconditions, keeping a relatively stable population and maintaining orest cover. Newtrends will bring new challenges or the residents o the reserve. Among these are theexpansion o cattle ranching, the increased presence o the state, political changes and thein luence o other countries.

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Un ortunately, or some communities it is too late or a reserve: they don’t have any orestle t. People are living in the middle o the scrub without maçaranduba to make shingles,bacuri to eat or tortoises to capture. This happened to Senhor João Paulo. He lived on abeauti ul arm with Brazil nuts, mangos, cashews and bacaba, but one day he received avisit rom a rancher, and guess what happened? João sold his arm and moved with his

amily into the shrublands, with no trees and no water. But even at 60 years old, João wason top o things and started planting again. He enriched the secondary orest with treesthat produced ruit, resins, wood and other valuable products, both or his amily and orthe market. Today, he has trees like ipê-roxo, mururé, cedro, sucupira, ameixa, graviola,uxi, piquiá and many other species.

About 12% o the Amazonian orestwas destroyed by de orestation and irebetween 1970 and 2002. In addition tothe huge loss o plant and animal li e,the burning causes local luctuations intemperature and rain all patterns, andcontributes to global climate change.Hence it is increasingly important to

create barriers against ire. To createa irebreak, you must clear all thevegetation rom the orest loor alonga strip. Anything that could possiblycatch ire, like trees, bushes, drybranches and grass, must be removed. Because there is nothing to burn in the irebreak, the

ire should stop when it reaches it. Generally, barriers are rom 4 m to 6 m wide. The widerthey are, the lower the risk o ire jumping the irebreak and spreading into the orest. Inplanning when and how to burn your ields, pay attention to the air temperature, the orceand direction o the wind, the time o year the burning takes place, the kind o vegetationand the inclination o the terrain, in addition to respecting any agreements you may havewith your neighbours.

Remember to plant your ields in the secondary orest. In this way you avoid destroyingthe more valuable primary orest. Using the secondary orest is a wise way o reducingde orestation while obtaining use ul products. But be care ul with the ire: burning a ield

or planting in secondary orest is like dropping a match on gunpowder.

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Socorro Ferreira, Marli Mattosand Cesar Sabogal

Secondary orests generally grow on agricultural ields le t allow a ter cultivating thesoil or crops. The armer allows the orest to grow back so that the ground can rest andrecuperate or 4–10 years, when it can be cultivated again. While the secondary orest is“resting the earth,” it serves many use ul purposes: producing wood or houses, boats,

ences and pigsties; keeping the air cool; and sheltering birds like tinamous and quail-dovesand many other animals including paca, armadillos and agoutis.

Many armers also leave part o their property as orest reserves, allowing the orest toully mature and thereby o er more products. Research conducted in the northeast o the

state o Pará revealed that more than 20% o secondary orests on armers’ lots are middleto advanced in age. Secondary orest more than ten years old can be managed to encouragethe production o avoured species use ul or construction and valuable or ruit, medicine,

ibres and resins.

Some o the species encouraged in secondary orests managed by agricultural amilies are:• Medicinal uses

Açoita cavalo (Lueheopsis duckeana)Paricazinho (Stryphnodendron guianense)Sucuúba (Himatanthus sucuuba)

• Wood for various usesAmaparana (Thyrsodium paraense)Anani (Symphonia globuli era)Cumaru (Dipteryx odorata)Cumatê (Myrcia atramenti idera)Cupiúba (Goupia glabra)Ingá vermelho (Inga alba) Jarana (Lecythis lurida)Louro prata (Ocotea guianensis)Parapará ( Jacaranda copaia)Pau jacaré (Laetia procera)Sapucaia (Lecythis usitatavar. paraensis)

• Edible fruits

Bacuri (Platonia insignis)Bacuripari (Garcinia (Rheedia) macrophylla)

Bacuri is one example o a tree species that can be managed in secondary orest. Whennatural regeneration begins, knowledgeable armers select the more vigorous bacurisaplings and thin the surrounding vegetation. When the secondary orest is ormed,

armers eliminate the plants and vines competing or light and nutrients with the desiredbacuri saplings. By giving bacuri su icient room to grow, the young trees can developstraight trunks and orm canopies.

By managing the secondary orest, arming amilies can develop and produce desirableplant species more quickly, making use ul products available or consumption and sale inlocal and regional markets.

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Montserrat RiosScientists estimate that 30% o orest cover in Amazonia is now secondary orest. In the

northeast o Pará , a ter a century o swidden agriculture, secondary orest represents thepredominant vegetation in the region. Ecological and ethnobotanical research reveals that,historically, secondary orest has been used by many human populations that lived inAmazonia. Secondary orests at various stages o growth are capable o providing plants

or nutrition, medicine, construction and uel, helping with the daily sustenance o amilies.A study in the community o Benjamin Constant, in the municipality o Bragança, inPará, shows that the amilies o small armers know and use approximately 135 species

rom secondary orests. These many plants provide a variety o use ul products. Amapá(Parahancornia asciculata), or example, produces latex which is used in the treatment o anaemia, worms, liver diseases, diarrhoea, stomach in lammation, and gastritis. In addition

to its medicinal power, amapá’s high-quality wood is used in construction. As the extento secondary growth increases, it is important to encourage research about the potential o plant products ound in secondary orests, developing sustainable management programs

or these areas and disseminating scienti ic knowledge to communities in practical andproductive ways.

Antônio José , David McGrath and Charles PetersOn the margins o the Tapajós River, in Pará,artisans have ormed six community workshops

that make use o the wood o downed treesrom orests and agricultural ields to createsimple, rustic urniture (benches, chairs andtables) that brings out the natural beauty o Amazon hardwoods. The de ects and variationsin the wood are incorporated into the urniture’sdesign, contributing to the unique beauty andutility o each piece. The artisans have ormeda cooperative, O icinas Caboclas do Tapajós(Caboclo Workshops o the Tapajós), which nowhas over 50 members.Groups began using dead wood to avoid elling trees rom prospective communityreserves until a management plan could be put into action. To develop management plans

or sustainable extraction o wood rom community orest reserves o 100 and 200 ha, theartisans inventoried a wide variety o tree species. Forest inventories were conducted todetermine the number and location o commercial size trees and the volume o timber oreach o some 40 species or species groups, though in practice most groups use only parto this diversity. The artisan groups also monitor the growth o each species o tree todetermine the volume o wood that can be taken out without a ecting the original stock.Installed in simple sheds, artisans use saws, hammers, chisels, planes and chip axes tocarve stools, benches, chairs and tables. Each workshop produces an average o 80 piecesper year. For each large tree (with about 3 m3 o wood) they can produce about 1 000cutting boards, 190 stools, and 50 co ee tables. Many o the bench designs are based onanimals rom the surrounding orests and rivers, such as peccaries, caiman, anteaters, boa

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constrictors, and aquatic species such as river turtles, pirarucu, tambaqui and stingrays.Artisans are also using titica vine, to weave seats or benches and shelves or co ee tables.In 2008, the price o the pieces varied rom US$10 per carving board to US$177 or a largeanimal bench. The ollowing diagram shows how one tree may generate the equivalent o US$10 i sold to a logger or the pro it that can be generated rom working one dead treeo 3 m3 into cutting boards, benches and co ee tables.

Because the workshops use only small volumes o timber, 3-6 m3

per year, orest reservesprovide ar more timber than they currently need, there is great potential or expandingproduction in response to demand. The limited volume o timber combined with the useo simple, readily available hand tools means that this system is well suited to the ruralconditions o traditional peoples surrounded by primary orest and even colonists whose

orests have been exploited by commercial loggers. In act, exploited orests provide anabundance o use ul wood because the kinds o trees that loggers reject: hollow, split ortwisted, are the most interesting rom the artisan’s perspective. As a result, this approachis being adopted by caboclo and colonist communities throughout the region.

+

+

X US$10

X US$30

X US$100

US$20 700 gross income,– US$15 525 estimated costsof 75% (loss, extraction,production, labour, machinery)

= US$5 175 estimated profit.

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Tasso Rezende de Azevedo

When people buy orest products, they like to know that they are helping to conserve theorest in addition to supporting small producers. Perhaps the consumer could be assuredo this by visiting the production site. However, it is impossible or consumers to visitall o the actories and workplaces where the various products they purchase are madeand where the raw materials are collected. And even i they could visit the productionsites, many people still wouldn’t know whether or not the purchase o a certain productbene ited a community or promoted orest conservation.

The certi ication system was created to help the consumer make good decisions at thetime o purchase by guaranteeing that a product was made in a sustainable manner. In thissystem, a third-party independent team goes to a producer and evaluates the work that isbeing done. The team determines i the company is ollowing the norms o sustainabilitythat were developed by a working group involving consumers, producers, technicalorganizations, unions, companies, governments and researchers.

I the producer complies with these regulations, he or she receives a certi ication thatpermits him or her to put a seal on the product. The seal guarantees buyers that theproduct was constructed or extracted ollowing the rules o good orest management.There are three main kinds o certi ication or NWFPs.1 • The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certi ication guarantees that the orest and

harvest is being sustainably managed, the producers are bene iting rom the sales, and

the production is able to continue over the long term.2

• Organic certi ication guarantees that the products are grown without the use o pesticides or chemical ertilizers thus are not contaminated by agrotoxins generallymaking them healthier.

• Fair trade certi ication ensures workers’ rights, decent working conditions and anequitable sharing o pro its among producers.

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On the island o Marajó, in Pará, a ood company works together with the riverinecommunity to produce açai (both heart o palm and pulp) using sustainable managementtechniques. Sustainable management guarantees that the harvesting o heart o palm and theproduction o açai pulp can be maintained, using a orm o extraction that does not destroythe orest. Furthermore, it bene its the producers. Saying that a product is certi ied by theFSC means that it “comes rom orests that are managed to meet the social, economic andecological needs o present and uture generations”.2

The açai palm is the main source o nutrition or the amilies o Marajó Island. For manyyears, however, the açai palms were threatened by excessive cutting o palm stems orheart o palm production. Care was not taken to see that new palms grew to replacethose that were harvested. In response, communities and companies jointly developed amanagement plan to extract only a number o stems rom each palm cluster, allowing thepalm to continue to produce. In this plan, palm stems are harvested every our years. Ineach harvest, only the adult stems are taken, leaving the young ones to grow or utureharvests and to produce ruit to establish new palms. Using this system, the ruit can alsobe collected every year to be consumed and marketed by the community.

This system o management has trans ormed many orests into plantations o açai, causingshortages o other valuable products such as medicinal plants, game, ronds and oils.To avoid the loss o biodiversity, companies and communities are working together to

maintain a minimum and maximum number o açai palms/ha, so that other lora and aunacan continue to survive.

But it is no use to only take care o the orest; people also need to bene it rom theconservation o orests and wildli e. A company must include in its business plan healthcare and education programmes or its employees, and or the people living adjacent tothe managed orests. Unless businesses pay attention to social concerns and provide someservices, it is di icult or them to receive FSC certi ication.

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Paulo Amaral and Manuel Amaral Neto

The Amazonian orest is so big that, in the past, loggers, politicians and communitiesnever imagined that it could one day disappear. Exploiting the orest with no thought tothe uture led to losses, both or small communities and big businesses. In the 1990s, thepublic, the government and researchers all began to realize that orests could be managed

or the local consumption o goods and or the sale o orest products. Initially, the ocuswas on managing the orest or timber sales, but soon thinking shi ted to multiple-usemanagement.

In Amazonia, 18 ormal Community Forest Management (CFM) initiatives with externalinancial support o a nationally developed project or the Amazon region existed by

2001.3 Because o these initiatives, a great part o the orest in the region remained in thehands o populations that have traditionally managed it. In addition, other communitieswere already receiving project assistance rom certain institutions. However, althoughnumerous communities naturally practice multiple-use orest management, many newCFM projects still ocus only on timber extraction. Among the obstacles to success ulcommunity management are: un avourable public policies, lack o credit and weaktechnical assistance. In 2000, o the 14 projects that existed, 45% were planned by NGOs,44% by donors and 11% by technical extension workers.4 The di iculties are greatestwhen the inspiration or orest management comes rom outside the community. The

ollowing table details the challenges and opportunities o community orest management.It is important to remember that

in the process o establishing thistype o management, both thegovernment and the communityhave essential roles.

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Opportunities and difficulties Possible solutions

For communities Opportunities

• Knowledge of the forest and interest inmanagement• Labour available in the community• Assistance from NGOs

Difficulties• Lack of local infrastructure for

production and marketing• Low educational level and technical

capacity• Limited knowledge of regulations

• Discuss and implement long-term

proposals for CFM• Promote local capacity and strengtheningof institutions

• Recognize and document locally craftedmanagement innovations

For local organizations Opportunities

• Some communities have informalorganization and internal rules for forestuse

• Local institutions strengthened by linkingwith social movements demonstratinginterest in conservation

Difficulties• Lack of access to information• Long delay in benefits of CFM

• Partnering institutions have insufficientmanagement capacity

• Promote the social organization of localcommunities

• Clearly define the responsibilities andbenefits of management

• Empower community members involvedwith management activities

• Develop entrepreneurial spirit

For the government Opportunities

• Government supports Conservation Unitsin Amazonia

• Possibility for community participation inconservation

• Interest on the part of national andinternational partners in CFM

Difficulties• Many areas are not legally defined• Long delays in the legalization of

management plans• Lack of funds and no access to credit for

CFM

• Promote incentives for forestmanagement, such as educationalprograms, credit programs, informationand legalization of land titles

• Support forestry training and technicalprograms in multiple-use management

• Promote gender-sensitive programs toensure the participation of women in

community forest management

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Magna Cunha

Community orest management or timber is being increasingly recognized and supported.Many inancing agencies recognize the importance o sustainable orest management inthe conservation o Amazonia. However, the complexity and the dynamic nature o thetechnical management models present a ew risks and uncertainties, especially when youanalyse their sustainability.

A ew o the challenges include:• Understanding nature – The various timber species have di erent ecological

characteristics that need to be understood in order to manage them e ectively.• Sales risk – Even though wood has a high one-time value in comparison to

other orest products (such as açaí, Brazil nuts and other ruits), its immediatecommercialization and price are not guaranteed.

• Inattentive consumers – Only some buyers pay attention to the origin o orestproducts. It is necessary to educate the consumer regarding the importance o purchasing community-managed sustainable wood products.

• Technical di iculties– The search or unique, high-quality timber species makesprojects di icult. In some cases, the extraction costs can outweigh the bene its.

• Farmer or administrator? – It is di icult ora armer to become an administrator romone day to the next. When administratorstry to learn about orest management, they

encounter similar di iculties. It takes time.While a orest armer needs to take care o the ields, collect ruit, hunt and ish, otherprojects demand that he or she abandon thehoe and pick up a pen to write a managementplan and market study. I armers developthese planning skills, however, they gaingreater control over their businesses.

Decisions about the best way to manage natural resources in communities depend on theknowledge o the unction and interrelationship o various traditional production systems.As the risks and uncertainties o community orest management or timber productionare many, one option is to integrate non-timber orest products into this system. In thisway, the community continues to have a security net – game, ruit, ibre and medicinalplants – while learning how to negotiate timber sales.

1

Shanley, Pet al.20082 http://www. sc.org/3 Rios, M.et al . 20014 Smith, J.et al.2000

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Gloria GaiaPatricia Shanley

Nature is generous, supplying medicine, vines, game, ruit, water and wood. But natureis more than the sum o its parts. Nature can also help to restore our vigour and improveour health as it lowers blood pressure and calms nerves. When some Indians get tired a terwalking a long ways in the orest, they sit down on roots or touch a tree to replenish theirstrength so they can continue their journey. All over the world, people also protect sacredtrees, orests and gardens or spiritual and health bene its. It is easy to orget, especially

or urbanites, but all o our actions a ect the natural world and the natural world a ectsus. Compelling myths, stories, legends and songs were created, in part, to protect nature

rom humankind’s insatiable appetite. Sadly, these tales are being lost rom many cultures,even though their messages are more crucial than ever. In the past, legends were passed

rom parent to child. As even remote villages gain access to television, the oral storytellingtradition is ading, and today ew young people are able to recount the legends. Elderswill gladly share stories like those o the Curupira, the great snake, the jaguar, matitapereira, saci, the mapinguari and the hunter i they are asked. We dedicate this chapter toremembering some o the best-known tales rom the orests o the Brazilian Amazon.

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Carla Panzer and Eliete Timóteo, SOS Amazonia

In the dark o night all over the world, adults tell scary stories that make children tremblewith a delicious terror, and go run and hide under the blankets o their beds. What do thelegends and myths o Amazonia signi y? Are they merely entertainment, or, as in manylands, do these myths hold a deeper psychological and ecological meaning?

Together with her students, Pro essor Eliete Timóteo studied some Amazonian legendsand discovered that most o them had ugly, rightening and venge ul characters. Accordingto the pro essor and her students, these stories were invented by people who live in the

orest and are meant to intimidate anyone who might through ignorance or greed threatenthe orest, the river and the animals that the orest peoples depend on to survive. Thesestories are not just or children; in Amazonia, many hunters, pro essors and scientistslisten to and respect these stories as well.

The pro essor tells us that community orest preservation has been going on since the earlydays o human habitation. Long be ore Extractive Reserves existed, the people o Acre hadalready developed their own systems o natural resource conservation. Who knows howmuch orest has been protected, due to the many belie s and mysteries that surround thisimmense wilderness o green?1

The Curupira is well knownby all city and country olk inAmazonia. He has curly hair and

eet turned backwards; he is theguardian o the orest. Wheneversomeone gets lost in the woods,walking in circles and endingup in the same spot, this is thetrickery o the Curupira. Theyhave surely done something tomake him angry. Curupira’s eetare turned backwards to trickterri ied hunters leeing romhim in the wrong direction andto make them lost.2 To get onthe right track again, leave acigarette or him, or wrap a vine into a tangled knot, hiding the point within. Tossthe knotted-up vine over your le t shoulder and run like mad. While the Curupiratries to unravel the complicated knot, you will have time to ind your way again. TheCurupira protects the trees, the plants and the animals in the orest, so those whoshow disrespect or take more than their share o orest goods, beware: he will seekhis revenge and you may never ind your way out again.

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Forest culture 269

Mapinguari is the name o a monstrous, mysterious animal that lives in the wilds o Amazonia, known to rubber tappers, Indians and hunters o olden times. Like the giant

sloths who roamed the orests long ago, he is considered a terror by the people who livein the jungle. He is enormous, has a mouth in his navel and one eye in the middle o hisorehead. Wherever he goes, his tracks are recognized. The Mapinguari makes blood-

curdling howls, his breath can knock down a tree, and his stench can kill.

Where the Mapinguari roams, there are always stories o people who pee in their pants orrun naked through the orest in terror. Sr. José Paraíso, a rubber tapper in Santarém, tellshis story3:

I was sleeping alone one night when I heard a voice in my dream saying, “Wake up!Wake up! The beast is coming!” I woke up, it was pitch black and I could just hear his ootsteps. Then I head that howl, “iiiiiiiiiii”. I was petri ied and remembered thatI was all alone in that place. I that monster got me, who would know? His scream grew louder; he was coming closer. “UUUUUUUUuuuuuuuÉégh.” I the beast wasreally on his way, my only resort was to climb high in a tree. The horrible cry camecloser, it was right behind me. It was like a tempest. “Rouooouu-rouooouuu!” Herustled the leaves in the woods and snorted like a giant boar. I looked or a tree torace up. And suddenly, that smell: a repulsive, etid, animal unk. I elt his power upclose. I was desperate. I thought it was the end o me. But then the noise grew moredistant. I heard, “Uuuuuuu” arther o . Then, “uuuu”. Thank goodness, he wentaway. I I wasn’t so lucky, maybe I wouldn’t be here, to tell you this story.

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Gabriel Medina The Indians have various customsand celebrations designed to facilitatecommunication with their gods. To hear thegods more clearly, some tribes discovereda special tea, called ayahuasca. The tea ismade from a mixture of the jagube vine(Banisteriopsis caapi) with leaves of a shrubcalled chacrona (Psychotria viridis). Themost common negative side effects of thetea are vomiting, tremors and dizziness.When the power of the tea is at its height,it inspires fantastic visions that can beprofound and even frightening. People seekthis tea to gain personal insight and come toa greater understanding of the meaning of life and their relationship with nature.

Traditionally, ayahuasca was used only intribal rituals associated with health and religion. Giving thanks to nature ormed a part o these rituals, respecting the links among the plants and animals o the orest. The MakuIndians, in the ar reaches o the Negro River, use it as medicine and to consult ancestors

in the selection o names or newborns. And when the elderly begin to lose their visionand strength to hunt, they go alone to a hunting camp and take the tea. Under its e ects,they enter the body o a jaguar and go hunting in the orest. This is why it is dangerous tohunt jaguars and considered taboo.4

In the last ew decades, use o the tea has increased dramatically. The consumption o ayahuasca is legal in Brazil and is taken regularly by practitioners o the religious sectsSanto Daime, União Vegetal, and Barquinho, which include more than 10 000 people.5 Practitioners say ayahuasca inspires a spiritual awakening that brings them closer to God.More recently, middle- and upper-class urbanites are taking it as a psychedelic drug that they

believe helps them to grow spirituallyand come into closer communion withnature.6 In recent years there has beenan explosion in the ayahuasca touristindustry in Peru, Ecuador and Brazil, aspeople rom around the world seek itstrans ormative powers or both spiritualand recreational purposes.7 To ensure areliable supply o the tea, some religiousgroups plant and manage jagube andchacrona. Because these plants are potentand potentially toxic,, extreme cautionshould be used in their preparation andconsumption.

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Forest culture 271

Lygia Constantina da SilvaMaria Inês S. Evangelista

Sisters o the Good Shepherd

In rural Brazil, women are generally responsible or thehealth care and nutrition o their amilies, and or thisreason they o ten eel the e ects o orest loss more acutelythan men. In addition to having the techniques and belie snecessary to care or the orest and its ruit trees, thecommunities which o ten unction best are those whichhave women who are united, organized and active. Whenwomen participate and express their ideas, they can bringdi erent perspectives and draw attention to diverse aspectso the importance o the orest.

Women rubber tappers, who have a history o struggle and resistance, have broken downold stereotypes and shown that women’s activism bene its the community as a whole.8 Indegraded areas in Pará, the Margarita Barbosa Women’s Association o Nova Timboteuatook the initiative to replant native species like andiroba, copaíba, mahogany, pupunha andsapucaia (Lecythisspp.). Through re orestation, seminars on health, adult literacy classesand various other workshops, these women are establishing new amilial, social, politicaland economic relationships. Through these groups, women rom Acre to Maranhão areusing various materials rom their orests to make cra ts, to earn money selling these

products, and to attend to the nutrition and health care o their amilies.

Concita Maia and Luciana Pinheiro

Midwives can signi y the di erence between li eand death or mothers and or the in ants who areborn in rural orest communities. The orest’s near-isolation rom the rest o the world helps make it

possible or midwives to assume a position o respect within their communities. They are o tenthe only skilled practitioners available to assist awoman during pregnancy and childbirth. Theyconduct their work with deep care and respect.

In Acre, the age-old wisdom o midwives incorporates the knowledge, experiences andimprovisations o a culture that arose out o the interactions o northerners and Indians.The great majority learned the art o midwi ery rom a mother, grandmother, mother-in-law or aunt, very o ten out o necessity. They also know the “medicines o the orest”, the“plants that cure” and the prayers and the incantations that help a birth along. She whohas “caught many babies” and knows how to deal with a “dangerous woman” is called a“ ine midwi e”, and usually is also a “prayer-giver” and a “healer”.

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Dona Zenaide rom Marechal Thaumaturgo, Acre, tells her story:

I was ten years old when I assisted my irst birth. I did it out o necessity! AndI decided at that young age that I would become a midwi e. I learned rom mygrandmother, Maria Correla. She was my mother’s midwi e. I spent most o mytime training with her. The midwi e works practically rom dawn to dusk. Worksin the ields and works at home. Sometimes she stays awake or three days running,accompanying a woman when the birth takes a while.

In Acre, the midwives are beginning to organize themselves. The struggle or recognitionby the midwives in Alto Juruá began in 1996.9 The empowerment project or midwivesis growing and there have already been meetings in indigenous communities in themunicipalities o Sena Madureira and Freijó, in Acre, and Pauini in Amazonas.

