I CONTROL NUMBER 2. SUBJECT CLASS11CATION (695)BIBILIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET PN-AAH-474 SE00-0000-G100

3. i "LE ANl) SUITITFLE (240)

An annotated bibliography of the sociology and political economy of Somalia, Sudan,and Tanzania

4. I'lRSONAL AUTHORS (100)

Fleuret, Patrick; Jama, M. A.; Laitin, David; Murdock, M. S.; Thotas, G. L.

5. CORPORATE AUTHORS (101)

Inst, for Development Anthropology

6. DOCUMENT DATE (110) 7. NUMBER OF PAGES (120) 8. ARC NUMBER (170)

1979 17p. _ AFRO16.301.F616

9. REFERENCE ORGANIZATION (130)

IDA10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES (500)

11. ABSTRACT (950)

12. DESCRIPTORS (920) 13. PROJECT NUMBER (150)

Bibliographies

Scciology

Economic development 14. CONTRACT NO.(140) 15. CONTRACT

Social sciences TYPE (140)

Sudan AID/afr-C-1594

Somalia 16. TYPE OF DOCUMENT (160)

Tanzania 58

AID 590-7 (10-79)

INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT ANTHROPOLOGY, INC.

c : P. 0. Box 45, Westview Station

f7 Binyhaiton, New York 13905

AN AINOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE SOCIOLOGY AND

POLITICAL EC)NOMY OF SOMALIA, SUDAN, AND

TANZANIA

prepared with the assistance of

Patrick FleuretMohamud A. JamaDavid LaitinMuneera Salem MurdockGarry L. Thomas

Contract No. AID/afr-C-1504

June 1979

This bibliography is prepared as a guide, to assist development officers;and contractor personnel in the identification, design, implementation,and assessment of socially sound programs and projects which betterbenefit rural low income populations in Somalia, Sudan, afid Tanzania,and are based on their needs, interests, and participation. It is notcomprehensive. It stresses monographic material which is widely avail-able, and which could form the basis of working libraries for AIDmissions. It ignores most of the vast periodical literature and itomits documents prepared specifically for AID under the assumption thatthese are well-known and widely distributed in the region or areeasily available from the AID Reference Center.

SO MAL I A

Tile bulk of the expatriate Somali literature is in Italian and French. A generabibliograpihy by I'ohadw ed Khalif Salad, Somalia: a Biblioraphical Survey (Wesport, CNGreenwood Press., 1977) is a g.od source of technical information - -e., geolog.y, soil!minerals, c IirwLate). There is a very useful, although not anrntated, bib] iography inCas tagno (197b), and in Lewis (1909), the latter with hrief annotations. Much relevaimateriatl will be found in Harold G. Marcus The Modern History of Ethiooia and the Hoiof Africa: a Select and Annotated Bibliograp-i-(S-tafof,-CA: Hoover Insti tutionPress -1 127- An early listing of documents was compiled by Helen F. Conover, OfficiiPublications of Sonaliland, 1941-1959 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Lihrary of Congress,1960). In addition to such continent-wide journals as Africa and the Journal of

Modern African Studies, a good source is Horn of Africa Journal, published quarterly(P. 0 Box 803, Summit, NJ 07901.

Ali Issa Abdi

1978 Comnercial Banks and Economic Development. New York: Praeger.

Limited but useful accounts of Somali commercial bank practices.

Andrzejewski, B. W. and I. M. Lewis, eds.1964 Somal i Poetry, an Introduction. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Castagno, Margaret1975 Historical Dictionary of Somalia. African Historical Dictionaries, No. 6.

,letuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.

An alphabetic listing of persons, places, concepts, things, and events inSomalia. Sample: "DANDARAWIYA. A small tariga, a branch of the Ahmadiya,with a few agricultural settlements in the north. The Dandarawiya is morepuritanical in its religious observances than the Ahmadiya, Qadariya,Rifaiya, or Salihiya." Good bibliography.

Cerulli, Enrico1957, 1959, 1964 Somalia: Scritti vari editi ed inediti. Rome: Istituto Poli-

grafico dello Stato P.V.

This is the major source of historical and sociological information forthe Southern region of Somalia, complementing Marlowe's work in CentralSomalia, and Lewis' in the North.

Decraene, Philippe1977a "Notes sur la voie socialiste somalienne." evue Francaise d'Etudes Politiq

Africaines, May.

1977b L'exp6rience socialiste sonalienne. Paris: Berger-Levrault.