Gabriel Medina

Traditionally in the state o Maranhão, the babassu trees ( Attalea speciosa) grew on publiclands and everyone could collect the palm nuts to make oil and other products, because“the palm nuts were ree”. But as time went by, state land passed into private hands anda ew people ended up with most o the babassus. By 1985, 14 private ranches possessedtwice as much land as all the small armers in Maranhão combined. The ranchers cut downmost o the babassus to make pastures, and the rural people who needed the oil ended upwith scant access to the palm. As a result, there were more than 100 protests or the right

to collect babassu in 1985 alone.The babassu breakers came to be identi ied asa movement during this period and becameintensely organized in de ence o their rightto access the palms which ormed the centreo their livelihoods. The majority o babassubreakers are women, and consequently themovement has become one o the largest andmost power ul women’s movements in LatinAmerica. The heart o the movement is in

Maranhão, in which babassu occurs on 71%o the land. In 1991 there was a huge meetingo the babassu breakers, including those rom the states o Pará and Piaui. The movementhas continued to grow and recently expanded beyond areas that have babassu trees toincorporate resource-dependent communities throughout Maranhão.

Today, with oil produced rom the white lesh o the babassu coconut, the movement ismaking bars o soap, which in 2002 were sold or US$0.22 each. The outer skin o the ruitis made into lakes and powder used in a nutritious porridge. The ibrous husks are used tomake animal eed, and amilies use the outer shell o the coconut as uel or kitchen ires.The movement o the babassu coconut breakers receives strong political support, and theday-to-day cooperation o riends that live and work together also remains strong. Womengo in groups to the babassu trees and sit in a circle, breaking the babassus and talking,always close to one another.10

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Forest culture 273

Rubens Gomes

Without trees we would not have many o our best-lovedinstruments like the guitar, the ukulele or the mandolin, and wewould never know the enchanting music that they inspire. Thewood needed to make instruments is unique, not just any treecan be used. The colour, texture, density, shape and direction o the wood’s grain must have certain qualities to be suitable ormaking instruments. Di erent parts o diverse species are usedin the abrication o various parts o a stringed instrument. Forexample, the weight o the wood used or the ront has to be less

than the wood used or the back. In addition, instruments traditionally have certain colourcombinations. For the ront, light colours are generally used; or the back and the sides,dark brown; and or the neck, black.

The species typically used to make an instrument like theguitar are Brazilian ebony (Diospyrosspp.) or the retboard, jacarandá-da-Bahia (Dalbergia nigra) or the back and thesides, and mahogany or the neck. In some regions, all o these species are being logged intensively. In Manaus, theWorkshop School o Instrument Making o Amazonia issearching or Amazonian species or the manu acture o stringed instruments. They are comparing the physical

characteristics, the mechanics and the acoustics o each woodto discover which species can substitute the now rare woodsthat were used traditionally (Brazilian ebony, jacarandáand mahogany). A ew o the Amazonian species that arecurrently being used are shown below.

Use Common name Scientific name

Headstock CedroBreu branco

Cedrela odorataProtium spp.

Fretboard PreciosaLouro preto

Aniba canelillaOcotea fragrantissima

Body: Top MarupáFreijóMorototó

Simarouba amaraCordia goeldianaSchefflera morototoni

Body: Back/Sides Pau-rainha Brosimum rubescens

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Wood is not the only material used rom the Amazonto make music. The orest is a treasure trove o seeds,barks, pods and shells that make wonder ul sounds. For15 years, the musician and artist Ronaldo Farias, romPará, has walked through terra irme and looded orests

looking or materials to make musical instruments. Like a magician, he trans orms seedsinto musical rattles that sound like rain, a stream or birds taking light. Using di erentcombinations o seeds, pods and wood, Ronaldo can imitate the call o dozens o animalsin the orest. He is always searching or ways to make new sounds, which he uses tocompose carimbó songs about Amazonian culture.

For instruments like the maracas and the rainstick, he uses a combination o gourds, nutsand seeds such as: cuia, imbaúba, coconut, pregos de acapu and bu alo leather. For theshakers, he uses sapucaia, Brazil nut, imbaúba, jatobá, rubber or rubber tree, uxirana,buiuçu and mata-matá seeds.

“Looking or seeds is part o my work all year round. I have to goa ter the inajá and the tucumã seeds right a ter they all becausethey rot quickly. Jupati and murumuru are in the swamp, and Ihave to walk in the mud and search with my hands, being care ulto avoid the spines o the murumuru. Sometimes it’s morepractical to use gloves. A ter collecting the seeds, it’s important to wash them.With the tucumã and the inajá, soak them or a week and then scrub them with

sand so that the ibres come o more easily. The next step is to cut them withan electric saw. Finally, I sterilize, pierce, mould andsand the seeds three times until they are done.”

In addition to making instruments, Ronaldo works to reviveAmazonian culture by o ering workshops in instrument buildingand regional rhythms.

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Forest culture 275

Music re lects the lives and dreams o each person. A song can be a rallying cry orthe oppressed, a cautionary tale to help others avoid tragic mistakes and a way to keepthe links to history and culture alive. In Portuguese, the songs below carry rhyme andrhythm, inspiring people to dance and sing; however, even in English, their sentimentcan be elt. Here we share the lyrics o a ew classic Portuguese olk songs, written byBrazilian armers, rubber tappers, and activists, to show the power o regional music tocommunicate the rich experiences o Amazonian people today.

Author unknown

There goes the paca, the agouti, the chachalaca.Go, go deer, your past was so beauti ul,Tomorrow is so sad.There goes the macaw, the piquiá, the capybara.There goes the opossum,Humans are destroying the dark orest, And the small game are disappearing.

I want to see the jaguar!Only i it is painted.I want to see the owl!Only i it is stu ed.

And where are all the animals?They are escaping rom the ire.They are escaping rom the ri le.

The Tocantins River is in danger.Be brave; don’t allow the dam to hold you back. And there the orest lies down upon the ground. Forest without legs, you are rooted down And cannot escape.

I want to see the jaguar!Only i it is painted.I want to see the owl!Only i it is stu ed. And where are all the animals?They are escaping rom the ire.They are escaping rom the ri le.

There the man is being orced o o his land.The cattle, the money and the ences have come to take over. And now the locals live on the periphery.So many people, hungry and sick,Tasting the bitterness o pain.

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By Limoeiro de Ajuru

Where have all our ish gone, that used to live in the sea?And where is the bacuri, sweet ruit o Pará?Already the wood is gone, nothing le t to take.And while everything has disappeared, only hunger comes to stay.

Everything is di erent than in years past.I remember it well. It was another story – everything has changed.They talk o abundance, but only greed increases.Be ore there was ine quality wood, today there is no more.

Where have all our ish gone, that used to live in the sea?

And where is the bacuri, sweet ruit o Pará?Already the wood is gone, nothing le t to take.And while everything has disappeared, only hunger comes to stay.

I am already worried, looking at the past and considering the uture.I see that nature – the source o beauty and pure air –Is being attacked by ire and dams.It is so sad to see the Earth lose her beauti ul landscapes.

Where have all our ish gone, that used to live in the sea?And where is the bacuri, sweet ruit o Pará?Already the wood is gone, nothing le t to take.And while everything has disappeared, only hunger comes to stay.

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Forest culture 277

By Pedro Gaia rom Oeiras, Pará

The armer sold his land,And went to live in the city.His poor children are su ering.

When he lived with them,On this piece o land,He planted rice and corn, manioc andbeans.Now he sold the land – it’s in the handso the baron.Now he can’t go back.


Now the money is spent –The money rom this land.His wi e ights with him.The house is a battle ield.He is ull o regret, thinking about returning.His wi e says, “Over my dead body!”


His wi e tells him, “You have to ind a way.First thing in the morning, go talk to the Mayor.”But the Mayor says he has no work to give.The job we had was to weed by the roadside.

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By Aguinaldo Batista and Luiz Gonzaga

I can’t breathe, I can’t swim anymore!The earth is dying, it’s impossible to plant!And i you plant, nothing grows.And i it grows, it doesn’t give ruit.Even good liquor is hard to ind!Where are the lowers –Pollution consumed them!The ish in the sea –Pollution consumed them!Where is the green –Pollution consumed it!

Not even Chico Mendes survived!

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Forest culture 279

Author unknown

To change the world,The way people want to,Can only happen through participation,Without ear o being a woman.

Because without women, the ight is only hal ought.When we participate without ear o being a woman.We strengthen popular movementsWhen we participate without ear o being a woman.

To change the world,The way people want toCan only happen participating,Without ear o being a woman.

Because the struggle does not only belong to men,When we participate without ear o being a woman.We stand irm without making a secret o it,When we participate without ear o being a woman.

To change the world,

The way people want toCan only happen through participation,Without ear o being a woman.

In the workers’ alliance o the countryside,When we participate without ear o being a woman.Because victory will be ours without a doubt,Participating without ear o being happy.

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Author unknown

Let us be proud o our rubber tappers.Let us be proud o our nation.Because it is the work o these peopleThat gives us the wheels o cars And the wheels o planes.

They make little sandals.They make big sandals.They make boots that the snake can’t bite through.So many things are made rom rubber,

I can’t begin to tell you.I even ound some on my pressure cooker!


Bicycle tyres aren’t made rom so t cheese.It isn’t leather on airplane tyres.You can’t use cattle horn as an eraser.These are rubber products made by our own hands.


Bicycle tyres aren’t made rom so t cheese.It isn’t leather on airplane tyres.You can’t use cattle horn as an eraser.These are rubber products made by our own hands.

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Forest culture 281

By Originais de Peixe-Boi

The opossum ormed a carimbó group to play.She played the banjo hersel .On the drum was the anteater Coati was on the saxaphone.Porcupine on the ganzá.

A ter the group was assembled, she called a vulture to sing Just like this: chem chem chem.Vultures are useless.The vulture was invited to sing, not to gossip about anyone.

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By Ronaldo Farias and José Felix, Grupo Curuperé

I wake up early in the morning,Take the path to the stream.I look in the mirror o the water, Flowers o mururé.

Singing about the orest ruits,I hear a bird sing.Sowing seeds in the ield and várzea,Be ore li e wanes.

In the spirit o the day, I take a canoe And go out with the tide.To happily say –This is the way we are.

By Ronaldo Farias, José Félix and Negro Rai

When I arrived at the hunting blind by the stream,Saci said, “Come see how it is.”Curupira showed up, wanted to hypnotize me..The mother o the water went up the Maguari and Guamá rivers Far away the Matita Pereira began to whistle. From out o the orest the Mapinguari spied.In the ootprints o the sunbeams, And the scent o the moonlight,Sitting beside the stream, enjoying the moonlight, Admiring these in inite things and the creator,

I don’t know where they are going to stop.The evil dissapears because I knowWhat is my place and what is mine to sing.

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Forest culture 283

Besides delighting our stomachs, ruit trees, herbs and vines eed our imaginations. Li ewould be cheerless and sombre without the magni icence o nature. See how insight ul thisclassic Brazilian verse about buriti palms is:

1 Zannini, I. C.C. 19892 Smith, N.J.H. 19963 Adapted rom: Wawzyniak, J.V. 20014 Pozzobon, J. 20025 Labate. B.C. & Araújo, W.S. 20026 Alexiades, M.N. 2002b7 Gruenwald, J. 19988

Cruz, T.A. 20009 Associação dos seringueiros e agricultores da reserva extractivista do Juruá. 1998.10 Almeida, A.W.B. 1995

“…It made me long or the buriti groves,Coming along the path through the grass,It has you, that green, that local jargon.I miss the ones who respond to the wind.I long or Minas Gerais; God is carried on the windIn the ronds o all the buriti palms,When it is threatening to storm.Someone could orget this? The wind is green.There, during the calm,God takes the silence and puts it on his lap.I am rom where I was born. I am rom other places.

By João Guimãraes Rosa

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groves near Belém, Brazil.In M.N. Alexiades & P. Shanley, P, eds. Forest products, livelihoodsand conservation: case studies o non-timber orest product systems. Indoneisa: CIFOR, (LatinAmerica, v. 3).Shanley, P., Pierce, A. Laird, S. & Robinson, D . 2008.Beyond Timber: Certi ication andMangement o Non-Timber Forest Products. CIFOR/Forest Trends, Bogor, Indonesia. 68 pp.Silvius, K., Bodmer, R.E. & Fragoso, J.M.V. 2004. People in Nature: Wildli e Conservation inSouth and Central America. Columbia University Press. 464 pp.Simmons, C.S., Walker, R.T., Arima, E.Y. Aldrich, S.P. & Caldas, M.M. 2007. The Amazonland war in the south o Pará. Annals o the Association o American Geographers,97(3):567–592.

Smith, H.H. 1897. Brazil, the Amazons and the coast. C. Scribner’s Sons, New York.Smith, J., Ferreira, M. do S., Van de Kop, P., Ferreira, C. A. P. & Sabogal, C.2000. CoberturaFlorestal Secundária em Pequenas Propriedades Rurais na Amazônia: implicações para a agriculturade corte e queima. Belém, Brazil, Embrapa Amazônia Oriental, 43 pp. (Documentos 51).

Smith, J., Ferreira, S., van de Kop, P., Ferreira, C.P. & Sabogal. C . 2003. The persistence o secondary orests on colonist arms in the Brazilian Amazon. Agro orestry systems,58: 125–135.Smith, N.J.H. 1996.The Enchanted Amazon Rain Forest: stories rom a Vanishing World.Florida, USA, University Press o Florida. 194 pp.Snook, L. K. 1996. Catastrophic disturbance, logging and the ecology o mahogany (SwieteniamacrophyllaKing): grounds or listing a major tropical timber species in CITES.Botanical Journal o the Linnean Society, 22: 35–46.Souza, M.C.L., Geraldo, R., Couto, L.B., França, S.d.C. & Pereira, P.S. 2003. Estudo daatividade antiálgica e antiedematogênica no racionamento do látex deParahancornia amapa Huber Ducke.In:Congresso Internacional Latino Americano de Etnobotânica, Rio de Janeiro,Brazil.Souza, V.A.B., Vasconcelos, L.F.L., Araújo, E. C.E. & Alves, R.E. 2000. Bacurizeiro. Jaboticabal: FUNEP, 72 pp. (Série Frutas Nativas, 11).Stepp, J.R. & Moerman. D.E. 2001. The importance o weeds in ethnopharmacology. Journal o Ethnopharmacology,75: 19–23.

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Zuidema, P.A. & Boot, R.G.A . 2002. Demography o the Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa)in the Bolivian Amazon: impact o seed extraction on recruitment and population dynamics. Journal o Tropical Ecology,18: 1–31.

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Amazonian plant diversity 3Attention orchidophiles! 163A whale o a species 102Di erences between the twoprincipal types o cat’s claw 69

Di erences between tucumã o Amazonas and tucumã o Pará 209

Future o the orest 235

How many ruits per year? - piquiá 111How palms survive ire 190

Piquiá orever? 117Regeneration o orest species a terswidden agriculture 234

Scientists learn rom caboclos 161Sweet or bitter amapá 87Variation in the density o titica vine inAmazonia 130

Which tree species is the mostproductive? 144

Cosmetics, jewellery and a talisman 142Cra tsmanship adds value 133Cra ts o the Apurinã 208Fanci ul toys o buriti 177FLORA ashion 125Messengers o the orest 274Music o the orest 273New uses or dead wood 260

Prices o So as: Sao Paulovs. Amazonia 133Which broom lasts longer? 131

A blessing rom above 124Buriti in Apinayé Indian weddings 178Curupira: guardian o the orest 268Forest lantern 74Happy açaí Sunday 162Legend o açaí 163

Legends: respecting nature 268Mapinguari: riend o the orest 269Music o the orest 273Nature spirits 270Pupunha estivals 202Reviving Amazonian culture inschools 22

Small ruit makes a big splash 167Songs 275Titica and Amazon olklore 138Whistling to call the wind and ruit 145

Consumers, communities andconservation 106

Contract or selling wood 254Downward spiral: prices and açaí stands 173

Earnings rom a typical mahoganytree 104

FLORA ashion 125Fruit or arinha? 42

Help ul hints on how to sell yourruit 250

“He tricked me!” It happens allover the world 248

Income rom the “ ruit o the poor” 150Legislation: challenges or smallproducers 135

Mean monthly price and volumeo açaí 160

New clothes rom ruit sales 1431 kg o bark: the value or the collector,the exporter, and the price in theUnited States o America 67

Prices o so as: Sao Paulovs. Amazonia 133

Prices o trees sold 244Prices vary 73Pupunha Heart o Palm 200Tips or negotiating the sale o wood 247Tree, alqueire or cubic metre? 243

1 This list o subject themes was used as the index in the original book directed at a local semi-literateaudience. An index o this type proved use ul or community groups and educators to locate sectionson similar themes throughout the book.

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Cost o game compared to the price o meat or jerky 187

Forest’s gi t o game 188Forest pharmacy: the best healthcare plan 4

Free rom the orest 238

Invisible income 43Invisible income rom game 187Local meat market 117Money in your pocket and ood inyour stomach 188

One amily, one hectare, ten years 143Value o game and the equivalentvalue o arinha 188

Community orest reserves 256 João recreates a orest 258Legislation: challenges or smallproducers 135

Makings o a management plan 77Mapping trees: use the rubber roads 78One amily, one hectare, ten years 143Palm heart extraction 162Tips or protecting a orest 258Training uture oresters: integrated

orest management 19Tucumã management plan 212

Climbing high to collect and sell seeds 21Price o orest seeds relative to theprice o wood 93

Seed prices 103Seeds or sale 93

Brazil nut cemetery 60Cannonball test 105Cruel ortunes 126Dairy o a Rubber Tapper: 1906–1916 76House o Straw 185

Stando : ranchers vs. rubber tappers 124Travelling seeds: Asia supplantsAmazonian production 126

A luxury product 53Andiroba soap recipe 36Beauti ul hair 193Cosmetics, jewellery and a talisman 142Fresh skin with uxi soap 147Piquiá soap 113Sunscreen, deodorant and electricity 179

Brazil nut cemetery 60Certi ied products 263Consumers, communities andconservation 106

Legislation: challenges or smallproducers 135

Makings o a management plan 77Protected trees: dead on their eet 63Stando : ranchers vs. rubber tappers 124What is certi ication? 262

A dynamic reserve 257Agro orestry in the rubber grove 127Banking on ipê 90

Breaking seed dormancy 59Challenges or communities 266Harvest with care 88How many palm hearts per can? 162How to collect titica vine 132How to encourage your plant to sprout 211 João recreates a orest 258Legislation: challenges or smallproducers 135

Management o açaí on the island o Marajó 263

Managing secondary orests canyield good ruits 259

Managing the orest to ill the pocketand the belly 264

New extractivism 128Planting pupunha 203Removing the bark with care 99Small ruit makes a big splash 167Social species 62

Tips or protecting a orest 258Tucumã management plan 212Why plant Brazil nut trees? 99Wise caboclos 149

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Subject themes 301

Amapá: Amazonian invigorator 87Bene its o plants in secondary orest 260Delicious tea 83Extraction o ipê-roxo bark 84Forest pharmacy 85Forest pharmacy: the best healthcare plan 4

Hoo protection 75In the cities and the countryside 88Is cat’s claw truly medicinal? 69 Jatobá is di erent rom jutaí 95Medicinal tea – cat’s claw 69Mosquito repellent and dengue ever 36Remedy or a sore throat 74Remedy o the saints 33Removing the bark with care 99Secrets or making tea 94Secret to brewing pau d’arco 84Selenium: a miracle mineral 53Treatment o cuts and worms 163Treatments or hepatitis and morningsickness 56

Uxi oil by Senhorinha 147What landscape possesses the most

power ul medicinal plants? 86

Brazil nut cemetery 60Capacity building in ruralcommunities 20

Causes o death 241Community decisions andcost-bene it analyses 16

Community orest reserves 256Diversity is security 266From compatibility to con lict 239Fruit or timber? 145Furniture or medicine? 99Income rom 1 ha over ten years(timber vs. ruit) 143

Mortality o ruit trees 241New uses or dead wood 260Price o orest seeds relative to theprice o wood 93

Reserve or the uture 237Ten years later: communities re lecton their timber sales 252

Threshold 242Timber: air trade 236

Where did our medicines go? 86Women or sustainability: rethinkingtimber vs. seed extraction 37

Açaí - Its good and good or you 164Buriti or healthy eyes and body 179Fresh açaí on every corner 172Health and nutrition: complimentso the orest 4

Healthy arinha and puri ied water 52Meat o the plant kingdom 54Patauá oil compared with milk andbee 194

Selenium: a miracle mineral 53Tucumã sandwiches: the rage inManaus 209

Backwoods processing: the key toandiroba’s curative power? 33

Buriti pulp 180Extracting the oil – copaiba 75How to extract latex 124How to make oil - patauá 195

Jatobá advances rubber technology 95Oil extraction - inajá 186Oil: How do you extract it? - buriti 180Piquiá oil 113Preparing the vine or market 68Tips or oil extraction 76Tools o the trade 75Traditional techniques or extractingoil – andiroba 34

Uxi oil by Senhorinha 147Variation in oil yields – andiroba 35

Brazil nut cookies by the amousBrazilian cook Maria Cosson 54

Buriti sweets 181Buriti rozen crme 181Buriti sago 180Buriti sugar 180Chicken in Brazil nut milk 55Cupuaçu and Brazil nut bonbons 56Fabiana’s cake - Patauá 195Fried pupunha 201

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Inajá ruit drink 186 Jatobá bread 96 Jatobá lour 96 Jatobá porridge 96

Marajó cake 55Patauá - Making juice – theslingshot test 194

Pupunha cake 201Pupunha purée 201Uxi candy 147Uxi cream 146

Caboclos learn the language o loggers 245

How many ruit? A method toestimate production 31

Mapping 79Mapping trees: use the rubber roads 78Rural women manage titica 136Tucumã inventory: indigenousknowledge complements scienti ic 207

Volume o wood in managementplans 246

Anthem o the rubber tappers 260Ecological brega 276Ecological logic 275Ecological xote 278Hunting 282The armer sold his land 277The great hinterland: paths 283The vulture’s carimbó 281The way we are 282Una raid to be a woman 279

Brazil nuts: managed by Indians? 62Backwoods processing: the key toandiroba’s curative power 33

Cosmetics, jewellry and a talisman 142Forest lantern 74House o straw 185Integrating scienti ic and traditionalknowledge 12

Lost knowledge 33Mapping trees: use the rubber roads 78

Oil: various colours, scents andtextures 73

Scientists learn rom caboclos 161Small ruit makes a big splash 167The Forest Pharmacy 85Titica and Amazon Folklore 138Titica: a tool or hunters 134Tucumã inventory: indigenousknowledge complements scienti ic 207

Wise caboclos 149Whistling to call the wind and ruits 145

Agouti, monkey and rog 57Blue and yellow macaws( Araararauna) 181

Connections between wildli e,people and ruit 119

Food est or wildli e 115Fork-tailed palm swi ts (Tachornissquamata) 181

Golden-winged parakeets (Brotogerischrysopterus tuipara) 45

Invisible income rom game 187Money in your pocket and ood in

your stomach 188Piquiá orever? 117Red-bellied macaw (Orthopsittacamanilata) 181

Sharing the pie with wildli e 148Titica: a tool or hunters 134Uxi dispersers 151

Pionites l .Leucogaster ) 45

White-bellied spider monkey ( Atelesbelzebuth) 195

Wildli e habitat: primary andsecondary orests 97

Babassu breakers 272Contrasting collection styles: womenand men 137

Guardians o the orest: midwives’perspective rom Alto Juruá 271

Rural women manage titica 136Women earn respect and income 136Women or sustainability: rethinkingtimber vs. seed extraction 37

Women’s participation 271

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Comon name(s) Scientifc name Family Page

Açaí Euterpe oleraceaMart. Arecaceae 157

Açaí (solitary) Euterpe precatoriaMart. Arecaceae 169

Andiroba Carapa guianensisAuble. Meliaceae 29

Bacuri Platonia insignisMart. Clusiaceae 39Brazil nut Bertholletia excelsaBonpl. Lecythidaceae 49

Buriti, moriche palm Mauritia lexuosaL. . Arecaceae 175

Cat’s claw, unha-de-gato Uncaria tomentosa(Willd. ex Roem. &Schult.) D.C. andUncaria guianensis (Aubl.) J.F. Gmel.

Rubiaceae 65

Copaíba Copai eraspp. Leguminosae(Caesalpiniaceae)

71

Inajá Attalea maripa(Aubl.) Mart. [syn.:Maximiliana maripa(Aublet) Drude]

Arecaceae 183

Ipê-roxo, pau d’arco Tabebuia impetiginosa ( Mart. ex. DC)Standl.

Bignoniaceae 81

Jatobá Hymenaea courbaril L. Leguminosae(Caesalpiniaceae)

91

Mahogany, mogno Swietenia macrophyllaKing Meliaceae 101

Patauá Oenocarpus batauaMart. Arecaceae 191

Piquiá Caryocar villosum(Aubl.) Pers. Caryocaraceae 109

Pupunha, peach palm Bactris gasipaesKunth Arecaceae 197

Rubber tree, seringueira Hevea brasiliensis(Willd. ex A. Juss.)Müll. Arg. Euphorbiaceae 121

Titica Heteropsisspp. Araceae 129

Tucumã o Amazonas Astrocaryum aculeatumG. Mey. (syn.: A. tucumaMart.)

Arecaceae 205

Uxi, uchi Endopleura uchi(Huber) Cuatrec. Humiriaceae 139

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Common name Scientifc name Family Page

Abiu, abiorana Pouteriaspp. Sapotaceae 3, 215, 217

Amapá amargo (bitterAmapá)

Parahancornia asciculata(Poir.) Benoist[syn.:P. amapa(Huber) Ducke]

Apocynaceae 87. 88

Amapá preto (blackAmapá)

Couma guianensisAubl. Apocynaceae 87, 88

Amapá doce (sweetAmapá)

Brosimumspp. Moraceae 87, 88

Ameixa, jacaicá Antrocaryon amazonicum(Ducke) B.L.Burtt & A.W. Hill

Anacardiaceae 218, 258

Amor crescido Portulaca pilosaL. Portulacaceae 86

Apuruí Borojoa [Alibertia] spp. Rubiaceae 215, 219

Araçá Eugenia eijoiO. Berg Myrtaceae 215, 216,218

Araçá-boi Eugenia stipitataMcVaugh Myrtaceae 218

Ata Annonaspp. Annonaceae 220

Ata brava Rollinia calcarataR.E.Fries andRollinia mammi eraMaas &Westra

Annonaceae 215, 220

Azeitona brava,Azeitona da mata

Eugenia egensisDC. Myrtaceae 218

Babaçu, babassu Attalea speciosaMart. ex Spreng. Arecaceae 107, 142,183, 186,190, 272

Bacaba Oenocarpus bacabaMart. Arecaceae 142, 194,258

Bacuri da várzea Tovomitaspp. Clusiaceae 216

Bacuripari Garcinia [Rheedia] brasiliensisMart. Clusiaceae 47, 216,259

Barbatimão Stryphnodendron barbatimamMart. Leguminosae(Mimosaceae)

86

Biribá, biribá brava Rolliniaspp. Annonaceae 150, 220

Breu Protiumspp. Burseraceae 33, 147,221, 273

Cacao, cacau, Theobroma cacaoL. Sterculiaceae(Malvaceae)

36, 164,222, 223

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Cacau jacaré Herrania [Theobroma] mariae(Mart.)Decne. ex Goudot,H. nitida(Poepp.)R.E. Schultes

Sterculiaceae(Malvaceae)

222

Cacau de macaco,Cacaurana, cacau doPeru

Theobroma obovatumKlotzch Sterculiaceae(Malvaceae)

222, 223

Cacaurana Theobroma microcarpumMart. Sterculiaceae 222, 223

Cacauí Theobroma speciosumWilld. Sterculiaceae(Malvaceae)

222, 223

Cajá Spondias mombinL. Anacardiaceae 216, 224

Cajá-açu Spondias “mombin xtestudinis”

Anacardiaceae 224

Cajá de jaboti Spondias testudinisJ.D. Mitch. & Daly Anacardiaceae 216, 224

Cajarana Spondias testudinisJ.D. Mitch. & DalyandSpondias dulcisParkinson

Anacardiaceae 216, 224

Camu-camu Myrciaria dubia(Kunth) McVaugh Myrtaceae 216

Castanha de porco,castanhola, castanhinha

Caryodendron amazonicumDucke Euphorbiaceae 225

Cedro Cedrela odorataL. Meliaceae 69, 142,258, 273

Cerejeira Amburana acreana(Ducke) A.C. Sm. Leguminosae(Fabaceae)

93

Chacrona Psychotria viridisRuiz & Pav. Rubiaceae 270

Cocão Attalea tessmanniiBurrett Arecaceae 225

Coconut Cocos nuci eraL. Arecaceae 142

Cumaru Dipteryx odorata(Aublet) Willd. Leguminosae(Fabaceae)

5, 85, 93,259

Cupuaçu Theobroma grandiforum(Willd. exSpreng.) K. Schum.

Sterculiaceae(Malvaceae)

44, 56, 61,150, 164,222

Dend , A rican oil palmElaeis guineensisJacq. Arecaceae xxi, 142Ebony, Brazilian ebony Diospyrosspp. Ebenaceae 273

Envira caju Onychopetalum krukoviiR.E. Fries Annonaceae 216, 226

Escada-de-jaboti Bauhinia guianensisAubl. Leguminosae(Caesalpiniaceae)

69

Freijó Cordia goeldianaHuber Boraginaceae 272

Gameleira Ficus dendrocidaKunth and other Ficus spp.

Moraceae 123

Graviola, soursop Annona muricataL. Annonaceae 258

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Appendix B 307


Guaraná Paullinia cupanaKunth Sapindaceae 86, 165,171

Imbaúba Cecropiaspp. Moraceae(Cecropiaceae) 274

Ingá Ingaspp. Leguminosae(Mimosaceae)

3, 116,216, 226,227, 259

Ipê amarelo Tabebuia serrati olia(Vahl) G.Nicholson

Bignoniaceae 93

Jacarandá da Bahia,Brazilian rosewood

Dalbergia nigra(Vell.) Allemão exBenth.

Leguminosae(Fabaceae)

273

Jaci Attalea butyracea(Mutis ex L. .) Wess.Boer

Arecaceae 181, 190

Daime, jagube vine Banisteriopsis caapi(Spruce ex Griseb.)C.V. Morton

Malpighiaceae 270

Jarana Lecythis lurida(Miers) S.A. Mori Lecythidaceae 94, 259

Jupati Raphia taedigera(Mart.) Mart. Arecaceae 142, 143

Jutaí Hymenaea parvi oliaHuber Leguminosae(Caesalpiniaceae)

95

Jutaí-da- olha-grande(long-leaved jutaí)

Hymenaea oblongi oliaHuber Leguminosae(Caesalpiniaceae)

95

Louro preto Ocotea ragrantissimaDucke Lauraceae 273

Maçaranduba,massaranduba

Manilkara huberi(Ducke) Chevalier Sapotaceae 33, 93, 94,244, 258

Marapuama Ptychopetalum olacoidesBenth. Olacaceae 86

Marupá Simarouba amaraAubl. Simaroubaceae 273

Mastruz, wormseed Chenopodium ambrosioidesL. Chenopodiaceae 86

Morototó Sche fera morototoni(Aubl.) Maguire,

Steyerm. & Frodin

Araliaceae 273

Mucajá Acrocomia aculeata(Jacq.) Lodd. exMart.

Arecaceae 142

Mumbaca Astrocaryum gynacanthumMart. Arecaceae 142

Mururé Brosimum acuti oliumHuber Moraceae 258, 282

Murumuru Astrocaryum murumuruWallace Arecaceae 142, 213,216, 257,274

Pariri Pouteria pariry(Ducke)Baehni

Sapotaceae 217

Pau-rainha Brosimum rubescensTaub. Moraceae 273

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Piaçava, piassava Attalea uni eraMart. ex Spreng. Arecaceae 257

Preciosa Aniba canelilla(Kunth) Mez Lauraceae 273Puruí, puruí grande,apuruí

Borojoaor Alibertiaspp. Rubiaceae 219

Quebra-pedra Phyllanthus niruriL. Euphorbiaceae(Phyllanthaceae)

86

Sacaca Croton cajucaraBenth. Euphorbiaceae 86

Sangre de grado Croton lechleriMüll. Arg. Euphorbiaceae 69

Sapota, sapota doSolimões

Matisia [Quararibea] cordataHumb. &Bonpl.

Bombacaceae(Malvaceae)

228

Sapota macho Matisia bicolor Ducke Bombacaceae(Malvaceae) 228

Sapucaia Lecythisspp. Lecythidaceae 259, 271,274

Sucupira Bowdichia virgilioidesKunth Leguminosae(Fabaceae)

258

Sucuúba Himatanthus sucuuba(Spruce) Woods. Apocynaceae 85, 86, 259

Tatajuba Bagassa guianensisAubl.( or SW AmazonMaclura tinctoria(L.)D. Don ex Steud.)

Moraceae 21, 115

Tento Ormosiaspp. Leguminosae(Fabaceae)

142

Tucumã do Pará Astrocaryum vulgareMart. Arecaceae 209

Tucumã-í Astrocaryum acauleMart. Arecaceae 209, 212

Ucuúba Virola micheliiHeckel Myristicaceae 85, 166

Umarí Poraqueibaspp. Icacinaceae 216

Uricuri, aricuri Attalea [Orbignya] phalerataMart. exSpreng.

Arecaceae 183, 190

Urucu, annatto Bixa orellanaL. Bixaceae 29, 32Uxirana Sacoglottisspp. Humiriaceae 142, 274

Pupunha brava (“wildpupunha”)

Aiphanes aculeataWilld. Arecaceae 204

Veronica Dalbergia subcymosaDucke andDalbergia monetariaL. .

Leguminosae(Fabaceae)

69, 86

8/3/2019 i2360e


Scienti ic name English

commonname

Portuguesecommon

name

Diet Habitat Page

MAMMALS

Agouti paca paca paca ruit, lowers,nuts, seeds,tubers

primary andsecondary

orest,

gardens andplantations

36, 57,76, 94,97, 112,

115, 116,119, 141,142, 148,181, 186,189, 210,212, 227,259, 275

Alouattaspp. howlermonkey

guariba leaves, ruit,and seeds

primaryorest, várzea

189

Artibeus lituratus great ruit-eating bat

morcego decara listrada

ruit, someinsects, pollenand leaves

orests,plantationsand gardens

151

Ateles belzebuth white-belliedspidermonkey,long-hairedspidermonkey

macacoaranha,coatá

ruit, rarelyleaves,

lowers,honey orinsects

primaryorest

165, 195

Bradypus tridactylus pale-throatedthree-toedsloth

preguiça bento leaves primary andsecondary

orest

97

Bradypus variegatus brown-throatedthree-toedsloth

preguiçabranca

leaves primary andsecondary

orest

116

8/3/2019 i2360e



Scienti ic name Englishcommon

name

Portuguesecommon

name

Diet Habitat Page

Cebus apella browncapuchin,black-cappedcapuchin,tu tedcapuchin

macaco prego ruit, palmnuts, insects,smallvertebrates,nectar


orest

57, 165

Choloepus didactylus southerntwo-toedsloth

preguiça real leaves, ruit primary andsecondary

orest

97

Coendou prehensilis Brazilianporcupine

quandu,coendu, porcoespinho

ruit, seeds,leaves, bark


orest,gardens andplantations

195, 281

Dasyproctaspp. agouti cutia ruit, nuts,seeds,

lowers, roots


orest,gardens andplantations,dry orest,cerrado

36, 57,59, 76,97, 108,112, 115,116, 117,119, 141,142, 148,149, 165,186, 189,202, 206,210, 212,259, 275

Dasypus novemcinctus nine-bandedarmadillo,nine-bandedlong-nosedarmadillo

tatu,tatu branco,tatu galinha

ants, termites,other insects primary andsecondaryorest

57, 112,115, 117,141, 148,186, 189,210, 259

Dasypus septemcinctus seven-bandedarmadillo,seven-bandedlong-nosedarmadillo

tatu pretinho,tatuí

insects, ruit primaryorest,

cerrado

57, 112,115, 117,141, 148,186, 189,210, 259

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Appendix C 311


name

Portuguesecommon

name

Diet Habitat Page

Leopardus pardalis, Felis pardalis

ocelot gato do mato, jaguartirica

rodents, somebirds, snakes,lizards andother smallvertebrates

primary,secondaryand mangrove

orests,pastures,savannah,cerrado

97

Lonchophylla thomasi Thomas’snectar bat,Thomas’slong-tonguedbat

nectar, pollen,some insects,

ruit


orest

117

Mazama americana red brocketdeer

veadovermelho,veado mateiro,veadocapoeira,veado pardo

ruit, ungi,leaves


orest,plantations,

orest edge

57, 76,97, 112,115, 116,117, 119,141, 142,148, 165,172, 178,181, 186,195, 202,

210Mazama gouazoubira grey brocket

deerveado branco ruit, lowers,

leavesorests,

cerrado, openareas

57, 76,97, 112,117, 119,141, 142,148, 165,172, 178,181, 186,195, 202,210

Nasua nasua coati,coatimundi,SouthAmericancoati

quati,quatimundé ruit,invertebrates,small animals

primaryorest,cerrado

112, 148,281

Panthera onca jaguar onça pintada,onça preta

largemammals,also turtles,tortoises,

caimans,birds, ish,smallermammals

primary,secondary,and looded

orest,

grassland,scrub oresto ten nearwater

267, 270,275

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name

Portuguesecommon

name

Diet Habitat Page

Sciurus spp. squirrel quatipuru,esquilo

ruit, seeds,bark, nuts


orest,gardens andplantations

36, 57,76, 141,142, 148,186

Tapirus terrestris Braziliantapir, lowlandtapir

anta ruit, leaves,roots, othervegetation

primaryclosed orest

76, 94,97, 119,142, 148,178, 181,186, 189,195

Tayassu pecari white-lippedpeccary

queixada,porcão

ruits, roots,tubers,palm nuts,invertebrates

primaryorest,

cerrado

76, 97,119, 142,148, 165,178, 181,195, 210

Tayassu tajacu collaredpeccary

catitu ruits, palmnuts, roots,tubers,invertebrates,smallvertebrates

orest,secondary

orest,cerrado,desert

76, 116,119, 142,148, 165,178, 181,210

BIRDS

Amazona arinosa mealy parrot papagaiomoleiro

ruit, seeds,nuts, lowers,lea buds


orests,plantations

116

Amazonaspp. parrot,Amazonparrot

papagaio ruit, seeds,nuts, lowers,lea buds

primary andsecondaryorests,

plantations,várzea

119, 172,195, 210

Ara ararauna blue andyellowmacaw, blueand goldmacaw

arara canindé ruit, seeds primary andsecondary

orest, várzea,cerrado

142, 181

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Appendix C 313


name

Portuguesecommon

name

Diet Habitat Page

Araspp. macaw arara ruit, seeds primary andsecondary

orest, várzea

142, 148,119,172,189, 195,210, 275

Aratinga leucophthalmawhite-eyedparakeet,white-eyedconure

periquitãomaracanã

lowers,seeds, ruit,nuts, insects


orests,várzea,cerrado,plantations

45

Brotogeris chrysoptera golden-wingedparakeet

periquito deasa vermelha,periquito deasa dourada

nectar, ruit,seeds


orest,savannah,parks

45, 46

Cacicus cela yellow-rumpedcacique

xexéu insects, ruit,nectar

várzea,plantation,secondary

orest

45

Craxspp. curassow mutum,mutum branco,mutum depenacho

ruit, seeds primaryorest

97, 172,195, 210

Cyanerpes caeruleus purplehoneycreeper

Saí de pernaamarela, saí púrpura

nectar, insects,ruit


orest, várzea

45

Geotrygonspp. quaildove juriti, pariri ruit, seeds primary andsecondary

orest,plantations

259

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name

Portuguesecommon

name

Diet Habitat Page

Harpia harpyja harpy eagle gavião real medium-sizedmammals,some largebirds

primaryorest, tall

secondaryorest

97

Mitu tuberosum razor-billedcurassow

mutum preto,mutum cavalo


97

Ortalisspp. chachalaca aracuã ruit, lowers,seeds

secondaryand primary

orest

165, 181,275

Orthopsittaca manilata red-belliedmacaw

maracanã doburiti

palm ruit andother ruit

várzea, igapó.secondary

orests withburiti

181

Penelopespp. guan jacu, japassaro


181, 195

Pionites leucogaster white-belliedparrot

marianinha decabeça amarela

seed, ruit primaryorest

45

Pteroglossusspp. aracari araçari ruit, someinsectsand smallvertebrates


orest,plantations

195

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Appendix C 315


name

Portuguesecommon

name

Diet Habitat Page

Ramphastos tucanus white-throatedtoucan,Cuvier’stoucan

tucano grandede papobranco

ruit, someinvertebrates,bird eggs,and smallvertebrates


orest

165, 172,195

Ramphocelus carbo silver-beakedtanager

pipira, pipirade máscara

ruit, insects,nectar

várzea,primary andsecondary

orests,gardens,plantations

45

Tachornis squamata ork-tailedpalm swi t

tesorinha,andorinhão doburiti

insects várzea, openareas

181

Thraupis episcopus blue-greytanager

sanhaçu daamazônia

ruit, insects,nectar

gardens,plantations,secondaryand primary

orests

45

Thraupis palmarum palm tanager sanhaçu docoqueiro, saí açu pardo

ruit, nectar,insects

gardens,plantations,secondaryand primary

orests

45

Tinamusspp.Crypturellusspp.

tinamous nambu,inhambu

ruit, seeds primary andtall secondary

orest

165, 259

REPTILES

Geochelone carbonaria red- ootedtortoise

jabuti, jabuti-do-pé-vermelho, jabuti carumbé

ruits,vegetation


orest,savannah

76, 181

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name

Portuguesecommon

name

Diet Habitat Page

Geochelone denticulata SouthAmericanyellow-

ootedtortoise,Braziliangiant tortoise,

orest tortoise

jabuti branco, jabuti-do-pé-amarelo, jabuti-carumbé

ruits,lowers,

vegetation


orest,savannah

76, 115,181

AMPHIBIANS

Dendrobatescastaneoticus, Adelphobatescastaneoticus

Brazil-nutpoison rog

ant, termitesand othersmall insects

primaryorest

57

Dendrobatesquinquevittatus, Adelphobatesquinquevittatus

Amazonianpoison rog

insects primaryorest

57

FISHES

Colossomamacropomum

black- innedpacu

tambaqui ruit, seeds,grain,zooplanton,insects, snails

resh (black)water,

looded oresto Amazon,Orinoco riverbasins

125

Serrasalmus niger,Serrasalmus rhombeus

blackpiranha,red-eyedpiranha

piranha negra ish, ins,seeds

resh watero Amazon,Orinoco riverbasins

125

8/3/2019 i2360e


AAbaetetuba, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 162, 177

Muriti est 177abbreviations or measurements xxiiiabeiriro 287abiorana (abiu; maparajuba;Pouteriaspp.) 3, 215,

217, 305abiorana latex 217abiu (abiorana; maparajuba;Pouteriaspp.) 3, 215,

217, 305abrico 287açaí

multi-stemmed (Euterpe oleracea) 4, 9, 44, 157-68, 216, 263, 286, 288, 290, 294, 303

solitary (Euterpe precatoria) viii,169-74, 263,287, 294, 303

varietal di erences 161Açaí Fair, Belém 41, 159açaí harvesting

management 263, 298

açaí oil 171Acará, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 141, 149, 150, 159açoita cavalo (Lueheopsis duckeana) 259Acre, Federal University o (UFAC), Brazil xiv, xv,

xvi, xviiiAcre State, Brazil viii, 2(map), 3, 21, 30, 31, 49, 50,

57, 58, 63, 66, 75, 77, 78, 81, 82, 84, 92, 93, 99, 102,121, 123, 124, 127, 132, 169, 176, 178, 184, 185,191, 195, 204, 205, 208, 209, 215, 216, 218, 219,220, 224, 225, 228, 268, 288, 289, 290, 294

Alto Juruá 271-2Alto Juruá Extractive Reserve 257Brasiléia 2(map), 103Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve 50, 192, 193Cruzeiro do Sul 2(map), 213Epitaciolândia 2(map), 170FLORA Forest Products Market 125, 133Freijó 272Laranjal do Jari 53Marechal Thaumaturgo 272Rio Branco 2(map), 51, 74, 92, 93, 131, 133, 171,

172, 173, 193, 208São Luiz do Remanso 172, 287Sena Madureira 272Senador Guiomard 173Tarauacá 2(map), 72, 226

Xapuri 2(map), 123, 285, 292, 297 Acrocomia aculeata(mucajá) 142, 307ACTseeAnthropological Center or Training and

Research on Global Environmental Changeadding value to orest products 133, 137, 168, 251,

261 Adelphobates

A. castaneoticus see Dendrobates castaneoticus A. quinquevittatus see Dendrobates

quinquevittatusa latoxins 51A rican oil palm (dendê;Elaeis guineensis) xxii, 142,

306age o trees

Brazil nut 58, 60see alsoproduction, average time to

agouti (cutia;Dasyproctaspp.) 36, 57, 59, 76, 97,108, 112, 115, 116, 117, 119, 141, 148, 165, 186,189, 202, 206, 210, 211, 212, 259, 275, 310

Agouti paca(paca) 36, 76, 94, 97, 112, 115, 116, 117,

119, 141, 142, 148, 181, 186, 189, 210, 212, 221,259, 275, 309agricultural intensi ication 286agro orestry 58, 118, 127, 128, 122, 123, 127, 165,

167, 203, 226, 295agro orestry management 15

açaí 165-6açaí (solitary) 173andiroba 37bacuri 45-6Brazil nut 58-9, 290buriti 182cat’s claw 70copaíba 77inajá 189ipê-roxo 89-90 jatobá 98mahogany 107patauá 196piquiá 118pupunha 203rubber tree 127titica 134-5tucumã o Amazonas 211, 212uxi 149see alsomanagement plans

Pagination inbold re ers to main entries or plants and trees.