Correspondent for Le Monde and editor-in-chief of Revue Francaise d'EtudesPolitiques Africaines, Decraene has authored the best of the'journalisticaccounts of Soma'i development efforts under military/socialist rule.

Essa Mahanud Y.1972 Low-cost Housing in Somalia: a Study of Traditional Housing in Somalia and

a Proposal for a New Housing Concept. Copenhagen.

Food and AgrictIitur, Organization1968 Aqricultural and Water S urveyj Somalia. Vol. 6, Social and Economic

Aspects of Development. Rome: FAO/UNDP.

A report on sociologicai factors influencing agricultural development.

Ganzglass, Martin R.1971 The Penal Code of the Somali Democratic Republic: with Cases, Cownmentary,

and Examples. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

International Monetary Fund1976 Somalia: Recent Economic Developments. Washington, D. C.: IMF.

Information on domestic production during the early 1970s, prices, employmeyand earnings, public finance, development planning, money and banking,balance of payments, and exchange and trade. There are the usual usefulIMF tables of information, plus brief narrative sections on resettlementefforts and the structure of the public sector. Such material goesrapidly out-of-date, yet there is a recurrent temptation to use it fautede mieux.

Interrational Labour Office1977 Economic Transformation in a Socialist Framework: an Employment and Basic

Needs Oriented Development Strategy for Somalia. Addis Ababa: ILO.

The most useful of the studies by international organizations, for itattempts to understand Somalia ecenomy and social organization within thecontext of the development posture seltcted by t'ie government. "Althoughthe objective of maximisation of proluctive employrment is mentioned in theDevelopment Programme in a rather general way, th. Government has beenkeenly alive to the problem and is perhaps one Pr the very few countries inAfrica which have taken concerted measures to reduce, if not wipe out,unemployment and under-employment-" There is an interesting technicalpaper by geographer Jeremy Swift on nomadic pastoralism, and other papersdealing with the livestock "sector", including a discussion of pastoral cooleratives.

Karp, Mark1960 The Economics of Trusteeship in So,,alia. Boston: Boston University Press.

A now out-of-date discussion of the economics of bananas and pastoralismin southern Somalia during the 1950s. Contains useful bibliographic foot-notes dealing with economic developments.

Konczacki, Z. A.1973 The Economics of Pastoralism: a Case Study of Sub-Saharan Africa. London:

Frank Cass.

With good intentions but flawed science, the author looks for a solution tothe "crisis" of pastoralism on the semi-arid range in three African regionsSomalia, Botswana, and the Sahel. The author misses the dynamism ofpastoral ecology, the optimizing behavior of herdsmen which has been pointeiout in almost every modern field-based study. Because of his mobility, hethe herdsman shuns toe accumulation of material goods. "As a consequenceof this, his cultural development is restricted and his way of life remainslargely unchanged."

Laitin, David1977 Politics, Language and Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

A discussion of the implementation of language reform in Somalia and itsimplications for development.

1976 "The political economy of military rule in Somalia," Journal of ModernAfrican Studies, September.

A comparison of civilian and military regimes in their attempts to fulfilldevelopment goals. Aggregate data are used; no microanalyses of developmentprojects are included.

Laurence, Margaret

1965 The Prophet's Camel Bell. London: Macmillan & Co. Ltd.

1964 New Wind in a Dry Land. New York: Knopf.

A Canadian woman describes her experiences as the wife of an engineer ondevelopment projects in Somalia's northern areas in the 1950s. A sensitiveand sympathetic appraisal of Somali ethos.

lewis, loan M.

1975 Abaar: the Somali Drought. London: International African Institute.

Good discussion of the problem and some attempted solutions.

1969 Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho. London: InternationAfrican Institute.

Ethnographic survey, originally published in 1955, reissued with a new prefain which Lewis wrote: "...there can be few countries where the foreignresearcher is more welcome or given greater freedom to carry out his work...The material is presented in the outline form standard in all volumes ofthe Ethnographic Survey of Africa. There is a useful bibliography withbrief annotations.

1965 The Modern History of Somaliland: from Nation to State. London: Weidenfeland Nicolson.

This is a fine short introduction to Somali history, which adds informationfrom the oral tradition to that from the documentary sources to achieve apenetrating analysis. The Somalis were divided among three European powers,but remained culturally a single nation. Their post-colonial history, focuson finding a single state for its people, reverses that of other Africanstates, whose major internal problem is achieving nationhood out of a congeries of different peoples. The book is now out-of-date, but it remains usefufor the colonial and immediately post-colonial periods.