8/3/2019 i2360e



Aiphanes aculeata(chica-chica; pupunha brava; wildpupunha)204, 308

airpollution 278

quality 4, 276temperature 259ajuaje (buriti; moriche palm;Mauritiaspp.) 4,175-

82, 216, 283, 287, 290, 293, 295, 303Ajuru, Limoeiro de 276Alechandre, Andréa xiv, xviii, 71, 78, 79Alencar, Dr. 72 Alibertia(apurui; puruí; puruí grande) 215,219,

305, 308 A. clavi lora219 A. sorbilis219

Almeida, M. xvii, 257 Alouattaspp. (guariba; howler monkey) 189, 309alqueires xxi, 13, 243Alto Juruá, Acre State, Brazil 271-2Alto Juruá Extractive Reserve, Acre State, Brazil 257Alto Purús, Peru 213Alto Rio Guama, Pará State, Brazil 31, 294amapá 2, 5

species di erences 87amapá amargo (bitter amapá;Parahancornia asciculata) 85, 87, 88, 260, 295, 296, 305

amapá doce (sweet amapá;Brosimum parinarioides)

87, 88, 289, 305amapá latex 85, 87, 88, 260, 296amapá preto (black amapá;Couma guianensis) 87,

88, 305Amapá State, Brazil 2(map), 21, 32, 50, 53, 131, 132,

134, 135-6, 138, 158, 159, 293Macapá 2(map), 133, 142, 160

Amapá State Research InstituteseeInstituto dePesquisas Cientí icas e Tecnológicas do Estado doAmapá

amaparana (Thyrsodium paraense) 259Amaral, Paulo xvii, xviii, 264Amaral Neto, Manuel xvii, 264Amazon Initiative xviiAmazon Institute o People and the Environment

seeInstituto do Homem e Meio Ambiente daAmazônia

Amazon river xxiv(map), 126, 158, 165, 167Amazon Theatre, Manaus, Amazonas State, Brazil

126 Amazona119, 141, 172, 181, 195, 202, 210, 286

A. arinosa(mealy parrot; papagaio moleiro)116, 312

Amazonas State, Brazil 2(map), 21, 123, 136, 158,173, 191, 202, 205, 209 Jaú National Park 130, 288

Manaus xxiv(map), 2(map), 19, 30, 72, 73, 121,126, 199, 206, 207, 208, 209-10, 226, 273

Middle Juruá 18Pauini 272

Pindorama Ranch 212Trombetas 2(map), 50, 62Amazonia xxi, xxiv(map), 2(map)

Central 47, 92, 198human population 1plant diversity 3

Amazonia, Federal Rural University o (UFRA),Brazil xvi

Amazonian poison rog (Dendrobates [Adelphobates] quinquevittatus) 57, 286, 316

Amazonlink.org xviii Amburana acreana(cerejeira) 93, 306ameixa (ameixeira; jacaiacá; Antrocaryon

amazonicum) 218, 258, 305ameixeira (ameixa; jacaiacá; Antrocaryon

amazonicum) 218, 258, 305amor-crescido (Portulaca pilosa) 86, 305amulets 139, 142anani (Symphonia globuli era) 259Ananim, Pará State, Brazil 234ancestors, consultation o 270Andes 203, 204, 227, 228andiroba (Carapa guianensis) 11, 21,29-38, 85, 166,

271, 291, 294, 303andiroba oilextraction 33-5, 294uses 23, 29, 32, 237yields 35

andorinhão do buriti ( ork-tailed palm swi t;tesorinha;Tachornis squamata) 181, 315

Aniba canelilla(preciosa) 273, 308 A. rosaeodora(pau-rosa) 117

animal eeds 40, 161, 185, 186, 199, 209, 272animal housing 259animal treatmentsseeveterinary uses of forest

productsannatto (urucu;Bixa orellana) 29, 32, 308 Annona(ata) 220, 305

A. muricata(graviola; soursop) 258, 306anta (Brazilian tapir; lowland tapir;Tapirus

terrestris) 142, 148, 178, 181, 195, 312anteaters 261, 281anthelminticsseemedicinal uses o orest products:

wormsAnthropological Center or Training and Research

on Global Environmental Change (ACT) xiv

antibiotic o the orestseecopaíbaantibiotics 85Antioquia, University o , Colombia (UdeA) xvii, xx

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Index 319

antioxidants 4, 53, 157, 164Antoninho ( rom Capim Community) xviiAntonio ( rom Capim Community) xvii Antrocaryon amazonicum(ameixa; ameixeira;

jacaiacá)218, 258, 305ants 59, 94, 138, 149aphrodisiacs 199apical meristem xxi, 190Apinayé Indians 178, 179, 285Apurinã Indians 208, 209, 287apuruí ( Alibertiaspp.) 215,219, 305, 308 Ara119, 141, 142, 148, 172, 189, 195, 210, 275

A. ararauna(arara canindé; blue and goldmacaw; blue and yellow macaw) 181, 312

araçá (Eugenia eijoi) 216, 218, 305araçá-boi (Eugenia stipitata) 218, 305aracari (araçari;Pteroglossusspp.) 195, 314araçás (Eugeniaspp.) 215, 216,218aracuã (chachalaca;Ortalisspp.) 165, 181, 275, 314arara canindé (blue and gold macaw; blue and

yellow macaw; Ara ararauna) 181, 312 Aratinga leucophthalma(periquitão maracanã;

white-eyed conure; white-eyed parakeet) 45, 313Argentina xxiv(map), 227Argolo, Valdirene xiv, xviii, 49aricuri (uricuri; Attalea phalerata) 183, 190, 308Ariquemes Reserve, Rôndonia State, Brazil 21

armadillos 57, 112, 117, 141, 148, 186, 189, 210, 259seven-banded [long-nosed] 115, 310nine-banded [long-nosed] 115, 116, 310

Artibeus lituratus(great ruit-eating bat; morcegode cara listrada) 151, 309

Articulated Movement o Women rom theAmazonseeMovimento Articulado de Mulheresda Amazonia

Asia, rubber plantations in 126 Astrocaryum

A. acaule(tucumã-í) 209, 212, 308 A. aculeatum(also known as A. tucuma;

jabarana; tucumã o Amazonas) 142, 190,205-13, 287, 288, 290, 295, 303

A. gynacanthum(mumbaca) 307 A. murumuru(murumuru) 142,213, 216, 257,

274, 307 A. tucuma see A. aculeatum A. vulgare(tucumã do Pará) 209, 308

ata ( Annonaspp.) 220, 305ata brava (Rolliniaspp.) 215, 216,220, 305ata preta (Rolliniaspp.) 220 Ateles belzebuth(coatá; long-haired spider monkey;

macaco aranha; white-bellied spider monkey) 195,309Atlantic City Boardwalk, USA 81

Atlantic orest 47, 101, 227 Attalea [ syn.Maximiliana; Orbignya]

A. butyracea(jaci) 183, 190, 307 A. uni era(piaçava; piassava) 257, 308

A. maripa(curcurita; inajá) 142,183-90, 286,288, 303 A. phalerata(uricuri; aricuri) 183, 190, 308 A. speciosa(babaçu; babassu) 107, 142, 183, 186,

190, 272, 305 A. tessmannii(cocão)225, 306

ayahuasca (daime; jagube vine;Banisteriopsis caapi)270, 285, 307

ayahuasco 270, 290azeitona brava (Eugenia egensis) 218, 305azeitona da mata (Eugenia egensis) 215,218, 305 Azevedo, Tasso Rezende de xiii, xvii, xviii, 262

Bbabaçu (babassu; Attalea speciosa) 107, 142, 183,

186, 190, 272, 305babassu (babaçu; Attalea speciosa) 107, 142, 183,

186, 190, 272, 305babassu breakers 272, 285baby hammocks 161bacaba (Oenocarpus bacaba) 142, 194, 258, 305backpacks 123Bactris gasipaes(peach palm; pupunha) 150,197-

204, 271, 287, 292, 298, 303bacuri(bacuripari;Garcinia [Rheedia] macrophylla) 47,

259(Platonia insignis) 4, 17-18,39-48, 119, 143, 240-

1, 258, 259, 276, 286, 287, 288, 291, 296, 303bacuri de espinho (Garcinia madruno) 47bacuri ruit 259

consumption 144, 239bacuri latex 39, 43, 44bacuri mirim (Garcinia [Rheedia] gardneriana) 47bacuri oil

uses 43bacuri da várzea (Tovomitaspp.) 216, 305bacuripari (bacuri;Garcinia [Rheedia] macrophylla)

47, 259bacuripari liso (Garcinia [Rheedia] brasiliensis) 47,

216, 305Bagassa guianensis(tatajuba) 21, 115, 308bags 123, 257Bahia State, Brazil 199Bahia State Electric CompanyseeCompanhia de

Eletricidade do Estado da Bahia

Baixo Tocantins, Pará State, Brazil 236, 237bamboo 82, 128, 218, 220(Guadua weberbaueri) 293

8/3/2019 i2360e



Banisteriopsis caapi(ayahuasca; daime; jagube vine)270, 285, 307

barbatimão (Stryphnodendron barbatiman) 86, 305Barinas, Venezuela 47

bark 5andirobaprices 32uses 29, 32

Brazil nutuses 52

cat’s clawpreparation or market 68uses 68, 69yield 66

copaíbauses 73, 74

ipê-roxo (pau d’arco) 85harvesting 84, 89regrowth 84, 99uses 81, 83-4yield 82

jatobáharvesting 99identi ication 95regrowth 99uses 91, 94yield 92

uxiuses 139, 142bark removal

cat’s claw 68ipê-roxo (pau d’arco) 89 jatobá 99titica 132

Barquinho 270baskets 129, 133, 157, 159, 161, 178bastard mahoganyseeandirobaBatista Aguinaldo 278bats

great- ruit-eating 151, 309pollination by 117seed dispersal by 151Thomas’s [long-tongued] nectar 117, 311

Bauhinia guianensis(escada-de-jabuti) 69, 306beams, house 171beauty products 51, 112, 142, 171, 178

creams 74per umes 117shampoos 56, 74, 179soaps 32, 34, 36, 43, 52, 73, 74, 112, 113, 143,

147, 178, 179, 185, 186, 213, 251, 257, 272bee-keeping 237bees 45, 57, 99, 294

pollination by 57, 58, 63, 72Belém, Pará State, Brazil xxi, xxiv(map), 2(map), 23,

32, 40, 41, 43, 51, 67, 73, 74, 83, 86, 88, 104, 121,131, 139, 140, 142-3, 149, 150, 159-60, 165, 176,

177, 185, 199, 226, 228, 296Açaí Fair 41, 159Bosque Rodrigues Alves 23Círio de Nazaré estival 177Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi xviii, xv, xvi, xx,

58, 163, 234, 291Ver-o-Peso market 41, 67, 73, 92, 111, 141, 157,

184, 193belts 178Beni, Bolivia 286, 289Benjamin Constant, Pará State, Brazil 260, 294Bernard, Enrico xvi, 151Bertholletia excelsa(Brazil nut; castanheira) xxii,

1, 4, 6, 11, 21,49-64, 142, 285, 286, 287, 292, 293,294, 297, 298, 303

biodiversity 3, 97, 287biodiversity loss 288

prevention 263bio uels 71, 74, 94, 297birdcages 178birds

pollination by 45seed dispersal by 158, 172

see also under speciesbiribá (Rolliniaspp.) 150, 215, 216,220, 287, 291,305

biribá brava (Rolliniaspp.)220, 305biscuits

recipes 54bitter amapá (amapá amargo;Parahancornia

asciculata) 85, 87, 88, 260, 295, 296, 305Bixa orellana(annatto; urucu) 29, 32, 308black amapá (amapá preto;Couma guianensis) 87,

88, 305black-capped capuchin (brown capuchin; macaco

prego; tu ted capuchin;Cebus apella) 57, 165, 310black- inned pacu (tambaqui;Colossoma

macropomum) 125, 261, 316black piranha (piranha negra;Serrasalmus niger )

125, 316‘blood o the cow’seeaçaí blue and gold macaw (arara canindé; blue and

yellow macaw; Ara ararauna) 181, 312blue-grey tanager (sanhaçu da amazônia;Thraupis

episcopus) 45, 315blue and yellow macaw (arara canindé; blue and

gold macaw; Ara ararauna) 181, 312boa constrictors 261Boa Vista, Pará State, Brazil 110, 140

8/3/2019 i2360e


Index 321

‘board oil’ 34boats 20, 43, 83, 109, 221, 241, 259

canoes 94, 111, 112riverboats 112

yachts 105see alsoships, historicalbody paints 29, 32body weight 146Boim, Pará State, Brazil 126bolas(castanhais) 50, 62, 289Bolivia xxi, xxiv(map), 2(map), 3, 49, 51, 58, 59, 63,

65, 102, 121, 122, 171, 173, 191, 204, 217, 220, 227,298

Beni 286, 289Pando 2(map), 216, 224Santa Cruz de la Sierra 2(map), 47

Bombusspp. 57book covers 178Borojoaspp. 215, 219, 305, 308Bosque Rodrigues Alves, Belém, Pará State, Brazil 23botanical gardens

Belém, Brazil 23London, UK 126New York, USA xv, xvi, xvii, xviii, xx

Bou leuer, Neuza xvi, 37Bowdichia virgilioides(sucupira) 258, 308Bradypus

B. tridactylus(pale-throated three-toed sloth;preguiça bento) 309B. variegatus(brown-throated three-toed sloth;

preguiça branca) 116, 309Bragança, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 41, 178, 186, 260Bragantina, Pará State, Brazil 40, 45, 139Brasiléia, Acre State, Brazil 2(map), 103Brasília, Federal University o (UnB) , Brazil 179Braz, Senhor (traditional healer) vBrazil 65, 67, 71, 73, 81, 102, 122, 129, 134, 175, 217

Amazonia xxiv(map), 3legal Brazilian Amazon 2(map)major rivers xxiv(map)states and places mentioned 2(map)see also under statesAcre; Amapá; Amazonas;

Bahia; Ceará; Espírito Santo; Maranhão;Mato Grosso; Minas Gerais; Pará; Paraná;Piauí; Rio Grande do Sul; Rio de Janeiro;Rôndonia; Roraima; São Pauloand Tocantins

brazil nut industry 292sustainability 293

Brazil nut oil 51, 53

uses 52Brazil-nut poison rog (Dendrobates [Adelphobates] castaneoticus57, 316

Brazil nut tree (castanheira;Bertholletia excelsa)xxii, 1, 4, 6, 11, 21,49-64, 142, 285, 286, 287, 292,293, 294, 297, 298, 303

Brazil nuts 223, 258

ungal toxins 51protein content 4, 49, 54Brazilian Cherry (wood)seejatobáBrazilian ebony (ebony;Diospyrosspp.) 273, 306Brazilian Forest Service xv, xvii, xxBrazilian giant tortoise ( orest tortoise; jabuti

branco; jabuti-carumbé; jabuti-do-pé-amarelo;South American yellow- ooted tortoise; Geochelone denticulata) 115, 316

Brazilian Institute o Environment and RenewableNatural ResourcesseeInstituto Brasileirodo Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos NatureisRenováveis

Brazilian porcupine (coendu; porco espinho;quandu;Coendou prehensilis) 195, 281, 310

Brazilian rosewood (jacarandá da Bahia;Dalbergianigra) 273, 307

Brazilian tapir (anta; lowland tapir;Tapirusterrestris) 142, 148, 178, 181, 195, 312

bread 199recipes 96

breu (breu branco;Protium spp.) 33, 147,221, 273, 305breu branco (breu;Protium spp.) 33, 147,221, 273, 305

Breves, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 139bridges 161, 175, 178, 193Brito, João xvii, 253Brito, João Fernandes Moreira and amily xvi, 146Brondizio, Eduardo xiv, xviii, 157brooms 131, 161, 171, 257Brosimum

B. acuti olium(mururé) 258, 282, 307B. parinarioides(amapá doce; sweet amapá) 87,

88, 289, 305B. rubescens(pau-rainha) 273, 307

Brotogeris chrysoptera(golden-winged parakeet;periquito de asa dourada; periquito de asavermelha) 45, 46, 313

Brown, Foster xvi, xviii, 78, 79brown capuchin (black-capped capuchin; macaco

prego; tu ted capuchin;Cebus apella) 57, 165, 310brown-throated three-toed sloth (preguiça branca;

Bradypus variegatus) 116, 309bu alo leather 274buildings 112, 161, 259

beams 171house rames 131

roo ing 32, 42, 43, 171, 183, 185, 258buiuçu seedsuses 274

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buriti (aguaje; moriche palm;Mauritiaspp.) 4,175-82, 216, 283, 287, 290, 293, 295, 303

buriti oilextraction 180

uses 178, 179, 292burningsee iresand swidden agricultureByrsonima crassi olia(murici) 286

Ccabeça de urubu (Theobroma obovatum) 223Caboclo Workshops o the TapajósseeO icinas

Caboclas do Tapajóscaboclos xxi, 126, 161, 138, 146, 149, 164, 168, 180,

191, 245, 286, 291, 292, 295cacao (Theobroma cacao) 36, 164, 222, 223, 288, 305cacao jacaré (cacau jacaré;Herrania [Theobroma]

mariae; H. nitida) 222, 223, 306cacau (Theobromaspp.) 215,222-3, 305cacau jacaré (cacao jacaré;Herrania [Theobroma]

mariae; H. nitida) 222, 223, 306cacau de macaco (Theobroma obovatum) 223, 306cacau do Peru (Theobroma obovatum) 306cacauí (Theobromaspp.)222-3

(Theobroma speciosum) 223, 306cacaurana (Theobromaspp.)222-3

(Theobroma microcarpum; T. obovatum) 223,306

Cacicus cela(yellow-rumped cacique; xexéu) 45, 313cacique, yellow-rumped 45, 313ca és serving traditional Amazonian oods 209-10caiman 261caissuma 202cajá (Spondiasspp.) 215,224

(Spondias globosa; S. mombin) 224, 306cajá-açu (Spondias mombinx testudinis) 224, 306cajá de jaboti (Spondiasspp.)224

(Spondias testudinis) 216, 224, 306Cajarana ( rom Capim Community) xviicajarana (Spondiasspp.) 215,224

(Spondias dulcis; S. testudinis) 216, 224, 306cakes 161, 199

recipes 55, 195, 201calcium, dietary 44, 54, 87, 146, 164calendar diagrams 13Cali ornia State University (CSU), Stanislaus, USA

xiv, xxcalories 186, 209

per 100gaçaí juice 172açaí pulp 164

bacuri pulp 44 jatobá ruit 95patauá oil 194

uxi pulp 146Calvacante, Paulo 149Cametá, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 32, 34, 35, 162Campinas, University o (UNICAMP), Brazil xvii

Campos, Carlos xvi, 79camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia) 216, 306canned açaí 162Capanema, Pará State, Brazil 2(map),186Capim Community xviiCapim river xxiv(map)Capim river area, Pará State, Brazil 42-3, 73, 76, 97,

110-11, 115, 117, 139, 141, 143, 144, 146, 148, 187-9, 238-44, 247, 253, 291

capoeira xxi, 258capybaras 275Caquetá, Colombia 172, 223car accessories 123Carajás, Pará State, Brazil 60-1, 91, 294Carapa guianensis(andiroba) 11, 21,29-38, 85, 166,

271, 291, 294, 303carbohydrates, dietary 112, 146, 194, 200carbon cycling 297carimbó xxi, 274, 281carotene 179, 200, 204, 209, 295carpentry 142carpets 161Carvalho, José Edmar Urano de xiv, xv, xviii, 39,

139Caryocar 294C. villosum(piquiá) v, 5, 6, 9, 13, 18,109-19,

143, 150, 236, 258, 275, 285, 289, 303Caryodendron amazonicum(castanha de porco;

castanhinha; castanhola)225, 306castanha de porco (castanhinha; castanhola;

Caryodendron amazonicum) 225, 306castanhais(bolas) 50, 62, 289castanheira (Brazil nut;Bertholletia excelsa) xxii,

1, 4, 6, 11, 21,49-64, 142, 285, 286, 287, 292, 293,294, 297, 298

castanhinha (castanha de porco; castanhola;Caryodendron amazonicum) 225, 306

castanhola (castanha de porco; castanhinha;Caryodendron amazonicum) 225, 306

catitu (collared peccary;Tayassu tajacu) 116, 119,148, 181, 189, 312

cat’s claw (jupindá; unha-de-gato;Uncaria guianensis; U. tomentosa) 65-70, 285, 289, 290,292, 303

species di erences 68cattle

oot-and-mouth disease 75salt supplements 193cattle ranching 60, 124, 235, 257, 288, 293

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Index 323

caustic soda 113, 136, 143, 147cautionsseehealth and sa ety cautionsCaxuanã National Forest, Pará State, Brazil 50CAY Herbarium, French Guiana xvi, xviii

Ceará State, Brazil 2(map), 286Cebus apella(black-capped capuchin; browncapuchin; tu ted capuchin; macaco prego) 57, 165,310

Cecropiaspp. (imbaúba) 274, 307Cedrela odorata(cedro) 69, 142, 258, 273, 306cedro (Cedrela odorata) 69, 142, 258, 273, 306‘cemeteries’ o Brazil nut trees 60-1, 286Center or Amazon Community Ecology xiv, xvi,

xxCenter o Amazonian WorkersseeCentro dos

Trabalhadores da AmazôniaCenter or International Forestry Research

(CIFOR) iv, ix, xiv, xv, xvi, xviiCentral America 47, 91, 102, 197, 203, 217, 218, 219Centrisspp. 57Centro dos Trabalhadores da Amazônia (CTA) viii,

xvi, 93cerejeira ( Amburana acreana) 93, 306cerrado xxi, 72certi ication

orest 297orest products 106, 262, 263, 293, 296

standards 251CGIARseeConsultative Group on InternationalAgricultural Research

chachalacas (aracuã;Ortalisspp.) 165, 181, 275, 314Chacobo Indians 286chacrona (Psychotria viridis) 270, 306charcoal, Brazil nut 52Chenopodium ambrosioides(mastruz; wormseed)

86, 307Cherry, Brazilian (wood)seejatobáchica-chica (pupunha brava; wild pupunha; Aiphanes aculeata) 204, 308

chicha 171chicken dishes

recipes 55Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve, Acre State,

Brazil 50, 192, 193Chico Mendes Law 123children 39, 109, 111, 145, 161, 179, 185, 236

see alsogenerations, uture humanChimanes Forest, Beni, Bolivia 289China 59Chino, Peru 188

chocolate 222, 223chontaduroseepupunhachontaruruseepupunha

Choroepus didactylus(preguiça real; southern two-toed sloth) 310

chromium, dietary 200Chuva ( rom Joíra) 148

CI seeConservation InternationalCIFOR seeCenter or International ForestryResearch

cipó titica (nibbi; titica;Heteropsis lexuosa) 129-38,288, 289; 293, 294, 297, 303

circum erence o trees 246measurement 245see alsogrowth (circum erence)

Círio de Nazaré estival, Belém 177CITESseeConvention on International Trade in

Endangered Species o Wild Fauna and Floracitiesseeurban areasClement, Charles R. xv, xviii, 197climate change 1, 258cloned trees 128clothing 123, 143, 257CNSseeConselho Nacional dos Seringueiroscoal 52, 83coatá (macaco aranha; white-bellied [long-haired]

spider monkey; Ateles belzebuth) 195, 309coati, South American (coatimundi; quati;

quatimundé; Nasua nasua) 112, 148, 181, 186, 281,311

coatimundi (quati; quatimundé; South Americancoati; Nasua nasua) 112, 148, 181, 186, 281, 311cocão ( Attalea tessmannii) 225, 306cocão oils 225coconut (Cocos nuci era) 306Cocos nuci era(coconut) 306COELBAseeCompanhia de Eletricidade do

Estado da BahiaCoendou prehensilis(Brazilian porcupine; coendu;

porco espinho; quandu) 195, 281, 310coendu (Brazilian porcupine, porco espinho;

quando;Coendou prehensilis) 195, 281, 310collared peccary (catitu;Tayassu tajacu) 116, 119,

148, 181, 189, 312collecting orest productsseeextractionand

harvesting o orest productsColombia xxiv(map), 2(map), 39, 47, 49, 65, 102,

191, 192, 197, 199, 202, 204, 205, 223, 228Caquetá 172, 223Tinigua National Park 296

Colossoma macropomum(black- inned pacu;tambaqui) 125, 261, 316

colouringssee ood colouringsand paints

Comité de Porto de Moz xvicommunitiesre lections on timber sales 236-7, 252-3

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community orest management viii, 20, 118, 141cost-bene it analyses 16-18initiatives 264-6multiple-use management 255-66

titica vine 136-7see alsoindigenous orest managementcommunity orest reserves 247, 256, 259, 260, 261,

286management plans 260

community orests 8, 189, 237community rein orcement

role o women viiiCompanhia de Eletricidade do Estado da Bahia

(COELBA) xiv, xvi, xxcomparisonsseecost-bene it comparisonscompass use 79condoms 123con licting orest uses 5, 119, 233-54, 289Conselho Nacional dos Seringueiros (CNS) xiii, xv,

xvi, xviii, 18Conservation International (CI) xv, xviconstruction 74, 94, 149, 193, 209, 260

see alsoboats; bridgesand buildingsConsultative Group on International Agricultural

Research (CGIAR) xxconsumers

and certi ied orest products 106, 262, 263

consumptionbacuri ruit 144, 239piquiá ruit 5, 144, 239-40, 242uxi ruit 143, 144, 239

containersinajá 185latex bowls 52, 124

contracts, timber sales 247, 254, 295contraindicationsseehealth and sa ety cautionsconure, white-eyed 45, 313Convention on International Trade in Endangered

Species o Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 86, 106,286, 289, 296

cooking pans, removal o latex rom 44copaíba (Copai eraspp.) 2, 4, 5, 21, 69,71-80, 85,

93, 115, 271, 297, 303copaíba oil 285, 289

extraction 71, 75, 76, 285, 290, 294prices 73uses 71, 74variations 73yields 72

Copai era(copaíba) 2, 4, 5, 21, 69,71-80, 85, 93,

115, 271, 297, 303C. multijuga285, 297copper, dietary 164

Cordeiro, Silvia ivCordia goeldiana( reijó) 273, 306Cordillera de la Costa, Venezuela 204cords 178, 193

Cordycepsspp. 138cosmetics productsseebeauty productsCosson, Maria 54cost-bene it analyses

community orest management 16-18cost-bene it comparisons

bacuri ruit/ arinha 42bacuri ruit/timber sales 42-3, 143

urniture-making/timber sales 261game hunting/buying meat 117, 187-9game hunting/ arinha 187-9 jatobá seeds/timber sales 93piquiá ruit/timber sales 143titica ibre/cra ts 133, 137uxi ruit/timber sales 143, 145

Costa, E. xvii, 257Costa, Jarbas Anute xv, xviii, 205Costa Rica 197, 199, 223, 227

La Selva 31Couma guianensis(amapá preto; black amapá) 87,

88, 305cra tsmanshipseehandicra tsand under items

cra ted

Craxspp. (curassow; mutum; mutum branco;mutum de penacho) 97, 172, 195, 210, 313creams, beauty 74credit programs 265Cree Indians 21crèmes xxi

recipes 44, 146, 181Crepidospermumspp. 221Creuza, Maria xvi, 136Cristina da Silva, Fátima xiii, xvi, xviii, 18Croton cajucara(sacaca) 86, 308

C. lechleri(sangre-de-grado) 69, 308Cruzeiro do Sul, Acre State, Brazil 2(map), 213Crypturellusspp. (inhambu; nambu; tinamou) 165,

259, 315CSUseeCali ornia State UniversityCTA seeCentro dos Trabalhadores da Amazôniacucurita (inajá; Attalea maripa) 142,183-90, 286,

288, 303cuia 274culture, orest 267-83, 285, 296, 298

continuity 167revival 22, 274

cumaru (Dipteryx odorata) 5, 85, 93, 259, 306cumatê (Myrcia atramenti idera) 259Cunha, Magna xvii, 266

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Index 325

Cunha, Manuel 18cupiúba (Goupia glabra) 259cupuaçu (Theobroma grandi lorum) 44, 56, 61, 150,

164, 222, 223, 286, 287, 306

‘cupuaçu salami’ 223cupuí (Theobromaspp.)222-3curassow (mutum; mutum branco; mutum de

penacho;Craxspp.) 97, 172, 195, 210, 313razor-billed (mutum cavalo; mutum preto;Mitu

tuberosum) 97, 314curcuma 52Curupira xxi, 267, 268, 282cutia (agouti;Dasyproctaspp.) 36, 57, 59, 76, 97,

108, 112, 115, 116, 117, 119, 141, 148, 165, 186,189, 202, 206, 210, 211, 212, 259, 275, 310

Cuvier’s toucan (tucano grande de papo branco; white-throated toucan; Ramphastos tucanus) 195, 315

Cyanerpes caeruleus(purple honeycreeper; saí deperna amarela; saí púrpura) 45, 313

cyanide xxiiCymerys, Margaret iv, viii, xiv, xv, xvi, xviii, 43, 49,

97, 109, 157, 175, 183, 197, 233

DDacryodesspp. 221daime (ayahuasca; jagube vine;Banisteriopsis caapi)

270, 285, 307

Dalbergia69, 86, 308D. monetaria(veronica) 308D. nigra(jacarandá da Bahia; Brazilian

rosewood) 273, 307D. subcymosa(veronica) 86, 308

Daly, Douglas C. xv, xvi, xvii, xviii, 3, 47, 204, 213,215

damage to trees 94, 119by predatory logging 119, 239by wind 102, 241

damsseehydroelectric projectsDasyproctaspp. (agouti; cutia) 36, 57, 59, 76, 97,

108, 112, 115, 116, 117, 119, 141, 148, 165, 186,189, 202, 206, 210, 211, 212, 259, 275, 310

Dasypusspp. 57, 112, 117, 141, 148, 186, 189, 210,259

D. novemcinctus(nine-banded armadillo; nine-banded long-nosed armadillo; tatu; tatubranco; tatu galinha) 115, 116, 310

D. septemcinctus(seven-banded armadillo;seven-banded long-nosed armadillo; tatupretinho; tatuí) 115, 310

Daughters o the Canopy( ilm) 16, 291

dbh (diameter at breast height) xxi, 13debt peonage 126decking 83, 90

deer 57, 76, 97, 112, 117, 141, 142, 148, 165, 178,181, 186, 195, 202, 210, 275

grey brocket 119, 172, 181, 311red brocket 115, 116, 119, 172, 181, 311

de iciencies, dietary 4, 179de orestation 61, 292and cattle ranching 60, 124, 235, 288and hydroelectric projects 60rate o 1see alsologging

degraded landregeneration 39, 226tree-planting on 37, 62

Delprete, Piero G. xvi, xviii, 219dendê (A rican oil palm;Elaeis guineensis) xxii, 142,

306dendê oil 179Dendrobates

D. castaneoticus( Adelphobates castaneoticus;Brazil-nut poison rog) 57, 316

D. quinquevittatus( Adelphobatesquinquevittatus; Amazonian poison rog)57, 286, 316

Dendrogene ProjectseeProjeto Dendrogenedensity 13

açaí 158, 168açaí (solitary) 170

amapá 88andiroba 30bacuri 40Brazil nut 50, 58buriti 176cat’s claw 66, 68copaíba 72inajá 184ipê-roxo 82 jatobá 92mahogany 102patauá 192piquiá 110pupunha 198rubber tree 122titica 130tucumã o Amazonas 206uxi 140

deodorants 179development models

economic and social airness viiiDewi, S. xvii, 257diameter o ruit treesseedbh (diameter at breast

height); growth (diameter)and production,average diameter orDias, André xv, xvi, xvii, 31, 35, 245

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Dias de Souza, Alexandre xiv, xvi, xviii, 81, 99, 121diesel oil treeseecopaíbadiet

de iciencies 4, 179

di erences, cost-bene itseecost-bene itcomparisonsdi erences, gender

vine harvesting 137di erences, regional

lowering and ruiting seasons 13di erences, species

amapá 87cat’s claw 68 jatobá 95tucumã 209

di erences, varietalaçaí 161

Diospyrosspp. (Brazilian ebony; ebony) 273, 306Dipteryx odorata(cumaru) 5, 85, 93, 259, 306disease prevention viii, 4dispersalseeseed dispersaldistribution o mahogany trees 102diversi ication 251, 288diversity

and security 266see alsobiodiversityand diversi ication

Dois Irmãos, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil

drinkscacao 223chicha 171inajá (recipe) 186pupunha 202see alsojuicesand nut milks

dry orest 192, 227durability o orest cra ts 131dyes 112

Eeagle, harpy 97, 314Earth Love Fund ivebony (Brazilian ebony;Diospyrosspp.) 273, 306ecology 13

açaí 158-9açaí (solitary) 170andiroba 30-1, 291, 294bacuri 40-1Brazil nut 50-1buriti 176cat’s claw 66copaíba 72

inajá 184ipê-roxo 82 jatobá 92

mahogany 102patauá 192piquiá 110pupunha 198-9

rubber tree 122titica 130tucumã o Amazonas 206uxi 140-1

economic value o orest products 14, 17açaí 159-60açaí (solitary) 171andiroba 32bacuri 41-3, 17-18Brazil nut 51buriti 177cat’s claw 67copaíba 73inajá 184ipê-roxo 83 jatobá 92-3maçaranduba 244mahogany 21, 104patauá 193piquiá 111, 244pupunha 198rubber tree 123titica 131, 133

tucumã o Amazonas 208uxi 141see alsoadding value to orest products

ecosystem servicesseeair:quality; pollination; seeddispersaland water:quality

Ecuador xxiv(map), 2(map), 47, 102, 191, 192, 197,199, 223, 228, 270

Educational Foundation o America iveducational programs 265educational use o this book 16-23educators 9Elaeis guineensis(African oil palm; dendê) xxii, 142, 306

elderly peopleelders in the community 18, 36, 270

orest product consumers 74electricity generation 179Emanuela Women’s Association 135, 136, 288EmbrapaseeEmpresa Brasiliera de Pesquisa

Agropecuáriaempates 124Empresa Brasiliera de Pesquisa Agropecuária

(Embrapa) xiii, xx, 21Acre xiv, xix, xx

Eastern Amazon xiv, xv, xvi, xvii, xviii, xixWestern Amazon xv, xvi, xix, xxendocarp xxii, 142, 225

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Index 327

Endopleura uchi(uchi; uxi) 2, 11, 12, 20, 44, 116,119,139-52, 216, 258, 287, 291, 296, 303

envira caju (Onychopetalum krukovii; O. periquino)216,226, 306

environmental education viiiEpicharisspp. 57Epitaciolândia, Acre State, Brazil 2(map),170ESALQseeEscola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz

de Queiroz”escada-de-jabuti (Bauhinia guianensis) 69, 306Escola Agrotécnica Federal de Manaus xviEscola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz”

(ESALQ) xivEspírito Santo State, Brazil 2(map), 199esquilo (quatipuru; squirrel;Sciurusspp.) 36, 57, 76,

141, 142, 148, 186, 210, 312estimations

height o trees 245productivity 31

Etherington, Tina iv, xiiiethnopharmacology 296ethnovarieties 161Eugenia215, 216,218

E. egensis(azeitona brava; azeitona da mata) 215,218, 305

E. eijoi(araçá) 216, 218, 305E. stipitata(araçá-boi) 218, 305

Eulaemiaspp. 57Europeimports

açaí 164andiroba oil 32Brazil nut oil 53Brazil nuts 51, 293copaíba oil 73ipê-roxo bark (pau d’arco) 81 jatobá timber 99mahogany timber 104

EuterpeE. oleracea(multi-stemmed açaí) 4, 9, 44,157-

68, 216, 263, 286, 288, 290, 294, 303E. precatoria(solitary açaí) viii,169-74, 263, 287,

294, 303Evangelista, Maria Inês S. xvii, 271evil spirits, protection rom 139, 209exports

açaí 160, 164andiroba oil 32Brazil nut oil 53Brazil nuts 51, 293

cat’s claw 67copaíba 73ipê-roxo bark 81

ipê-roxo timber 90 jatobá timber 99-100mahogany timber 104patauá oil 193

pupunha palm hearts 199rubber 126vegetable leather 125

extensionists 8, 20extraction, latex

amapá 88rubber 127see alsorubber tapping

extraction, oilandiroba 33-5, 294buriti 180copaíba 71, 75, 76, 285, 290, 294inajá 186patauá 192, 195piquiá 113uxi 147

extraction tools 75, 87Extractive Reserves 18, 121, 287, 288, 290, 297

Alto Juruá, Acre State, Brazil 257, 285Chico Mendes, Acre State, Brazil 50, 192, 193,

285, 292Mapuá, Pará State, Brazil 18

Fair trade certi ication 262airness, economic and social viiiairs and estivals 175

Açaí Fair, Belém 41, 159açaí estivals, eastern Amazonia 162Círio de Nazaré estival, Belém 177

orest product airs, Acre 125, 133, 298Muriti est, Abaetetuba 177pupunha harvest estivals 202

allow plots 207, 259alse mahoganyseeandirobaans 161

FAO seeFood and Agriculture Organization o theUnited Nations

Faria, Lênio José Guerreiro de xvi, 52, 95Farias, Ronaldo xvi, xvii, 145, 274, 282

arinha xxii, xxiii, 42, 52, 117, 171, 172, 186, 191cost-bene it comparisons

with hunting game 187-9with selling bacuri ruit 42

Fase Garupá xviashion 125

ats, dietary 54, 112, 194atty acids 4, 164lauric acid 179

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oleic acid 146, 179eather dusters 185

Felis pardalis see Leopardus pardalisFelix, José 282

encing 112, 131, 193, 259Fernandes, Delomarque xvii, 142Ferraz, Pedro Albuquerque xiv, xviii, 121Ferreira, Evandro xv, xviii, 169, 183Ferreira, Sidney xvi 211Ferreira, Socorro xiv, xvii, xix, 39, 259

ertilizers 161, 178, 179, 198or orchids 163rom vines 166

estivalssee airs and estivalsFFTseeFundaçao Floresta Tropical

ibre, dietary 44, 112, 146 Ficus dendrocida(gameleira) 123, 306

ields and pastures 86, 97, 127, 183, 190, 198, 203,205, 206, 207, 211, 212, 258

see also iresand swidden agricultureilms

Daughters o the Canopy16, 291FIOCRUZ xiv, xvi

ire-resistant speciesbacuri 40cat’s claw 70palms 183, 190, 205

ires 1, 63, 97, 235, 239, 241, 276, 287, 292, 296accidental 242and ant control 149

irebreaks 237, 258regeneration a ter 40, 117, 130, 190, 206, 211, 234risk o 5, 185tree-planting a ter 107see alsoswidden agriculture

ish traps 185lavonoids 164lavouringssee ood lavouringslooded lowland orest 13, 125, 170, 171, 192, 291

permanent (igapó) xxii, 47, 158seasonal/tidal (várzea) xxiii, 30, 31, 47, 66, 158,

165, 175, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 224, 226,227, 282

for un looded orest seedry orestand terrairme orest

loodplain gardens (‘roçados de várzea’) 168looring 99, 100

FLORA Forest Products Market, Acre 125, 133Florida, USA 248-9Florida, University o (UF), USA xiv, xvii, xix, xx

lourarinha xxii, xxiii, 42, 52, 117, 171, 172, 186, 187-9, 191

ipuruna (buriti) 180 jatobá 95pupunha 199, 202recipes 96

lower and ruit seasons 13abiorana 217açaí 158açaí (solitary) 170andiroba 30apuruí 219araca 218ata brava 220azeitona 218bacuri 40biribá 220Brazil nut 50buriti 176cacao 223cajá 224cat’s claw 66copaíba 72, 75inajá 184ipê-roxo 82 jatobá 92mahogany 102pariri 217patauá 192

piquiá 110pupunha 198rubber tree 122titica 130tucumã o Amazonas 206uxi 140

lowerspiquiá 114

uses 112luctuations in productivity 30, 50, 92olklore

legends 124, 138, 163, 267-9mythical creatures xxi, xxii, 267-9, 282

Food and Agriculture Organization o the UnitedNations (FAO) iv, xiii

NWFPs Programme ixood colourings 52ood lavourings 139, 141, 161oot-and-mouth disease 75orest impoverishment 5orest land use changes 235orest loss 20, 236-7, 292orest managementseeagro orestry management;

community orest managementand indigenousorest managementorest protection v, xxi

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Index 329

by communities 258laws 63, 77, 99, 106, 136, 162, 295role o legends in 268-9by rubber tappers 124

orest reservesseecommunity orest reservesand Extractive ReservesForest Stewardship Council (FSC) 262, 263

orest tortoise (Brazilian giant tortoise; jabutibranco; jabuti-carumbé; jabuti-do-pé-amarelo;South American yellow- ooted tortoise;Geochelone denticulata) 115, 316oresters 8

Forestry Certi ication courses 19orestry terms xxi-iiiorestry training 265ork-tailed palm swi t (andorinhão do buriti;tesorinha;Tachornis squamata) 181, 315

Franceimports

copaíba oil 73vegetable leather 125

Francon volume 246Freiburg, University o , Germany xix

reijó (Cordia goeldiana) 273, 306Freijó, Acre State, Brazil 272Freitas, Aurélio xvi, 212Freitas, Raimundo Graça S. de xiv, 121

French Guiana xxiv(map), 2(map), 3, 39, 47, 158,216, 217, 227CAY Herbarium xvi, xviii

French Guiana, University o (UAG) 52ries

recipes 201rogsseepoison rogsronds

inajáuses 183, 185

rontiers 294, 295rugivores xxii, 119, 286, 296

see also under speciesruit

importance to wildli e xxiv, 14, 36, 45, 57, 76,97, 109, 112, 115-16, 119, 125, 142, 148, 165,172, 178, 181, 183, 186, 195, 202, 210, 224

uses oraçaí 161açaí (solitary) 171bacuri 43Brazil nut 52buriti 177, 180

cajá de jaboti 224inajá 185 jatobá 94

patauá 193piquiá 112pupunha 199, 204tucumã o Amazonas 209

uxi 142ruit bracts, uses orinajá 185

ruit sales 250-1rom one hectare 143, 150

ruit seasonssee lower and ruit seasonsruit stalks, uses or

açaí 161inajá 185patauá 193

Frutas Comestíveis da Amazônia149, 287 Frutï eras e Plantas Úteis na Vida Amazônica18

updated English version ixFSCseeForest Stewardship Council

uels 177, 185, 272bio uels 71, 74, 94, 297see alsolamp oil

Fundaçao Floresta Tropical (FFT) xv, xvi, xviiFundação de Tecnologia do Estado do Acre

(FUNTAC) 93ungal a latoxins 51ungi

(Cordycepsspp.) 138

(mal-das- olhas) 126, 127, 128FUNTAC see Fundação de Tecnologia do Estadodo Acreurniture 43, 68, 99, 100, 105, 129, 131, 132, 133,136-7, 199, 260-1urniture-making

cost-bene it comparisons with timber sales 261

GgachipaesseepupunhaGaia, Gloria xv, xvi, xix, 33, 34, 88, 147, 267Gaia, Pedro 277Galuppo, Silvia xvi, 87Galvão, Jurandir xiv, xvi, 109, 185game 14, 76

cost/bene it comparison with buying meat 117,187-9

see alsohuntinggameleira ( Ficus dendrocida) 123, 306ganzá xxiiGarcinia

G. [Rheedia] brasiliensis(bacuripari liso) 47,216, 305

G. [R.] gardneriana(bacuri mirim) 47G. [R.] macrophylla(bacuri; bacuripari) 47, 259G. madruno(bacuri de espinho) 47

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gardens 97, 189, 198, 207see also‘ loodplain gardens’

garlic 53gates 112

gato do mato (jaguartirica; ocelot;Leopardus pardalis) 97, 311gavião real (harpy eagle;Harpia harpyja) 97, 314gender di erences

vine harvesting 137generations

uture human v, viii, 6tree 37-8, 58, 90, 106

genetic incompatibility 46Geochelone76, 181, 221, 224, 258

G. carbonaria(jabuti; jabuti carumbé; jabuti-do-pé-vermelho; red- ooted tortoise) 315

G. denticulata(Brazilian giant tortoise; oresttortoise; jabuti branco; jabuti-carumbé; jabuti-do-pé-amarelo; South Americanyellow- ooted tortoise) 115, 316

Geotrygonspp. (juriti; pariri; quail-dove) 259, 313Germany

importscopaíba oil 73

germination 15açaí 165açaí (solitary) 173

andiroba 37bacuri 45, 46Brazil nut 58, 59buriti 182cat’s claw 70copaíba 77inajá 189ipê-roxo 89 jatobá 98mahogany 103, 107-8patauá 196piquiá 118pupunha 203rubber tree 127titica 134tucumã o Amazonas 211uxi 149

Glória, Dona ( rom Cametá) 35glossary xxi-iiiGoeldi MuseumseeMuseu Paraense Emílio Goeldigolden-winged parakeet (periquito de asa dourada;

periquito de asa vermelha;Brotogeris chrysoptera)45, 46, 313

Gomes, Rubens xvii, 273Gomes, Valério xvi, 78Gomes-Silva, Daisy Aparecida Pereira xv, xix, 191

Gonzaga, Luiz 278Goupia glabra(cupiúba) 259governments

and community orest management initiatives

165and settlement policies 287Graca ( rom Capim Community) xviigraviola (soursop; Annona muricata) 258, 306Graziano da Silva, José Francisco ixgreat ruit-eating bat (morcego de cara listrada; Artibeus lituratus) 151, 309

green gold (wood)seeBrazil nut treeand mahoganygreen mahoganyseeipê-roxo‘green seal’ products 53, 251grey brocket deer (veado branco;Mazama gouazoubira) 119, 172, 181, 311

Grogan, James xiv, xix, 101growth 297

see alsoregrowth o barkgrowth (circum erence)

bacuri 39copaíba 71 jatobá 91piquiá 109uxi 139

growth (diameter) 91açaí 158

ameixa 218andiroba 38bacuri 39Brazil nut 58, 59, 62buriti 175cat’s claw 68, 70copaíba 71, 77inajá 183ipê-roxo 81, 89, 90piquiá 109pupunha 197uxi 139see alsodbh (diameter at breast height)

growth (height) 15abiorana 217açaí 158, 165açaí (solitary) 169, 173ameixa 218andiroba 29, 37apuruí 219araca 218ata brava 220azeitona 218

bacuri 39, 45, 47biribá 220Brazil nut 58

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Index 331

buriti 175, 182cacao 223cajá 224copaíba 71, 77

envira caju 226inajá 183, 189ipê-roxo 81, 89 jatobá 91, 98mahogany 101, 107, 108murumuru 213pariri 217patauá 191, 196piquiá 109, 118pupunha 197, 203, 204rubber tree 127sapota 228tucumã o Amazonas 211uxi 139, 149

growth (length)cat’s claw 66, 68, 70titica 134

Grupo Curuperé xvi, xvii, 282GTZ xv, xvi, xixGuadua weberbaueri(bamboo) 293Guajajara Indians 285Guamá, Pará State, Brazil 139Guamá river xxiv(map), 31, 237, 282

guan (jacu; japassaro;Penelopespp.) 165, 181, 195,202, 314guaraná (Paullinia cupana) 86, 165, 171, 307guariba (howler monkey; Alouattaspp.) 189, 309Guimãraes Rosa, João 283Gunn, Bee ivGurupá, Pará State, Brazil 31, 37Gutemberg, Israel ivGuyana xxiv(map), 2(map), 3, 39, 47, 49, 65, 129,

130, 134, 158, 216, 227, 289

H

hair 200hair treatments 171, 193, 199

see alsoshampooshammocks 178, 251handicra ts 52, 130, 142, 197

adding value 133, 137, 261cost-bene it comparisons

with timber sales 261with titica ibre sales 133, 137

see also under items cra ted, such asurniture; jewelleryand toys

Harpia harpyja(gavião real; harpy eagle) 97, 314harpy eagle (gavião real;Harpia harpyja) 97, 314

harvesting o orest productsadvice or

açaí 166açaí (solitary) 173

cat’s claw 70copaíba oil 75, 76ipê-roxo bark (pau d’arco) 89 jatobá bark 99titica vine 132, 134-5

costs 17in luence o moon phases 75, 138, 185seeds 21, 93, 103see alsoextractionand lower and ruit seasons

hats 129, 178Health and Happiness Project, Santarém, Pará State

viiihealth and sa ety cautions

andiroba oil 32ayahuasco tea 270caustic soda 113chacrona 270

oods incompatible with açaí 164ipê-roxo (pau d’arco) 83 jabube vine 270 jutai bark 95piquiá ruit 112tripwires 148

health bene its o orest products 4see alsodisease preventionand medicinal uses o orest products

hectares xxi, xxii, 13, 243height o trees 246

estimation 245see alsogrowth (height)

herbariumsCAY Herbarium, French Guiana xvi, xviii

HerraniaH. mariae(cacao jacaré; cacau jacaré)222, 223,

306H. nitida(cacao jacaré; cacau jacaré) 223, 306

Heteropsis lexuosa(cipó titica; nibbi; titica)129-38,288, 289; 293, 294, 297, 303

Hevea brasiliensis(rubber tree; seringueira) viii, 11,121-8, 166, 291, 293, 297, 303

highwaysseeroads and highwaysHimatanthus sucuuba(sucuúba) 85, 86, 259, 308history

Brazil nut cemeteries 60-1land rights activism 121, 124, 272, 285, 296rubber exploitation in Brazil 121, 126

rubber plantations in Asia 126rubber tapper’s diary 76

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ships o the Spanish Armada 105hitting trees 41H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Oregon, USA

xiv, xx

honey 180, 237honeycreeper, purple 45, 313housesseebuildingshowler monkey (guariba; Alouattaspp.) 189, 309Huánuco, Peru 2(map), 216, 224Humboldt, Alexander von 202hummingbirds 45hunting

commercial 187subsistence 14, 57, 76, 94, 97, 109, 115-17, 119,

134, 148, 165, 181, 186-9, 221, 224, 270, 282hunting implements 193

arrows 91bows 83

hybridizationcajá 215, 224tucumã o Amazonas 212

hydroelectric projects 60, 275, 276Hymanaea

H. courbaril (jatobá) xxii, 5, 11, 85,91-100, 285,303

H. oblongi olia(jutaí-da- olha-grande; long-leaved jutaí) 95, 307

H. parvi olia(jutaí) 95, 285, 307IIaça (legend o ) 163IAPsseeIslands o High ProductivityIBAMAseeInstituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente

e dos Recursos Natureis Renováveisice creams 139, 141, 142, 161, 171, 177, 219, 222, 224ICRAFseeWorld Agro orestry CentreICRW seeInternational Center or Research on

WomenIDRC seeInternational Development Research

CenterIEPA seeInstituto de Pesquisas Cientí icas e

Tecnológicas do Estado do AmapáIFPA seeInstituto Federal de Educação Ciéncia e

Technologia do Paráigapó (permanently looded orest) xxii, 47, 158Igarapé-açu, Pará State, Brazil 2(map)Igarapé Miri, Pará State, Brazil 20illegal logging 106, 162illumination 221IMAC-AC xvi

IMAZONseeInstituto do Homem e MeioAmbiente da Amazôniaimbaúba (Cecropiaspp.) 274, 307