1962 Marriage and the Family in Northern Somaliland. East African Studies No. IEKampala: East African Institute of Social Research.

A brief technical study of the relationships between lineage incorporation cdivorce, in a society which has both high rates of marital instability andpatrilineal descent. A useful glimpse not only of Somali kinship, but alsowhat social anthropologists write about for each other.

Lewis, I. M. (continued)1961 A Pastoral Democracy: a Study of Pastoralism and Poli tics anona the Northe

Somali of the Horn of Africa. New York: Oxford University Press for International African Institute.

Based on 20 nonths of intensive field research during the ,mid 1950s, this ia now classic study of pastoral social and political organization, howcompetition between clans "over water and grazing rights is resolved. Lewisaralyzes both the nomadic Dulbahante and the farming Jibriil Abokor. Despithe -esearch being over 20 years old, it remains must reading on bothSomali and pastoral bibliographies.

Marlowe, David H.1963 The Galjaal Barsana of Central Somalia: a Study of the Relationship betwee

Socio-Political Change, Inter and Intra Group Conflict and Political andSocial Behavior. Originally offered as a doctoral thesis at Harvard University, and subsequently as a final report under Contract AMSDA 49-007-MD 96CHuman Research and Resources Division, Office of the Surgeon General, UniteStates Army.

Like Lewis's work Further north, this study focuses on lineage organizatiorand politics among Somali during the late 1950s. A very worthwhile study,it may be difficult to obtain. A copy may be consulted in the Institutefor Development Anthropology library and, of course, at Harvard.

Muuse Galaal and B. W. Andrzejewski1956 Hikmaad Somaali. London: Oxford University Press.

Nurudin Faarah

1970 From a Crooked Rib. London.

An insightful novel about Somalia by a Somali.

Travis, William4967 The Voice of the Turtle. London.

A somewhat fictionalized account of the frustrations and joys of workingwith Somalis. Travis was engaged in a turtle canning project under privatesponsorship during the early independence years.

Trimingham, J. Spencer1952 Islam in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press.

Includes some material on the history of Islam in Somalia.

SUDAN

The Sudan is an area of classic anthropoligical investigation. The Britishcolonial rulers, desiring to learn something ibout the culture of the peoplethey were ruling, encouraged anthropological fieldwork in the Sudan especiallyin the southern region; see Professors C.G. Seligian and B.Z. Seligmnin, PaqanTribes of the Nilotic Sudan, 1932, and the works of E.E. Evans-Pritchard, TheNuLLer 1940, Kinship and Marriage Among the Nuer 1951, and Nuer Religion 1956.It is said that the field of political anthropology began in the Sudan withEvans-Pritchard's studies of the Nuer. Evans-.Pritchard argued that the Nuer,qithout. stratification and elaborate political mechanisms, maintained social con-trol through the operation of their segmentary lineage system.

The Sudan itself has an active tradition of publishing. Sudan Notes andRecords, founded in 1918 is ne of the most respected journals in Africa. Oncealmost exclusively dominated by British scholars it is now almost totally Sudanesein both editorship and authorship. Other publications in the Sudan are, SudanJournal of Development Research published biannually by the Economic and SocialResearch Council and Sudan Journal of Economic and Social Studies; monographseries published b2! Development Studies and Research Centre of the Faculty ofEconomics a,,j Social Studies at the University of Khartoum; seminar series pub-lished by the Institute of African and Asian Studies also at the University.

The following bibliography is only of books and essays in books that appearedafter 1960.

Ahmed, Abdel-Ghaffar M.1974 Shaykhs and Followers: Political Sturggle in the Rufa'a al-Hci Nazirate

in the Sudan. Khartoum: Khartoum University Press.

Dr. Ahmed is a Sudanese social anthropologist who has been very activein development programs. The Study is the result of fieldwork carriedout among the Rufa'a al-Hoi in the southern Gezira for a period of sixmonths in 1969 and six weeks in 1971. The author gives a "descriptiveanalysis" of the struggle for political power in the Rufa'a al-Hoi NazirateNazirate politics are viewed in ter'ms of three arenas: the tent clusterand the camp, the village, and the Rural Council. The arenas are por-trayed as hierachical and interdependent. Prizes gained in one arenaare used in competition in other arenas.