Imbiriba, Miguel ivinajá (cucurita; Attalea maripa) 142,183-90, 286,

288, 303inajá oil

extraction 186income comparisonsseecost-bene it comparisonsincome generation 286, 287

or women 36, 137, 177, 251, 271see also ruit sales; land salesand timber sales

Indiana University (IU), USA xiv, xviiiindigenous belie s 141

see also olkloreindigenous drinks 171, 202indigenous orest management 6, 15, 62, 110, 168,

221, 294see alsocommunity orest management

indigenous languagesTupi-guarani 39

indigenous peoples 29, 32, 83Apinayé 178, 179, 285Apurinã 208, 209, 287Chacobo Indians 286Cree 21Guajajara 285Iroquois 6Kayapó 165, 193, 294Maku 270

Parakanã 21Tembé 88Tupinambá 178Waimiri Atroari 292see alsolocal peopleand traditional knowledge

indigenous rituals 178, 270, 290Indonesia 122Inga spp. (ingá) 3, 116,226-7, 293,307

I. alba(ingá vermelho) 227, 259I. calantha285I. capitata227I. cayennensis227I. chartacea227I. cinnamomea216, 227I. edulis227I. grandis227I. ingoides227I. laurina227I. macrophylla227I. nobilis216, 227I. stipularis227I. velutina227

ingá vermelho (Inga alba) 227, 259

inhambu (nambu; tinamou;Crypturellusspp.;Tinamusspp.) 165, 259, 315inks 112

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Index 333

INPA seeInstituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazôniainsect pests

shoot borer moth caterpillars 108insect repellents 29, 32, 33, 34, 85, 94, 142, 161, 221

insect-resistant wood 29, 74insectsseebeesand mosquitoesInstitute o Man and the EnvironmentseeInstituto

do Homem e Meio Ambiente da AmazôniaInstituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos

Recursos Natureis Renováveis (IBAMA) 36, 162, 246Instituto Federal de Educação Ciéncia e

Technologia do Pará (IFPA) xxInstituto do Homem e Meio Ambiente da

Amazônia (IMAZON) iv, xiv, xvii, xviiiInstituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia

(INPA) xv, xvi, xviii, xxInstituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da Amazônia

(IPAM) xviiInstituto de Pesquisas Cientí icas e Tecnológicas do

Estado do Amapá (IEPA) xiv, xx, 36International Center or Research on Women

(ICRW) ivInternational Development Research Center

(IDRC) ivInternational Plant Genetic Resources Institute

(IPGRI) xviinventory, orest 8, 13, 78, 136, 176, 207, 216, 246,

260, 291, 296invisible bene its rom orest products 4, 14, 43,119, 143-4, 187-9, 238, 242, 267

see alsoair; ruit; game; medicinal plants; vines;waterand wood

IPAM seeInstituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da Amazôniaipê-amarelo (Tabebuia serrati olia) 93, 307ipê-roxo (pau d’arco;Tabebuia impetiginosa) 2, 5,

11, 69,81-90, 258, 291, 295, 303IPGRIseeInternational Plant Genetic Resources

Instituteipuruna lour 180Iquitos, Peru xxiv(map), 2(map), 177, 182, 216, 226,

228, 292, 293iron, dietary 9, 44, 54, 87, 146, 164Iroquois tribe 6Islands o High Productivity (IAPs) 128, 291IU seeIndiana UniversityIUCN Netherlands iv

J jabarana (tucumã o Amazonas; Astrocaryum

aculeatum; A. tucuma) 142, 190,205-13, 287, 288,

290, 295, 303 jabuti (jabuti carumbé; jabuti-do-pé-vermelho; red-ooted tortoise;Geochelone carbonaria) 315

jabuti branco (Brazilian giant tortoise; oresttortoise; jabuti-carumbé; jabuti-do-pé-amarelo;South American yellow- ooted tortoise;Geochelone denticulata) 115, 316

jabuti carumbéseejabuti jabuti-carumbésee jabuti branco jabuti-do-pé-amareloseejabuti branco jabuti-do-pé-vermelhoseejabuti jacaiacá (ameixa; ameixeira; Antrocaryon

amazonicum) 218, 258, 305 jacarandá da Bahia (Brazilian rosewood;Dalbergia

nigra) 273, 307 Jacaranda copaia(parapará) 259 jaci ( Attalea butyracea) 183, 190, 307 jacu (guan; japassaro;Penelopespp.) 165, 181, 195,

202, 314 jaguar (onça pintada; onça preta;Panthera onca) 76,

267, 270, 275, 311 jaguartirica (gato do mato; ocelot;Leopardus

pardalis) 97, 311 jagube vine (ayahuasca; daime;Banisteriopsis caapi)

270, 285, 307 jams 161, 199, 222, 251 japassaro (guan; jacu;Penelopespp.) 165, 181, 195,

202, 314 jarana (Lecythis lurida) 94, 259, 307 Jardim, Mário Augusto xv, xvi, xix, 161

Jari river xxiv(map), 225 jatobá (Hymanaea courbaril ) xxii, 5, 11, 85,91-100,285, 303

Jaú National Park, Amazonas State, Brazil 130, 288 Jesseniaspp. 285 jewellery 123, 142, 161, 171, 177, 184, 193, 208, 209 Johnson, Bettina Nicely iv José, Antonio xvii, 260 juices

açaí 159, 160, 161, 169, 171, 172, 174ameixa 218apuruí 219bacuri 44buriti 177cacau 222cajá 224pariri 217patauá 191, 193, 194see alsodrinks

jupati (Raphia taedigera) 307 jupati seeds

uses 142-3, 274 jupindá (cat’s claw; unha-de-gato;Uncaria guianensis;

U. tomentosa) 65-70, 285, 289, 290, 292, 303 juriti (pariri; quail-dove;Geotrygonspp.) 259, 313 Juruá river xxiv(map), 225, 292

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jutaí (Hymenaea parvi olia) 95, 285, 307 jutaí-da- olha-grande (long-leaved jutaí;Hymenaea

oblongi olia) 95, 307 jutaicica resin xxii, 85, 91, 92, 94, 147, 221

KKageyama, Paulo Yoshio xiv, xix, 121Kainer, Karen xiv, xix, 49Katz, Daniel xiiiKayapó tribe 165, 193, 294KewseeRoyal Botanic Gardens, KewKingo Oyama Homma, Al redo xvi, xix, 60kites 178

LLa Selva, Costa Rica 31Laboratório Sócio-Agronômico do Tocantins

(LASAT) xviiLacerda, Cristina xvi, 37Laetia procera(pau jacaré) 259lamp oil 32, 74, 178land area

measurement xxi, 13trees byseedensity

land rights movements 121, 124, 272, 285, 296land sales 258, 277land titles, legalization o 265

lapachol 81, 83Laranjal do Jari, Acre State, Brazil 53larvae, edible 193LASATseeLaboratório Sócio-Agronômico do

Tocantinslatex

abiorana 217amapá 85, 87, 296

extraction 88uses 260yields 88

bacuri 39, 43, 44uses 43

rubber treeextraction 127uses 122, 123yields 123

sucuúba 85latex bowls 52, 124latex in cooking pans

removal 44lauric acid 179laws

orest protection 63, 77, 99, 106, 136, 162, 295rubber tapping subsidies 123Leão, Noemi Vianna Martins xvi, xix, 21

leatherbu alo 274‘vegetable’ 123, 125

leaves, uses or

açaí 161açaí (solitary) 171buriti 178cat’s claw 68 jatobá 94patauá 193tucumã o Amazonas 209see also ronds

Lecythis259, 271, 274, 308L. lurida(jarana) 94, 259, 307L. usitata(sapucaia) 259

legends 124, 138, 163, 267-9Leite, Arthur xiv, xix, 71length o vinesseegrowth (length)Leopardus pardalis(syn. Felis pardalis; gato do

mato; jaguartirica; ocelot) 97, 311Lesser Antilles 227Levy, Dennis ivLima, João 186Limão, Neusa do 146lipids, dietary 146, 164literacy 288, 294

illiteracy rates 11

teaching 19, 22livelihoods, subsistence 296see alsoinvisible bene its rom orest products

‘living dead’ (solitary) Brazil nut trees 1, 63lizards 94local organizations

and community forest management initiatives 165local people 8

sharing traditional knowledge with researchersix, x, xiii, 1, 2, 12, 15, 33-5, 138, 161, 207

see alsoindigenous peopleslog removal 247loggers

contracts with 247, 254, 295extraction authorizations 246negotiation with 43, 119, 237, 245-7payments or timber 236-7, 247, 248, 254Senhor Zé 237tree-planting by 21, 93

logging 235, 241, 292, 297orest recovery a ter 5, 99, 242, 293

illegal logging 106, 162number o species extracted 240

predatory 99, 106, 117, 119, 173, 239threatened species 291, 295see alsode orestationand timber extraction

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Index 335

logging scoutsseemateirosLonchophylla thomasi(Thomas’s [long-tongued]

nectar bat) 117, 311Londres, Marina xiv, xix, 29, 37

long-haired spider monkey (coatá; macaco aranha;white-bellied spider monkey; Ateles belzebuth)195, 309

long-leaved jutaí (jutaí-da- olha-grande;Hymenaeaoblongi olia) 95, 307

long-nosed armadillo, nine-bandedseenine-bandedarmadillo

long-nosed armadillo, seven-bandedseeseven-banded armadillo

long-tongued nectar bat, Thomas’sseeThomas’snectar bat

Lopes, Ricardo xvi, xix, 212louro prata (Ocotea guianensis) 259louro preto (Ocotea ragrantissima) 273, 307lowland tapir (anta; Brazilian tapir;Tapirus

terrestris) 142, 148, 178, 181, 195, 312Lueheopsis duckeana(açoita cavalo) 259Luiz Furtado, Edson xiv, xix, 121Lustosa, Antonio de Almeida 175, 180Luz, Lêda xvi, xix, 43, 85, 233

Mmacaco aranha (coatá; white-bellied [long-haired]

spider monkey; Ateles belzebuth) 195, 309macaco prego (black-capped capuchin; browncapuchin; tu ted capuchin;Cebus apella) 57, 165,310

Macapá, Amapá State, Brazil 2(map), 133, 142, 160maçaranduba (massaranduba;Manilkara huberi) 33,

93, 94, 244, 258, 307macaúba 288macaws 119, 141, 142, 148, 172, 189, 195, 210, 275,

313blue and yellow [gold] 181, 312red-bellied 181, 314

MacDonald, Trilby ivMaclura tinctoria(tatajuba) 21, 115, 308Madre de Dios, Peru 2(map), 50, 216, 226Madrid, Independent University o (UAM), Spain

xviimagnesium, dietary 87, 146, 164Maguari river 282mahogany (mogno;Swietenia macrophylla) viii, 21,

60, 86, 99,101-8, 271, 286, 289, 296, 297, 303mahogany, ‘bastard’or ‘ alse’seeandirobamahogany, greenseeipê-roxo

Maia, Conchita xvii, 271Maku Indians 270mal-das- olhas126, 127, 128

Malaysia 122MAMAseeMovimento Articulado de Mulheres da

Amazoniamanagement, orestseeagro orestry management;

community orest managementand indigenousorest managementmanagement plans 19, 77, 136

or açaí harvesting 263community orest reserves 260

or copaibá oil extraction 285, 294mapping or 77, 78-9timber volume calculations or 246

management o secondary orests 259Manaus, Amazonas State, Brazil xxiv(map), 2(map),

19, 30, 72, 73, 121, 199, 206, 207, 208, 209-10, 226,273

Amazon Theatre 126mango 164Mangueira’s amily 20, 143-4Manihot esculenta(manioc) xxii, 45, 70, 128, 203Manilkara huberi(maçaranduba; massaranduba) 33,

93, 94, 244, 258, 307manioc (Manihot esculenta) xxii, 45, 70, 128, 203manioc root xxiii, 52, 178, 195maparajuba (abiorana; abiu;Pouteriaspp.) 3, 215,

217, 305Mapinguari xxii, 267, 269, 282

mapping 19, 237, 291or management plans 77, 78-9over-complication o 207

mapsAmazonia xxiv, 2Brazilian states and places mentioned 2major rivers xxivSouth America xxiv

Mapuá, Pará State, Brazil 18Marabá, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 60, 294maracanã do buriti (red-bellied macaw;

Orthopsittaca manilata) 181, 314Marajó Island, Pará State, Brazil xxi, 2(map), 18, 32,

39, 40, 41, 139, 158, 159, 166, 263, 292Maranhão State, Brazil 2(map), 32, 39, 40, 158, 223,

271, 272São Luís 2(map), 41

Marañón river xxiv(map)marapuama (Ptychopetalum olacoides) 86, 307Marcelo, Senhor 234Marcondes, Nívea xvi, 93Marechal Thaumaturgo, Acre State, Brazil 272Margarita Barbosa Women’s Association 271

Maria, Dona ( rom Belém) 165marianinha de cabeça amarela (white-bellied parrot;Pionites leucogaster ) 45, 314

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Marita, Dona ( rom Santarém) 35market expenses 17, 18marketing timber 288, 295marketsseeFLORA Forest Products Marketand

Ver-o-Peso marketmarkets, selling atpreparation or 68

marmaladesrecipes 44

Maroca ( rom Capim Community) xviiMartins, Regina Célia xvmarupá (Simarouba amara) 273, 307masato 202massaranduba (maçaranduba;Manilkara huberi) 33,

93, 94, 244, 258, 307mastruz (wormseed;Chenopodium ambrosioides)

86, 307matamatá 116

seeds 274mateiros xxii, 104mathematics teaching 22Matisia

M. bicolor (sapota macho)228, 308M. cordata(sapota; sapota do Solimões)228, 308

Matita Pereira 267, 282Mato Grosso State, Brazil 2(map), 47, 199, 243mats 178, 209

Mattos, Marli xvii, 245, 259, 162maturi 116Mauritia

M. lexuosa(aguaje; buriti; moriche palm) 4,175-82, 216, 283, 287, 293, 295, 303

M. vini era290Maximilianaspp.see AttaleaMazama57, 76, 97, 112, 117, 141, 142, 148, 165,

178, 181, 186, 195, 202, 210, 275M. americana(red brocket deer; veado capoeira;

veado mateiro; veado pardo; veadovermelho) 115, 116, 119, 172, 181, 311

M. gouazoubira(grey brocket deer; veadobranco) 119, 172, 181, 311

McGrath, David xvii, xix, 260mealy parrot (papagaio moleiro; Amazona arinosa)

116, 312measurement

abbreviations xxiiiland area xxi, 13pace length or mapping 78, 285tree trunks xxii, 13, 245-6

meat, buying

cost/bene it comparison with hunting game 117,187-9‘meat o the plant kingdom’ 4, 49, 54

medicinal plants 259, 288, 292, 295habitats 86harvested or wood 5loss 86, 296

see also under speciesmedicinal uses o orest products [see re erenceswithin this section re er to ‘medicinal uses o orest products’ terms only] 4

aging 53, 167allergies 81, 83Alzheimer’s disease 53anaemia 56, 83, 88, 171, 260anxiety 49, 53arteriosclerosis 83arthritis 32, 83, 85, 142asthma 193bacterial in ections 29, 32, 74bites and stings

bat 36insect 36snake 36, 171

bladder in ections 94bleeding 163blood diseases/disorders

anaemia 56, 83, 88, 171, 260blood pressure 267leukaemia 83, 164, 288

blood oxygenation 83brain diseases/disordersAlzheimer’s disease 53memory loss 53Parkinson’s disease 53

bronchitis 83, 91, 94cancer 29, 32, 49, 53, 65, 81, 85, 88, 146, 157

leukaemia 83, 164, 288prostate cancer 94

cholesterol reduction 142, 146colds 85, 91, 94, 146con idence levels 49, 53cystitis 94dengue ever 36depression 53dermatosis 74diabetes 83, 142diarrhoea 52, 91, 94, 260earache 199eczema 43energy levels 49, 165expectorants 85eye unction 200

night vision 179eye in ections 179atigue 53

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Index 337

evers 29, 32, 85dengue 36

gastrointestinal diseases/disorders 56, 147diarrhoea 52, 91, 94, 260

digestive problems 94gastritis 87, 88, 260stomach ache 94stomach in lammation 260worms 29, 32, 85, 88, 94, 161, 163, 260

headaches 94hepatitis 56, 85herpes 43, 85immune system 49, 68in lammation 23, 29, 32, 65, 68, 71, 74, 81, 83,

85, 87, 157, 260 joints

arthritis 32, 83, 85, 142rheumatism 85, 142

kidney disorders 171laxatives 193leukaemia 83, 164, 288liver diseases/disorders 171, 260

hepatitis 56, 85lung diseases/disorders 85, 87, 88

asthma 193bronchitis 83, 91, 94pulmonary congestion 94

tuberculosis 88, 193malaria 69, 83, 88malnourishment 88, 179memory loss 53mood 49morning sickness 56mouth in ections 179muscle cramps 94nervous system problems 85, 267night vision 179Parkinson’s disease 53pregnancy and childbirth

morning sickness 56tonic ollowing 87umbilical cords 32

psoriasis 74rehydration 213respiratory disordersseelung diseases/disordersrheumatism 85, 142scar tissue 32, 74, 81, 85, 87sinusitis 147skin diseases/disorders 142

bites and stings 36, 171

bruises 32cuts 163dehydration 179

dermatosis 74eczema 43itchy skin 142psoriasis 74

scar tissue 32, 74, 81, 85, 87sprains 29, 85stingsseebites and stingsstomachseegastrointestinal diseases/disordersswellingseein lammationthroat diseases/disorders

cough 83, 94, 146sore throat 32, 74, 199

tonics 85, 87, 91, 163toothache 179tuberculosis 88, 193tumoursseecancerulcers 65, 85urinary tract diseases/disorders

bladder in ections 94cystitis 94

uterine in ections 85, 88viruses 65, 68weakness 94, 186worms 29, 32, 85, 88, 94, 161, 163, 260wound treatment 71, 85

Medina, Gabriel iv, viii, xiv, xv, xvii, xix, 39, 233,255, 270, 272

Meireles, Domingos 118Melza M. and Frank T. Barr Foundation ivmenseegender di erencesMendes, Dona Ana xvii, 253Mendes, Chico 124, 278, 292methionine 54Mexico 91, 102, 227Middle Juruá, Amazonas State, Brazil 18midwives 271-2, 285Minas Gerais State, Brazil 2(map), 47, 199, 283minerals, dietary 4, 9, 44, 49, 53, 54, 87, 146, 164,

200, 286, 287mining 60, 62, 91Ministry o the Environment (MMA), Brazil xiii,

xviiForestry Department xviii

miracle treeseecopaíbaMiranda, Elias Melo de xiv, xix, 65Mitu tuberosum(mutum cavalo; mutum preto;

razor-billed curassow) 97, 314MMAseeMinistry o the Environment, BrazilMoções, Pará State, Brazil 162mogno (mahogany;Swietenia macrophylla) viii, 21,

60, 86, 99,101-8, 271, 286, 289, 296, 297, 303mollusks, edible 178money, seeds as 123

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monkeys 76, 88, 94, 97, 119, 148, 158, 165, 181, 186,189, 195, 210

brown [black-capped; tufted] capuchin 57, 165, 310howler 189, 309

white-bellied [long-haired] spider 195, 309moon phasesin luence on harvesting 75, 138, 185

morcego de cara listrada (great ruit-eating bat; Artibeus lituratus) 151, 309

moriche palm (ajuaje; buriti;Mauritiaspp.) 4,175-82, 216, 283, 287, 290, 293, 295, 303

morototó (Sche lera morototoni) 273, 307Mosqueiro, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 140mosquitoes 29, 33, 36, 142Mota, Maria do Socorro xvi, 212Movimento Articulado de Mulheres da Amazonia

(MAMA) viii, xviimucajá ( Acrocomia aculeata) 142, 307Müller, Hans xvmultiple-use management 255-66, 287multipurpose species

productivity 291mumbaca ( Astrocaryum gynacanthum) 142, 307murici (Byrsonima crassi olia) 286Muriti est, Abaetetuba 177murumuru ( Astrocaryum murumuru) 142,213, 216,

257, 307

seeds 274mururé (Brosimum acuti olium) 258, 282, 307Muruteuazinho, Pará State, Brazil 237Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belém (MPEG),

Para State, Brazil xv, xvi, xviii, xx, 58, 163, 234, 291music

carimbó xxi, 274, 281see alsosongs

musical instruments xxiimade rom

seeds 274woods 105, 273

mutum (curassow; mutum branco; mutum depenacho;Craxspp.) 97, 172, 195, 210, 313

mutum brancoseemutummutum cavalo (mutum preto; razor-billed curassow;

Mitu tuberosum) 97, 314mutum de penachoseemutummutum pretoseemutum cavaloMyrcia atramenti idera(cumatê) 259Myrciaria dubia(camu-camu) 216, 306mythical creatures xxi, xxii, 267-9, 282

NNAEAseeNúcleo de Altos Estudos Amazônicosnails 131

nambu (inhambu; tinamou;Crypturellusspp.;Tinamusspp.) 165, 259, 315

Nanaí, Pará State, Brazil 113, 118, 147napthoquinones 81, 83

Nasua nasua (coati, coatimundi; South American coati;quati; quatimundé) 112, 148, 181, 186, 281, 311National Agricultural Research Institute, Brazilsee

Empresa Brasiliera de Pesquisa AgropecuáriaNational Council o Extractive Populations

( ormerly National Council o Rubber Tappers)seeConselho Nacional dos Seringueiros

nature spirits 270Nazaré, Pará State, Brazil 36, 146nectar bat, Thomas’sseeThomas’s [long-tongued]

nectar batnegotiation with loggers 43, 119, 237, 245-7Negro river xxiv(map), 202, 270Nenzinho’s amily 146New York Botanical Garden (NYBG), USA xv, xvi,

xvii, xviii, xxnine-banded [long-nosed] armadillo (tatu; tatu

branco; tatu galinha;Dasypus novemcinctus) 115,116, 310

non-timber/non-wood orest products (NTFP/NWFP) 285

certi ication 106, 262, 263, 293, 295, 296collection

seeextractionand harvesting of forest productsand community orest management 255, 266and con licting orest uses 5, 119, 233-54, 289consumption in urban areas 2, 39, 167, 293de inition o xxiiieconomics o

seeadding value to orest products;economic value o orest productsand pro it on orest products

airs and estivals or 41, 125, 133, 159, 162, 175,177, 202, 298

FAO NWFPs Programme ixinvisible bene its rom 4, 14, 43, 119, 143-4, 187-

9, 238, 242, 267markets or 41, 67, 73, 92, 111, 125, 133, 141,

157, 184, 193nutritional bene its o

seenutritional value o orest productsperishability 17, 18, 171, 225, 250transport o 17, 250uses o

seemedicinal uses o orest products;recipes; uses o orest product by tree parts

and veterinary uses o orest productssee also under individual non-timber/non-wood orest products

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Index 339

Nossa Senhora da Fátima, Brasiléia, Acre State,Brazil 103

Nova Timboteua, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 271NTFP/NWFPseenon-timber/non-wood orest

productsNúcleo de Altos Estudos Amazônicos (NAEA) xiv,xvii

nut milksrecipes 54, 55

nutritional bene its o orest products viii, 4nutritional value o orest products 14

açaí 164açaí (solitary) 172amapá 87bacuri 44Brazil nuts 54, 287buriti 179inajá 186 jatobá 95patauá 194piquiá 112pupunha 200tucumã o Amazonas 209uxi 146

nuts, uses orBrazil nut 52, 274

NWFPseenon-timber/non-wood orest products

NYBGseeNew York Botanical GardenOocelot (gato do mato; jaguartirica;Leopardus pardalis) 97, 311

OcoteaO. ragrantissima(louro preto) 273, 307O. guianensis(louro prata) 259

Oeiras do Pará, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 199, 208, 277OELAseeO icina Escola de Lutheria da AmazôniaOenocarpus285

O. bacaba(bacaba) 142, 194, 258, 305O. bataua(patauá)191-6, 216, 289, 303O. b. subsp.bataua(ungurahua) 292

Oficina Escola de Lutheria da Amazônia (OELA) xviiO icinas Caboclas do Tapajós (Caboclo Workshops

o the Tapajós) 260-1Ohashi, Selma Toyoko xvi, 21oil plants 294oil woodseecopaíbaoils

açaí 171andiroba 23, 29, 32, 33-5, 237, 294

babassu 272bacuri 43Brazil nut 51, 52, 53

buriti 178, 179, 180, 292cocão 225copaíba 71-6, 85, 285, 289, 290, 294dendê xxii, 179

inajá 186patauá 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 293piquiá 112, 113pupunha 199uxi 142, 146, 147

oleic acid 146, 179Oliveira, Renaxon S. de xiv, 121Olívia, Maria xvi, 136onça pintada (jaguar; onça preta;Panthera onca) 76,

267, 270, 275, 311onça preta (jaguar; onça pintada;Panthera onca) 76,

267, 270, 275, 311Onças Island, Pará State, Brazil 159Onychopetalum

O. krukovii(envira caju) 216, 306O. periquino(envira caju)226

opera housesAmazon Theatre, Manaus 126

opossums 186, 275, 281Orbignyaspp.see Attaleaorchid composts 163Oregon State University (OSU), USA xivorganic certi ication 262

Originais de Peixe-Bois 281Ormosiaspp. (tento) 142, 308Ortalisspp. (aracuã; chachalaca) 165, 181, 275, 314Orthopsittaca manilata(maracanã do buriti; red-

bellied macaw) 181, 314OSUseeOregon State UniversityOverbrook Foundation ivowls 275

Ppaca ( Agouti paca) 36, 76, 94, 97, 112, 115, 116, 117,

119, 141, 142, 148, 181, 186, 189, 210, 212, 221,259, 275, 309

pace length or mapping 78, 285packaging 250pacu, black- inned (tambaqui) 125, 261, 316paints

body 29, 32industrial 74

pale-throated three-toed sloth (preguiça bento;Bradypus tridactylus) 309

palm heart industry 292, 294over-exploitation of solitary açaí 162, 169, 173, 263

palm hearts xxiaçaí extraction a ects ruit yield 166

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numbers per can 162uses 161, 163yield 160

açaí (solitary)

over-exploitation 162, 169, 173, 263uses 171inajá

uses 185patauá

uses 193pupunha 197, 199, 200, 203

uses 199sustainable harvesting 298

palm tanager (saí açu pardo; sanhaçu do coqueiro;Thraupis palmarum) 45, 315

palm trees 285, 291ire survival 183, 190, 205

see alsoaçaí; babaçu; bacaba; buriti; cocão;coconut; dendê; inajá; jaci; jupati; mucajá;mumbaca; murumuru; patauá; piaçava; pupunha;pupunha brava; tucumã o Amazonas; tucumãdo Paráand tucumã-í

palm trunks, uses oraçaí 161açaí (solitary) 171buriti175, 178, 180patauá 193

pupunha 203tucumã o Amazonas 206palmeira de pêssegoseepupunhapalmera de melacotónseepupunhapalmitoseepalm heartsPanama 102pancake illings 209, 210Pando, Bolivia 2(map), 216, 224panelling 105Panthera onca(jaguar; onça pintada; onça preta) 76,

267, 270, 275, 311Pantoja, José Maria xvii, 253Pantoja, M. xvii, 257Panzer, Carla xvii, 268papagaio moleiro (mealy parrot; Amazona arinosa)

116, 312Papua New Guinea 180Pará, Federal University o (UFPA), Brazil xiv, xvi,

33, 52, 95Pará river 139Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 3, 21, 30, 32, 39, 42-3, 47,

49, 50, 69, 72, 75, 92, 97, 99, 102, 110, 130, 131,132, 133, 163, 164, 169, 191, 192, 205, 216, 218,

223, 227, 259, 272, 274, 276, 289, 295Abaetetuba 2(map), 162, 177Acará 2(map), 141, 149, 150, 159

Alto Rio Guama 31, 294Ananim 234Baixo Tocantins 236, 237Belém xxi, xxiv(map), 2(map), 32, 40, 41, 43, 51,

67, 73, 74, 83, 86, 88, 104, 121, 131, 139, 140,142-3, 149, 150, 159-60, 165, 176, 185, 199,226, 228, 295, 296Bosque Rodrigues Alves 23

Benjamin Constant 260, 294Boa Vista 110, 140Boim 126Bragança 2(map), 41, 178, 186, 260Bragantina 40, 45, 139Breves 2(map), 139Cametá 2(map), 32, 34, 35, 162Capanema 2(map),186Capim river area 42-3, 73, 76, 97, 110-11, 115,

117, 139, 141, 143, 144, 146, 148, 187-9, 238-44, 247, 253, 291

Carajás 60-1, 91, 294Caxuanã National Forest 50Guamá 139Gurupá 31, 37Igarapé-açu 2(map)Igarapé Miri 20Mapuá 18Marabá 2(map), 60, 294

Marajó Island xxi, 2(map), 18, 32, 39, 40, 41, 139,158, 159, 166, 263, 292Moções 162Mosqueiro 2(map), 140Muruteuazinho 237Nanaí 113, 118, 147Nazaré 36, 146Nova Timboteua 2(map), 271Oeiras do Pará 2(map), 199, 208, 277Onças Island 159Paragominas 2(map), 17-18, 73, 111, 117, 143,

145, 238, 244, 297Pedreira 2(map), 31, 33, 36, 72Peixe-Boi 1, 234Ponta de Pedras 2(map), 41, 159, 162Porto de Moz 2(map), 130, 135, 136-7, 138Quiandeua 2(map)Salgado region 39Salvaterra 2(map), 32Santarém viii, 2(map), 31, 35, 126, 269São Domingo 36Soure 41Tapajós 122-3, 127

Tapajós National Forest 36, 288, 298Taquandeua 45Tauaú 45

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Index 341

Tembé 88, 130, 221Tomé-Açu 2(map), 73, 83, 244Transcametá 118Tucuruí 60

Viseu 140Paragominas, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 17-18, 73,111, 117, 143, 145, 238, 244, 297

Paraguay xxi, xxiv(map), 2(map), 47, 65, 91, 218Parahancornia

P. amapa see P. asciculataP. asciculata(syn.P. amapa; amapá amargo;bitter amapá) 85, 87, 88, 260, 295, 296, 305

Paraíso, José 269Parakanã tribe 21parakeet

golden-winged 45, 46, 313white-eyed 45, 313

Parana river xxiv(map)Paraná State, Brazil

Paranaguá 2(map), 104, 199Paranaguá, Paraná State, Brazil 2(map), 104parapará ( Jacaranda copaia) 259Paraponeraspp. (tucandeira ant) 138paricazinho (Stryphnodendron guianense) 259pariri

(juriti; quail-dove;Geotrygonspp.) 259, 313(Pouteria pariry) 217, 307

parrots 119, 141, 172, 181, 189, 195, 202, 210, 286mealy 116, 312white-bellied 45, 314

pasturessee ields and pasturespatauá (Oenocarpus bataua) 191-6, 216, 289, 303patauá oil 191, 193, 293

calori ic value 194extraction 192, 195uses 193

pau d’arco (ipê-roxo;Tabebuia impetiginosa) 2, 5,11, 69,81-90, 258, 291, 295, 303

pau jacaré (Laetia procera) 259pau-rainha (Brosimum rubescens) 273, 307pau-rosa ( Aniba rosaeodora) 117Pauini, Amazonas State, Brazil 272Paula Fernandes, Nívia Maria de xv, xx, 175Paullinia cupana(guaraná) 86, 165, 171, 307Paulo, João 258payments or timber 236-7, 247, 248, 254peach palm (pupunha;Bactris gasipaes) 150,197-

204, 271, 287, 292, 298, 303peccaries 57, 76, 125, 142, 165, 178, 181, 186, 195,

210, 221, 224, 225, 261

collared 116, 119, 148, 181, 189, 312white-lipped 97, 119, 148, 181, 195, 312Pedreira, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 31, 33, 36, 72

Peixe-Boi, Pará State, Brazil 1, 234pejibayeseepupunhaPenelopespp. (guan; jacu; japassaro) 165, 181, 195,

202, 314

People and Plants International (PPI) iv, xiv, xv, xviPereira, Luciano xiv, xx, 129per umes 117

industrial 74periquitão maracanã (white-eyed conure; white-

eyed parakeet; Aratinga leucophthalma) 45, 313periquito de asa dourada (golden-winged parakeet;

periquito de asa vermelha;Brotogeris chrysoptera)45, 46, 313

periquito de asa vermelha (golden-winged parakeet;periquito de asa dourada;Brotogeris chrysoptera)45, 46, 313

perishability o orest products 17, 18, 171, 225, 250Peru xxiv(map), 2(map), 3, 47, 49, 63, 65, 66, 67, 69,

102, 122, 129, 171, 181, 191, 193, 197, 202, 205,217, 218, 220, 225, 227, 228, 270

Alto Purús 213Chino 188Huánuco 2(map), 216, 224Iquitos xxiv(map), 2(map), 177, 182, 216, 226,

228, 292, 293Madre de Dios 2(map), 50, 216, 226San Martin 216

Ucayali 2(map), 216, 224PESACRE xviipests

shoot borer moth caterpillars 108Peters, Charles xvii, xx, 260phosphorous, dietary 44 146, 164photographic chemicals 74Phyllanthus niruri(quebra-pedra) 86, 308phytosterols 146piaçava (piassava; Attalea uni era) 257, 308piassava (piaçava; Attalea uni era) 257, 308Piauí State, Brazil 2(map), 39, 272

Teresina 2(map), 41, 181pigs 186pijuayoseepupunhaPindorama Ranch, Amazonas State, Brazil 212Pinheiro, Luciana xvii, 271Pionites leucogaster (marianinha de cabeça amarela;

white-bellied parrot) 45, 314pipira (pipira de máscara; silver-beaked tanager;

Ramphocelus carbo) 45, 315pipira de máscara (pipira; silver-beaked tanager;

Ramphocelus carbo) 45, 315

piquiá (Caryocar villosum) v, 5, 6, 9, 13, 18,109-19,143, 150, 236, 240-1, 244, 258, 275, 285, 289, 294,303

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piquiá ruitconsumption 5, 144, 239-40, 242

piquiá oilextraction 113

uses 112piranha negra (black piranha;Serrasalmus niger )125, 316

piranhasblack 125, 316red-eyed 316

pirarucu 261Pires, Murça 58pivotal root 59plant diversity 3plantations 86planting treesseetree-plantingPlatonia insignis(bacuri) 4, 17-18,39-48, 119, 143,

258, 259, 276, 286, 287, 288, 291, 296, 303Plowden, Campbell xiv, xvi, xx, 87, 88, 129poison rogs

Amazonian 57, 286, 316Brazil-nut 57, 316

Pollack, Harrison 162pollination 2, 4, 14, 291

by bats 117by bees 57, 58, 63, 72by birds 45

by weevils 198pollution 278Ponta de Pedras, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 41, 159, 162population, human

in Amazon basin 1Poraquieba(umarí) 216, 308

P. guianensis216P. paraensis216P. sericea216

porcão (queixada; white-lipped peccary;Tayassu pecari) 97, 119, 148, 181, 195, 312

porco espinho (Brazilian porcupine, coendu;quando;Coendou prehensilis) 195, 281, 310

porcupine, Brazilian 195, 281, 310porridge 161, 180, 272; (recipe) 96Porto de Moz, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 130, 135,

136-7, 138Porto Velho, Rôndonia State, Brazil xxiv(map),

2(map), 208Portuguese terms xxi-iiiPortulaca pilosa(amor-crescido) 86, 305posters 16Postigo, A. xvii, 257

potassium, dietary 54, 146, 164, 200Pouteria(abiorana; abiu; maparajuba; pariri) 3, 215,217, 305

P. caimito217P. glomeratasubsp. glomerata217P. macrophylla217P. pariry217, 307

powderuxi 141, 142PPI seePeople and Plants InternationalPrance, Sir Ghillean xiiipreciosa ( Aniba canelilla) 273, 308predatory logging 99, 106, 117, 173

multi-tree damage 119, 239pregos de acapu 274preguiça bento (pale-throated three-toed sloth;

Bradypus tridactylus) 309preguiça branca (brown-throated three-toed sloth;

Bradypus variegatus) 116, 309preguiça real (southern two-toed sloth;Choroepus

didactylus) 310preparations or market

cat’s claw 68Preto da Eva river 212prices

research 250timber 295see alsoeconomic value o orest products

primary orest 97, 130, 206, 217, 220, 237production, average diameter or

amapá 87Brazil nut 58copaíba 77ipê-roxo 89mahogany 103, 104, 107rubber tree 127titica 132

production, average time to 15açaí 165açaí (solitary) 173andiroba 37bacuri 45buriti 182cat’s claw 70inajá 189ipê-roxo 89, 90 jatobá 98patauá 192, 196piquiá 118pupunha 203rubber tree 127titica 134tucumã o Amazonas 207, 211

uxi 149productivity 13, 291estimation methods 31

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Index 343

luctuations 30, 50, 92o :

açaí 159, 160açaí (solitary) 171

amapá 88andiroba 30-1, 35bacuri 40-1, 144Brazil nut 50-1, 290, 297buriti 176cat’s claw 66copaíba 72inajá 184ipê-roxo 82 jatobá 92, 93mahogany 103patauá 192piquiá 110-11, 144pupunha 198-9rubber tree 123titica 131, 136tucumã o Amazonas 206-7uxi 140-1, 144

variations between same-species trees 51, 72, 92,111, 140, 250, 290

pro it on orest products 17, 18timber 243see alsoadding value to orest productsand

cost-bene it comparisonspro it-sharing 262Projeto Capoeira xviiProjeto Dendrogene xvi, xx, 117, 290Projeto IPGRI xvipropagation advice

bacuri 46Brazil nut 59buriti 182ipê-roxo 89 jatobá 98mahogany 107pupunha 203tucumã o Amazonas 211

protectionsee orest protectionprotein, dietary 44, 49, 95, 112, 117, 146, 164, 178,

179, 186, 194, 200, 209, 289protein, vegetableseeBrazil nutsProtium spp. (breu; breu branco) 33, 147,221,273, 305proverbs and sayings

monkey and gourd 57seven generations 6you cannot eat money 21

Psychotria viridis(chacrona) 270, 306Pteroglossusspp. (aracari; araçari) 195, 314Ptychopetalum olacoides(marapuama) 86, 307

publications, scienti ic 15, 285-98pulp

bacuri 41buriti 177, 179, 180, 181

cacau 222pupunha 204Puntodewo, Atie iv, xvii, 257pupunha (peach palm;Bactris gasipaes) 150,197-

204, 271, 287, 292, 298, 303pupunha brava (chica-chica; wild pupunha; Aiphanes aculeata) 204, 308

pupunha oiluses 199

puréesrecipes 201

purple honeycreeper (saí de perna amarela; saí púrpura;Cyanerpes caeruleus) 45, 313

purses 178puruí ( Alibertiaspp.)219, 308puruí grande ( Alibertiaspp.)219, 308Purus river xxiv(map), 216, 288Putumayo river xxiv(map)Putz, Francis E. xvii, xx, 248

Qquail-dove (juriti; pariri;Geotrygonspp.) 259, 313quality seals 53, 251

quando (Brazilian porcupine; coendu, porcoespinho;Coendou prehensilis) 195, 281, 310quati (coati, coatimundi; quatimundé; South

American coati; Nasua nasua) 112, 148, 181, 186,281, 311

quatimundé (coati, coatimundi; quati; SouthAmerican coati; Nasua nasua) 112, 148, 181, 186,281, 311

quatipuru (esquilo; squirrel;Sciurusspp.) 36, 57, 76,141, 142, 148, 186, 210, 312

quebra-pedra (Phyllanthus niruri) 86, 308Queen Piquiá 110queixada (porcão; white-lipped peccary;Tayassu pecari) 97, 119, 148, 181, 195, 312

Quiandeua, Pará State, Brazil 2(map)

Rraceme xxiiiradio programmes 16Rai, Negro 282Rain orest Alliance ivRamos, Carlos Augusto xvi, 37Ramphastos tucanus(Cuvier’s toucan; tucano grande

de papo branco; white-throated toucan) 195, 315Ramphocelus carbo(pipira; pipira de máscara;silver-beaked tanager) 45, 315

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Raphia taedigera(jupati) 307rats 59, 108razor-billed curassow (mutum cavalo; mutum preto;

Mitu tuberosum) 97, 314

Reca Project 58recipes 14biscuits 54bread 96cakes 55, 195, 201chicken dishes 55crèmes 44, 146, 181drinks and juices 44, 186, 194

lour 96ries 201

marmalades 44medicinal teas 69, 83-4, 94nut milks 54, 55porridge 96purées 201soaps 36, 113, 147sweets 56, 147, 181

recipes usingandiroba 36bacuri 44Brazil nuts 54-6buriti 180-1cat’s claw 69

inajá 186ipê-roxo (pau d’arco) 83-4 jatobá 94, 96patauá 194, 293piquiá 113pupunha 201, 290uxi 146-7

recovery, oresta ter logging 5, 242, 293

red-bellied macaw (maracanã do buriti; Orthopsittaca manilata) 181, 314

red brocket deer (veado capoeira; veado mateiro;veado pardo; veado vermelho;Mazamaamericana) 115, 116, 119, 172, 181, 311

red-eyed piranha (serrasalmus rhombeus) 316red- ooted tortoise (jabuti; jabuti carumbé; jabuti-

do-pé-vermelho;Geochelone carbonaria) 315Red ern, Chrissi iv, xiiire orestation

seed harvesting or 21, 93see alsotree-planting

regeneration, natural 297a ter ires 40, 117, 130, 190, 206, 211, 234

a ter hurricane damage 102a ter logging 99a ter swidden agriculture 45, 58, 234, 259, 287

degraded land 39, 226di iculties 1-2, 99and seed predation 59, 98, 108, 195see alsopollination; regrowth o barkand seed

dispersalRegia, Mara 16regional di erences

lowering and ruiting seasons 13Régis da Costa, Joanne xv, xx, 205regrowth o bark

ipê-roxo (pau d’arco) 84, 99 jatobá 99

religious sects 270‘remedy o the saints’ 33remediesseemedicinal uses o orest productsand

teas: medicinalreplanting

secondary orest 258, 295reproductive age, trees o 37-8researchers

sharing scienti ic results with local people ix, x,xiii, 1, 2, 11, 15, 138

reserves, orestseecommunity orest reservesand Extractive Reserves

RESEXseeExtractive Reservesresins

jatobá 94

jutaicica xxii, 85, 91, 92, 94, 147, 221respect or women 36Revilla, Mariella Mendes xiv, xvi, xx, 81, 99Rheedia brasiliensis see Garcinia brasiliensis

R. gardneriana see Garcinia gardnerianaR. macrophylla see Garcinia macrophylla

Rigamonte-Azevedo, Ono ra Cleuza xiv, xx, 71, 175rind, uses or

bacuri 44piquiá 112

Rio Branco, Acre State, Brazil 2(map), 51, 74, 92,93, 131, 133, 171, 172, 173, 193, 208

Rio Grande do Sul State, BrazilDois Irmãos 172

Rio de Janeiro, Federal University of (UFRJ), Brazil 179Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil 2(map), 199

Rio de Janeiro (city) xxiv(map), 133, 165, 177Rios, Montserrat xvii, xx, 260Rita, Dona ( rom Santarém) 35river margins 66, 72, 97, 175, 192, 213, 217, 225, 227rivers xxiv(map)

see also under named riversroads and highways 60, 63, 66, 77, 78, 86, 233, 247

roçados de várzea ( loodplain gardens) 168Rodriques Alves Park, BelémseeBosque RodriguesAlves

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Index 345

Rojas-Briales, Eduardo ixrole-playing 16Rolliniaspp. (ata brava; biribá; biribá brava) 150,

215, 216,220, 287, 291, 305

R. calcarata216, 220, 305R. mammi era216, 305R. mucosa220R. peruviana220

Rôndonia State, Brazil 2(map), 58, 179, 191, 205Ariquemes Reserve 21Porto Velho xxiv(map), 2(map), 208

roo ing 171, 183, 185shingles 32, 42, 43, 258

rootsdeep 59uses or

açaí 161açaí (solitary) 171cat’s claw 68titica 129, 131, 134

ropes 161Roraima State, Brazil 2(map), 21, 205, 218rosewood, BrazilianseeBrazilian rosewoodrot-resistant wood 81, 112Roxinho, Senhor ( rom Acará) xvi, 149, 150Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK 126rubber erasers 280

rubber industry 121, 122, 257rubber latex 23, 122, 123, 127rubber plantations, colonial 126rubber smoking 95, 123, 185, 209, 225rubber tappers 18, 76, 121, 172, 280, 288, 298

Brazil nut harvesting 123copaíba extraction 73, 76, 77

orest protection 124roads 77, 78subsidies 123see alsoMendes, Chico

rubber tapping 87, 124season 122see alsoextraction, latex

rubber tree (seringueira;Hevea brasiliensis) viii, 11,121-8, 166, 291, 293, 297, 303

Ruiz, M. xvii, 257Ruiz, Rocio xvi, 93

SSabogal, Cesar xvii, 259sacaca (Croton cajucara) 86, 308Saci 267, 282

Sacoglottisspp. (uxirana) 142, 274, 308saddlebags 129, 131

saí açu pardo (palm tanager; sanhaçu do coqueiro;Thraupis palmarum) 45, 315

saí de perna amarela (purple honeycreeper; saí púrpura;Cyanerpes caeruleus) 45, 313

saí púrpura (purple honeycreeper; saí de pernaamarela;Cyanerpes caeruleus) 45, 313salessee ruit sales; income generation; land sales

and timber salesSalgado region, Pará State, Brazil 39Salomão, Ra ael P. xv, xvi, xx, 62salt

substitutes 178supplements 193

Salvaterra, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 32San Martiperu 216sandals 178, 280sandwiches, tucumã 208, 209-10sangre-de-grado (Croton lechleri) 69, 308sanhaçu da amazônia (blue-grey tanager;Thraupis

episcopus) 45, 315sanhaçu do coqueiro (palm tanager; saí açu pardo;

Thraupis palmarum) 45, 315Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia 2(map), 47Santarém, Pará State, Brazil viii, 2(map), 31, 35, 126,

269Santo Daime 270São Domingo, Pará State, Brazil 36

São João do Jaburu community, Gurupá, Pará State,Brazil 37São Luís, Maranhão State, Brazil 2(map), 41São Luiz do Remanso, Acre State, Brazil 172, 287São Paulo State, Brazil 2(map), 32, 73, 199São Paulo (city) xxiv(map), 133, 143, 177São Paulo State University (UNESP), Brazil xiv, xixsap, uses or

buriti 180see alsolatexand resins

sapota (sapota do Solimões (Matisia cordata) 228, 308sapota macho (Matisia bicolor ) 228, 308sapota do Solimões (sapota;Matisia cordata) 228,

308Sapotaceae 293sapucaia (Lecythisspp.) 259, 271, 274, 308sauces, spicy pepper 224savannah regionsseecerradoSche lera morototoni(morototó) 273, 307Schroth, Götz xv, xvi, 127, 212Schulze, Mark xiv, xx, 81, 91scienti ic research

shared with local people x, xiii, 1, 2, 11, 15, 138

Sciurusspp. (esquilo; quatipuru; squirrel) 36, 57, 76,141, 142, 148, 186, 210, 312

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secondary orest 45, 47, 58, 66, 68, 86, 97, 118, 183,188, 189, 205, 206, 207, 212, 217, 220, 223, 226,227, 234, 237, 296

bene its o plants rom 260, 294

management or ruit yield 259replanting 258, 295see alsocapoeira

Secretariat o Forests and Extractivism (Se e) xiv,xvi, 75

security and diversity 266Sede de Investigación Universitaria (SIU) xvii, xxseed dispersal xxii, 4, 14, 36, 57, 97, 119, 122, 158,

186, 189, 210, 298by bats 151by birds 158, 172by humans 158, 165, 189, 195by water 122, 158, 165

seed dormancy, breakingseegerminationseed harvesting

mahogany 103or re orestation 21, 93

Seed Network o Amazonia 21seed predation

and natural regeneration 59, 98, 108, 195seedlings 288, 290, 291

propagation 46, 59, 89, 98, 107, 182, 203, 211seeds

ungal attacks 126, 127uses or 21, 123, 274açaí 142, 143, 161, 163açaí (solitary) 171andiroba 29, 32, 294bacuri 40buiuçu 274buriti 177, 179cacau 222castanha de porco 225inajá 184, 274 jatobá 274 jupati 274matamatá 274murumuru 274patauá 193piquiá 112rubber tree 123, 274tucumã o Amazonas 208, 209, 274uxi 142-3

Se eseeSecretariat o Forests and Extractivismselenium 49, 53, 200, 286, 287SEMEIA- Rio Branco xiv, xv