1973 "Tribal and Sedentary Elites: A Bridge Between Two Communities," inCynthia Nelson, ed., The Desert and the Sown: Nomads in the WiderSociety. Berkeley: Institute of International-trudies, University ofCalifornia.

An essay on the relationship between nomads and sedentary populationsin the Funj area in the southern part of the Gezira. The relationshipis viewed in a transactional framework: the two groups are engaged ina symbiotic relationship where they exchaige goods and perform servicesfor each other. The role of the elite as middlemen is emphasized.

Asad, Talal1970 The Kababish Arabs: Power, Authority and Consent in a Nomadic Tribe.

New York: Praeger Publishers.

A detailed and scphisticated study of the socio-political organizationof the Kababish pastoralists of northern Kordofan. The focus oV thebook is the relationship between the Kababish rulers arid their subjects.Asad introduces the topic by discussing the authority of the Kababishhousehold head over his animals and those of his wife and youngerchildren. Here Asad stresses the role of individual choice as itrelates to herd management. The discussion of authority of the house-hold heads serves as an excellent introduction to the main theme of thebook: the political authority and dominance of a small elite groupever the rest of the Kababish and the structural basis for that domi-nance.

Barclay, Harold B.1963 Buurri al Lamaab. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

An ethnography of Buurri al Lamaab, a suburban village near Khartoum.Barclay provides information about things such as the political organiza-tion of the village, economy, religion, family and kinship grouping,etc. The book is not strong in internal cohesion but nevertheless isuseful for' social anthropologists and development planners who areinterested in the area.

Barnett, Tony1977 The Gezira Scheme: An Illus;jn of Development. London: Frank Cass.

A study of the Gezira Scheme, a large cotton production, intensiveirrigation scheme in the Gezira between the White and the Blue Nile inCentral Sudan. Barnett examines the effects on the tenants of theincorporation ,n the Scheme, which was established during the Condomii-nium Period and corntinues to the present day, in a world capitalisteconomy. Barnett concludes that the tenants are excluded from effec-tive political control and are becoming more and more in debt. Thereason is that labor requirements on tenancies exceed family laboravailable and the tenant is almost always forc d to hire labor. Sincethis labor is relatively expensive the tenant has to enter into debtto pay for it. Only tenants with access to other resources, eithercapital or kinship ties, might be able to escape debt. Barnett arguesthat what is happening in the Gezira Scheme is an example of underdevel-opment rather than development.

Barth, Fredrik1967 'Human Resources: Social and Cultural Features of the Jebel Marra

Project Area." Department of Social Anthropology, University of Bergen.Mirieo.

This repcrt was prepared for FAO as part of a joint study by a groupof experts. Although the report itself might not be easily accessible.,it has been included in this bibliography since it reappears in partsin R. Firth, ed., Themes in Economic Anthropology, London, 1967, underthe title "Economic Spheres in Darfur." The group of experts consistedof social aothropologists, hydrologists, geologists, and agronomists,and worked over a period of five years during which they made an in-ventory of the total resources of the area. The above report dealswith human resources. Barth shows how agricultural production isorganized in the area and how these forms of production are embeddedin the wider social context of Fur villages. He argues that for suc-cussful social change to occur in the area, the present social organiza-tion which enables the population to sustain themselves must first bereplaced by another which is functionally equivalent.

Buxton, J.C.1964 Chiefs and Strangers: A Study of Political Assimilation Among the

Mandari. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

A historical reconstruction of the political structure of the Mndariof southern Su'an. Buxton focuses on clientship, a very importantinstitution in the Mandari political s.stem. It allows a chief tostrengthen his power by entering into a client relationship with a"strong" outsider. The relationship functiuns to the mutual advantageof both parties since the host offers his clients protection and theclients serve to strengthen the host's political power.

Cunnison, Ian1966 Baggara Arabs: Power and the Lineage in a Sudanese Nomad Tribe.

London: Oxford University Press.

This study based on a field research between 1952 and 1955 examines thesocial organization of the Humr, a section of the Baggara Arabs ofsouthwest Kordofan. Cunnison discusses how the H-umr political organiza-tion changed from an agnatic segmentary lineage system in the 19thcentury to a hierachical administrative system of Nazirs, Omdas andSheikhs (imposed over the segmentary lineage system) in the Condominiumperiod. Although the focus of the book is political, Cunnison providesexcellent information about the pastoral way of life of the Humr.

Cunnison, I. and W.R. James, eds.1972 Essays in Sudan Ethnography. London: Hurst.