Sena Madureira, Acre State, Brazil 272Senador Guiomard, Acre State, Brazil 173Senhorinha o Nanaí 147

SEPLAN, Acre xvseringueira (rubber tree;Hevea brasiliensis) viii, 11,

121-8, 166, 291, 293, 297, 303Serra Silva, Murilo da xv, xvi, xx, 23, 87, 233, 255

SerrasalmusS. niger (black piranha; piranha negra) 125, 316S. rhombeus(red-eyed piranha) 316

Serviço Cerne xiv, xv, xviisettlement policies 287seven-banded [long-nosed] armadillo (tatu pretinho;

tatuí;Dasypus septemcinctus) 115, 310shampoos 56, 74, 179Shanley, Patricia iv, viii, xiv, xv, xvi, xx, 29, 39, 43,

85, 91, 109, 139, 233, 267sharing

orest ruits with wildli e 148, 210scienti ic research and traditional knowledge ix,

x, xiii, 1, 2, 11, 12, 15, 33-5, 138, 161, 207shi ting cultivationseeswidden agricultureships, historical 105shipworms 178shoes 123shoot borer moth caterpillars 108sieves xxiii, 34, 178, 195silicon, dietary 164Silva, Antônio Valente da ivSilva, João Batista da 163

Silva, Lígia Constantina da xvii, 271Silva, Marina viii, xiiiSilva, Natalino xv, xvii, xx, 246silver-beaked tanager (pipira; pipira de máscara;

Ramphocelus carbo) 45, 315Simarouba amara(marupá) 273, 307single species loggingseepredatory loggingSisters o Bom Pastor xviiSIUseeSede de Investigación Universitariasize o ruit treesseegrowth (circum erence);

growth (diameter)and growth (height)slash and burnseeswidden agricultureslingshot test 194sloths

brown-throated three-toed 116, 309giant ground xxii, 269pale-throated three-toed 309southern two-toed 310

Smith, Herbert H. 109snake, the great 267soaps 32, 34, 36, 43, 52, 73, 74, 112, 113, 143, 147,

178, 179, 185, 186, 213, 251, 257, 272recipes 36, 113, 147

‘social species’ 62sodium, dietary 146, 164soil ertility

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Index 347

and legumes 226soils

Amazonian dark earth (terra preta) 203clay 72, 203

sandy 72, 91, 107, 183, 203volcanic 203solidarity, community viiiSolimões river 202solitary açaí (Euterpe precatoria) viii,169-74, 263,

287, 294, 303solitary Brazil nut trees (‘living dead’) 1, 63songs 16, 162

Anthem o the rubber tappers 280Ecological brega 276Ecological logic 275Ecological xote 278The armer sold his land 277The great hinterland: paths 283Hunting 282Una raid to be a woman 279The vulture’s carimbó 281The way we are 282

SOS Amazônia viii, xiv, xv, xvii, xx, 268soups 171Soure, Pará State, Brazil 41soursop (graviola; Annona muricata) 258, 306South America xxiv(map), 91

South American coati (coati, coatimundi; quati;quatimundé; Nasua nasua) 112, 148, 181, 186, 281,311

South American yellow- ooted tortoise (Braziliangiant tortoise; orest tortoise; jabuti branco; jabuti-carumbé; jabuti-do-pé-amarelo;Geochelonedenticulata) 115, 316

southern two-toed sloth (preguiça real;Choroepusdidactylus) 310

Souza, Benedito de xvii, 253soy industry 85, 292spathe xxiii, 161

see also ruit bractsspecies loss 20, 37-8spiritsseeevil spiritsand nature spiritsspiritual bene its o the orest 267spiritual values viiisplinter-resistant wood 94, 105, 112Spondias215,224

S. dulcis(cajarana) 224, 306S. globosa(cajá ; taperebá; taperibá) 224S. mombin(cajá) 224, 306S. mombinx testudinis(cajá-açu) 224, 306

S. testudinis(cajarana; cajá de jaboti) 216, 224,306Spruce, R. 49

squirrels (esquilo; quatipuru;Sciurusspp.) 36, 57,76, 141, 142, 148, 186, 210, 312

stands o trees 50starch 197, 200, 225

stems, uses orburiti 178stingrays 261storytelling 267, 296strainers 131street vendors

açaí juice 23, 172buriti ice treats 177

Strympl, Fábio ivStryphnodendron

S. barbatiman(barbatimão) 86, 305S. guianense(paricazinho) 259

subject themes 299-302sucupira (Bowdichia virgilioides) 258, 308sucuúba (Himatanthus sucuuba) 85, 86, 259, 308sucuúba latex 85sugar 180‘sun oil’ 34Sungkowo, Dadi ivsunscreen 179, 292super oods 164surgical gloves and masks 122, 123Suriname xxiv(map), 2(map), 39, 130, 217

sustainable orestry viii, 297and demand or certi ied orest products 106,262, 263

sustainable harvestingaçaí 263Brazil nuts 293palm hearts 298

sweet amapá (amapá doce;Brosimum parinarioides)87, 88, 289, 305

sweets 161, 177, 179, 204, 222, 251recipes 56, 147, 181

swidden agriculture xxiii, 165, 188, 189, 256regeneration a ter 1, 45, 58, 234, 259, 287see also ires

Swietenia macrophylla(mahogany; mogno) viii, 21,60, 86, 99,101-8, 271, 286, 289, 296, 297, 303

swi t, ork-tailed palm 181, 315Symphonia globuli era(anani) 259

TTabebuia

T. impetiginosa(ipê-roxo; pau d’arco) 2, 5, 11,69,81-90, 258, 291, 295, 303

T. serrati olia(ipê-amarelo) 93, 307tables, circum erence/height 246Táchira, Venezuela 47

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Tachornis squamata(andorinhão do buriti; ork-tailed palm swi t; tesorinha) 181, 315

Taiwan Province o China 59tambaqui (black- inned pacu;Colossoma

macropomum) 125, 261, 316tanagersblue-grey 45, 315palm 45, 315silver-beaked 45, 315

tannins 112Tapajós, Pará State, Brazil 122-3, 127Tapajós National Forest, Pará State, Brazil 36, 288, 298Tapajós river xxiv(map), 126, 223, 260, 295taperibá/taperebá (Spondias globosa) 224tapioca xxiiitapirs 76, 94, 97, 119, 165, 181, 186, 189, 224, 293

Brazilian [lowland] 142, 148, 178, 181, 195, 312Tapirus76, 94, 97, 119, 165, 181, 186, 189, 224, 293

T. terrestris(anta; Brazilian tapir; lowland tapir)142, 148, 178, 181, 195, 312

tappingseeextractionand rubber tappingtapurus 193turus 178Taquandeua, Pará State, Brazil 45Tarauacá, Acre State, Brazil 2(map), 72, 226tatajuba (Bagassa guianensis; Maclura tinctoria) 21,

115, 308

tatu (nine-banded [long-nosed] armadillo; tatubranco; tatu galinha;Dasypus novemcinctus) 115,116, 310

tatu branco (nine-banded [long-nosed] armadillo;tatu; tatu galinha;Dasypus novemcinctus) 115, 116,310

tatu galinha (nine-banded [long-nosed] armadillo;tatu; tatu branco;Dasypus novemcinctus) 115, 116,310

tatu pretinho (seven-banded [long-nosed] armadillo;tatuí;Dasypus septemcinctus) 115, 310

tatuí (seven-banded [long-nosed] armadillo; tatupretinho;Dasypus septemcinctus) 115, 310

Tauaú, Pará State, Brazil 49Tayassu57, 76, 125, 142, 165, 178, 181, 186, 189,

195, 210, 221, 224, 225, 261T. pecari(porcão; queixada; white-lipped

peccary) 97, 119, 148, 181, 195, 312T. tajacu(catitu; collared peccary) 116, 119, 148,

181, 189, 312teas

ayahuasco 270, 290medicinal 29, 32, 52, 68, 74, 91, 142, 161, 163

recipes 69, 83-4, 94storage 84television, access to 267

television programmes 142Tembé, Pará State, Brazil 88, 130, 221Tembé Indians 88tento (Ormosiaspp.) 142, 308

Teresina, Piauí State, Brazil 2(map), 41, 181termites 74terra irme orest xxiii, 13, 30, 31, 47, 66, 72, 86, 129,

139, 165, 170, 171, 183, 205, 217, 218, 220, 223,225, 226, 227, 228, 288

terra preta 203tesorinha (andorinhão do buriti; ork-tailed palm

swi t;Tachornis squamata) 181, 315Tetragastrisspp. 221Theobroma215,222-3, 288, 305-6

T. bicolor 222T. cacao(cacao) 36, 164, 222, 223, 288, 305T. grandi lorum(cupuaçu) 44, 56, 61, 150, 164,

222, 223, 286, 287, 306T. mariae see Herrania mariaeT. microcarpum(cacaurana) 223, 306T. obovatum(cabeça de urubu; cacau de macaco;

cacau do Peru; cacaurana) 223, 306T. speciosum(cacauí) 223, 306

thinning 203Thomas’s [long-tongued] nectar bat (Lonchophylla

thomasi) 117, 311Thraupis

T. episcopus(blue-grey tanager; sanhaçu daamazônia) 45, 315T. palmarum(palm tanager; saí açu pardo;

sanhaçu do coqueiro) 45, 315threatened species

and logging 291, 295see alsoConvention on International Trade inEndangered Species o Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES)

thresholds, orest recovery 5, 242, 293Thyrsodium paraense(amaparana) 259timbersee alsowoodtimber calculations

value 243-4volume 245-6

timber extraction 233alternatives to

andiroba oil extraction 37ruit harvesting 42-3, 143

medicines 100seed harvesting 21, 93, 103

authorizations 246and piquiá consumption 5, 239-40, 242

sustainable levels 242, 260see alsologgingtimber industry 292

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Index 349

timber marketing 288, 295timber prices 295timber sales

community re lections on 236-7, 252-3

contracts 247, 254, 295cost-bene it comparisons 42-3, 93, 143, 145, 242,261

disadvantages o 236-7value calculations 243-4

Timóteo, Eliete xvii, 268tinamou (inhambu; nambu;Crypturellusspp.;

Tinamusspp.) 165, 259, 315Tinamus spp. (inhambu; nambu; tinamou) 165, 259, 315Tinigua National Park, Colombia 296Tinker Foundation ivtipiti xxiii, 34, 178, 195titica (cipó titica; nibbi;Heteropsis lexuosa) 129-38,

288, 289; 293, 294, 297, 303tobacco pouches 178Tocantins river xxiv(map), 160, 192, 208, 275Tocantins State, Brazil 2(map), 251, 286toilet paper 178Tomé-Açu, Pará State, Brazil 2(map), 73, 83, 244tools, tapping 75, 87tortoises 76, 181, 221, 224, 258

red- ooted 315South American yellow- ooted 115, 316

toucans 165, 172white-throated [Cuvier’s] 195, 315tourism 289Tovomitaspp. (bacuri da várzea) 216, 305toxic barks 95toys 161, 177, 178, 185traditional healers vtraditional knowledge

o orest trees 207loss o 33, 296shared with scienti ic researchers x, xiii, 1, 2, 12,

15, 33-5, 138, 161, 207see alsoindigenous peoples

train seats 133Transcametá, Pará State, Brazil 118transport o orest products 250

costs 17Trattinnickiaspp. 221tree-planting

on degraded land 37, 62a ter ires 107by loggers 21, 93in secondary orest 258

see alsoagro orestry managementand re orestationtrees by land areaseedensity

Trinidad and Tobago xxiv(map), 223tripwires, dangers o using 148Trombetas, Amazonas State, Brazil 2(map), 50, 62trunks, tree

measurement xxii, 13see alsopalm trunkstucandeira ant (Paraponeraspp.) 138tucano grande de papo branco (Cuvier’s toucan; white-

throated toucan; Ramphastos tucanus) 195, 315tucumã

species di erences 209tucumã-í ( Astrocaryum acaule) 209, 212, 308tucumã o Amazonas (jabarana; Astrocaryum

aculeatum; A. tucuma) 142, 190,205-13, 287, 288,290, 295, 303

tucumã do Pará ( Astrocaryum vulgare) 209, 308tucupi xxiiiTucuruí, Pará State, Brazil 60tu ted capuchin (black-capped capuchin; brown

capuchin; macaco prego;Cebus apella) 57, 165,310

Tupinambá Indians 178turtles 165, 261tyres 122, 123, 126, 280

UUAGseeFrench Guiana, University o

UAMseeMadrid, Independent University o Ucayali, Peru 2(map), 216, 224uchi (uxi;Endopleura uchi) 2, 11, 12, 20, 44, 116,

119,139-52, 216, 258, 287, 291, 296, 303ucuúba (Virola michelii) 85, 166, 308UdeAseeAntioquia, University o UF seeFlorida, University o UFAC seeAcre, Federal University o UFPA seePará, Federal University o UFRAseeAmazonia, Federal Rural University o UFRJseeRio de Janeiro, Federal University o Uhl, Chris 162umarí (Poraquiebaspp.) 216, 308UnBseeBrasília, Federal University o Uncaria289, 290, 292

U. guianensis(cat’s claw; jupindá; unha-de-gato)65-70, 285, 303

U. tomentosa(cat’s claw; jupindá; unha-de-gato)65-70, 285, 303

UNESPseeSão Paulo State Universityungurahua (Oenocarpus batauasubsp.bataua) 292unha-de-gato (cat’s claw; jupindá;Uncaria guianensis; U. tomentosa) 65-70, 285, 289, 290, 292,

303União Vegetal 270UNICAMPseeCampinas, University o

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United KingdomRoyal Botanic Gardens, Kew 126

United States o AmericaAtlantic City Boardwalk 81

Florida 248-9imports 297açaí 164andiroba oil 32Brazil nuts 51cat’s claw 67copaíba oil 73ipê-roxo bark (pau d’arco) 81ipê-roxo timber 90 jatobá timber 99-100mahogany timber 104vegetable leather 125

New York Botanical Garden (NYBG) xv, xvi,xvii, xviii, xx

universitiesBrazil

Acre (UFAC) xiv, xv, xvi, xviiiBrasília (UnB) 179Campinas (UNICAMP) xviiFederal Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ) 179Federal Rural Amazonia (UFRA) xviPará (UFPA) xiv, xvi, 33, 52, 95São Paulo State (UNESP) xiv, xix

ColombiaAntioquia (UdeA) xvii, xxFrench Guiana (UAG) 52Germany

Freiburg xixSpain

Madrid (UAM) xviiUSA

Cali ornia State (CSU), Stanislaus xiv, xxFlorida (UF) xiv, xvii, xix, xxIndiana (IU) xiv, xviiiOregon State (OSU) xivYale xiv, xix

urban areasayahuasca consumption in 270

orest product consumption in 2, 39, 167, 293raising awareness o native plants in 9, 23

uricuri (aricuri; Attalea phalerata) 183, 190, 308urucu (annatto;Bixa orellana) 29, 32, 308USAID ivuses o orest products by tree parts 14

barkandiroba 29, 32

Brazil nut 52cat’s claw 68, 69copaíba 73, 74

ipê-roxo 81, 83-4 jatobá 91, 94uxi 139, 142

lowers

piquiá 112rondsinajá 183, 185

ruit 14açaí 161açaí (solitary) 171bacuri 41, 43Brazil nut 52buriti 177, 179, 180, 181cacau 222cajá de jaboti 224inajá 185 jatobá 94patauá 193piquiá 112pupunha 199, 204tucumã o Amazonas 209uxi 142

ruit bractsinajá 185

ruit stalksaçaí 161inajá 185

patauá 193latexamapá 260bacuri 43rubber tree 122, 123

leavesaçaí 161açaí (solitary) 171buriti 178cat’s claw 68 jatobá 94patauá 193tucumã o Amazonas 209

nutsBrazil nut 52, 274

oilsandiroba 23, 29, 32, 237babassu 272bacuri 43Brazil nut 52buriti 178, 179, 292copaíba 71, 74patauá 193

piquiá 112pupunha 199uxi 142

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Index 351

palm heartsaçaí 161, 163açaí (solitary) 171inajá 185

patauá 193pupunha 199palm trunks

açaí 161açaí (solitary) 171buriti 175, 178, 180patauá 193pupunha 203tucumã o Amazonas 209

resin jatobá 94

rindbacuri 44piquiá 112

rootsaçaí 161açaí (solitary) 171cat’s claw 68titica 129, 131, 134

sapburiti 180

seeds 21, 123, 274açaí 142, 143, 161, 163

açaí (solitary) 171andiroba 29, 32, 294bacuri 40buiuçu 274buriti 177, 179cacau 222inajá 184, 274 jatobá 274 jupati 274matamatá 274murumuru 274patauá 193piquiá 112rubber tree 123, 274tucumã o Amazonas 208, 209, 274uxi 142-3

stemsburiti 178

vines 166cat’s claw 68titica 129, 131, 134, 261

wood 20amapá 260

andiroba 29, 32bacuri 43Brazil nut 52

copaíba 74ipê-roxo 81, 83 jatobá 94mahogany 105, 273

piquiá 111, 112pupunha 197, 199uxi 142, 149

see alsomedicinal uses o orest productsand recipes

uxi (uchi;Endopleura uchi) 2, 11, 12, 20, 44, 116,119,139-52, 216, 240-1, 7, 291, 296, 303

uxi ruitconsumption 143, 144, 239

uxi oil 146extraction 147uses 142

uxi powder 141, 142uxirana (Sacoglottisspp.) 142, 274, 308

VVALE xiv, xvivaluing the orest

di ering perspectives 233-54see alsoeconomic value o orest productsand invisible bene its rom orest products

van Leeuwen, Johannes xv, xvi, xx, 59, 205Vanjoca ( rom Capim Community) xvii

variations in productivitysame-species trees 51, 72, 92, 111, 140, 250, 290varnishes 74, 94, 136várzea (seasonally/tidally looded orest) xxiii, 30,

31, 47, 66, 158, 165, 175, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220,224, 226, 227, 282

várzea, roçados de ( loodplain gardens) 168veado branco (grey brocket deer;Mazama gouazoubira) 119, 172, 181, 311

veado capoeira (red brocket deer; veado mateiro;veado pardo; veado vermelho;Mazamaamericana) 115, 116, 119, 172, 181, 311

veado mateiroseeveado capoeiraveado pardoseeveado capoeiraveado vermelhoseeveado capoeiravegetable leather 123, 125vegetable proteinseeBrazil nutsVenezuela xxiii, xxiv(map), 2(map), 39, 49, 65, 102,

122, 129, 158, 191, 197, 204, 216, 223, 224, 225, 227Barinas 47Táchira 47

Verissimo, Aldaberto xiiiveronica (Dalbergia monetaria; D. subcymosa) 69,

86, 308Ver-o-Peso market, Belém 41, 67, 73, 92, 111, 141,157, 184, 193

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veterinary uses o orest products 29, 33, 43, 73, 75Vicente, Carlos xiiiVieira, Ima 234villagersseeindigenous peoplesand local people

vines 89, 108, 166, 251, 259cat’s clawbark 66production times 70uses 68yield 66

titicauses 129, 131, 134, 261yield 131, 136

see alsogrowth (length)Virola michelii(ucuúba) 85, 166, 308Viseu, Pará State, Brazil 140vitamins

A 4, 9, 164, 179, 200, 209, 290B 9, 54, 146, 164C 9, 44, 95, 146, 164E 146

Vogt, Nathan xiv, xx, 157volume calculations, timber 245-6vultures 281

WWadt, Lúcia Helena de Oliveira xiv, xx, 49

Waimiri Atroari Indians 292Waldho , Philippe xvi, 19Wallace, Richard xiv, 129warningsseehealth and sa ety cautionswater

rom cat’s claw 68pollution 278puri ication by Brazil nut charcoal 52quality 4seed dispersal by 158, 165

watermelon 164waterproo abrics 123water-resistant wood 112weaving 193wedding rituals 178weeds

role in ethnopharmacology 296weevils

pollination by 198whistling the wind and ruit 145white-bellied parrot (marianinha de cabeça amarela;

Pionites leucogaster ) 45, 314white-bellied spider monkey (coatá; long-haired

spider monkey; macaco aranha; Ateles belzebuth)195, 309

white-eyed conure (periquitão maracanã; white-eyed parakeet; Aratinga leucophthalma) 45, 313

white-eyed parakeet (periquitão maracanã; white-eyed conure; Aratinga leucophthalma) 45, 313

white-lipped peccary (porcão; queixada;Tayassu pecari) 97, 119, 148, 181, 195, 312white-throated toucan (Cuvier’s toucan; tucano

grande de papo branco;Ramphastos tucanus) 195,315

WHRCseeThe Woods Hole Research CentreWickham, Henry 126wild pupunha (chica-chica; pupunha brava; Aiphanes aculeata) 204, 308

wildli e 291amphibians 57, 316birds 293, 297, 312-15

ishes 125, 165, 181, 261, 276, 278, 316ruit in diet xxiv, 14, 36, 45, 57, 76, 97, 109, 112,

115-16, 119, 125, 142, 148, 165, 172, 178,181, 183, 186, 195, 202, 210, 224

insects 29, 33, 36, 45, 57, 58, 63, 72, 99, 138,142, 149, 198, 294

mammals 57, 288, 309-12reptiles 76, 115, 165, 261, 315-16see alsogameand under species

wildli e callsand music 274

wildli e conservation 296wildli e corridors 43, 188, 256wildli e diversity 97wildli e habitats 97wildli e management 286wind damage 102, 241women 18

andiroba oil businesses 36, 37babassu breakers 272, 285business diversi ication 251income or 36, 137, 177, 251, 271participation in orest management 265, 271-2,

279patauá oil extraction 192respect or 36role o viiititica vine management 135, 136-7, 288see alsogender di erences

women’s associations 135, 136, 271, 288wood 259

rom downed treescommunity uses 260

insect-resistance 74

rot-resistance 81, 112splinter-resistance 94, 105, 112

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Index 353

uses or 20andiroba 29, 32amapá 260bacuri 43

Brazil nut 52copaíba 74ipê-roxo 81, 83 jatobá 94mahogany 105, 273piquiá 111, 112pupunha 197, 199uxi 142, 149

water-resistance 112see alsotimber

The Woods Hole Research Centre (WHRC) iv, xvi,xvii, xviii, xix

Woods & Wayside International (WWI) iv, xiv, xv,xvi, xx

woodsmenseemateirosworker’s rights 262, 263workshops 16, 18, 20

cra ts 136urniture-making 260-1

instrument-making 273, 274World Agro orestry Centre (ICRAF) xviiwormseed (mastruz;Chenopodium ambrosioides)

86, 307

Wunder, Sven xvWWIseeWoods & Wayside International

XXapuri, Acre State, Brazil 2(map), 123, 285, 292, 297xexéu (yellow-rumped cacique;Cacicus cela) 45, 313Xingu river xxiv(map), 228 Xylocopaspp. 57

YYale University, USA xiv, xixyellow-rumped cacique (xexéu;Cacicus cela) 45, 313yieldsseeproductivity

ZZé, Senhor (logger) 237Zenaide, Dona 272zinc, dietary 54zoological parks

Acre, Brazil 78

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1. Flavours and ragrances o plant origin (1995)

2. Gum naval stores: turpentine and rosin rom pine resin (1995)

3. Report o the International Expert Consultation on Non-Wood Forest Products (1995)

4. Natural colourants and dyestufs (1995)

5. Edible nuts (1995)

6. Gums, resins and latexes o plant origin (1995)

7. Non-wood orest products or rural income and sustainable orestry (1995)

8. Trade restrictions afecting international trade in non-wood orest products (1995)

9. Domestication and commercialization o non-timber orest productsin agro orestry systems (1996)

10. Tropical palms (1998)

11. Medicinal plants or orest conservation and health care (1997)

12. Non-wood orest products rom coni ers (1998)

13. Resource assessment o non-wood orest productsExperience and biometric principles (2001)

14. Rattan – Current research issues and prospects or conservation and sustainabledevelopment (2002)

15. Non-wood orest products rom temperate broad-leaved trees (2002)

16. Rattan glossary and Compendium glossary with emphasis on A rica (2004)

17. Wild edible ungi – A global overview o their use and importance to people (2004)

18. World bamboo resources – A thematic study prepared in the ramework o the GlobalForest Resources Assessment 2005 (2007)

19. Bees and their role in orest livelihoods – A guide to the services provided by bees andthe sustainable harvesting processing and marketing o their products (2009)

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