A collection of essays by a dozen social anthropologists on Sudanethnography. The essays cover a wide range of topics and areas ipthe Sudan: blood'and money and vengence among the Baggara in south-western Kordofan (Cunnison), the scructural basis for the politicalstratification among the Kababish of northern Kordofan (Asad), sedentari-zation not necessarily as prefering the sedentary ideology but as astrategic choice based on different economic and ecologic alterna-tives among the Rura'a al-Hoi in the southern part of the Gezira inthe Blue Nile Province (Ahmed), and others.

Dafalla, Hasan1975 The Nubian Exodus. Khartoum: Khartoum University Press.

A detailed narration of a massive planned resettlement of 50,000Sudanese Nubians who had to be moved from Wadi Halfa as a result ofthe construction of the Aswan High Dam and resettled in the Khashm elGirba area in eastern Sudan. The book is divided into two parts; thefirst describes the Nubian homeland, their traditions and their economy.The second part deals with the emigration itself. Dafalla was theCommissioner of Wadi Halfa and later Commissioner in charge of emigra-tion and lived in Wadi Halfa for six years.

Deng, Francis Mading1972 The Dinka of the Sudan. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

A case study written by Francis Deng, son of the late Paramount Chiefof the Ngok Dinka, a diplomat, who holds a Doctrate in Law from YaleUniversity and is an anthropologist. The book is "a portrait of Dinkalife from birth to death; in tradition and in transition." Deng dis-cusses the north-south conflict not only as a political one betweennorth and south but also as ethnic between Arabic north and BlackAfrican south, and as religious between Islam and Christianity.

1971 Tradition and Modernization: A Challenge for Law Among the Dinka ofthe Sudan. New Haven: Yale University Press.

A study of change and continuity among the Ngok Dinka with emphasis on"traditional" law and outside pressures to "modernize" it. Deng regardslaw as an instrument of change in Dinka society.

1972 The Dinka Through Their Songs. London: Oxford University Press.

'A comprehensive coverage of Dinka songs (texts and translations) with asociological introduction of about one quarter of the book."

Deng, Francis Mading1974 Dinka Folktales: African Stories from the Sudan. New York: Africana.

A collection of 21 Dinka folktales with an analysis of the way "Dinkainstitutions and Vdlues" are reflected in them.

1978 Africans of Two Worlds: The Dinka in Afro-Arab Sudan. New Haven: YaleUniversity Press.

Haaland, Gunnar1969 "Economic Determinants in Ethnic Processes," in Frederik Barth, ed.,

Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.6

An essay which describes and analyzes processes involved in ethnicboundary maintenance between two major ethnic groups in western Sudan,the sedentary hoe cultivator Fur and the cattle nomads Baggara.Haalanid argues that the identities of Fur/Baggara are associated withdifferent economic specialization and different value standards. AFur who practices cattle nomadism is faced with organizational pro-blems which the Fur pattern of individual households adapted to huecultivation, proves inadequate. Also the Fur value standards becomevery difficult to meet. Thus Haaland &rgues that the nomadizatior, ofsedentary Fur implies a change of ethnic identity; the nomadic Furbecome Baggara.

Hoyle, Steve1977 "The Khashm el Girba Agricultural Scheme: An Example of an Attempt

to Settle Nomads," in Phil O'Keefe and Ben Wisner, eds., Landuseand Development. London: International African Institute.

In this paper Hoyle examines the government's attempts to settle nomadson the New Halfa Agricultural Scheme. Although the government regardsthe Scheme as a "Failure" where it attempts to settle nomads since theextent of settlement on the Scheme is slightly below 50% of projectedfigure, Hoyle argues that the same evidence could be interpreted asshowing that the Scheme does serve some economic purpose for theinhabitants of the area. The Scheme did not function as an alterna-tive source of income to the nomadic population but proved very impor-tant as a supplementary one. The present results could have been pre-dicted had the government regarded the Scheme in the wider contextinstead of as an entity in itself.

Mohammed, Abbas1973 "The Nomadic and the Sedentary: Polar Complentaries--Not Polar Opposites,"

in Cynthia Nelson, ed., The Desert and the Sown: Nomads in the WiderSociety. Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University ofCalifornia.

An essay which challenges the popular view that the relationship betweenpastoral nomads and their sedentary neighbors is one of "polar opposition."The author argues for the view that the relationship is rather one of"polar complementarity."

Murdock, Muneera Salem1979 The Impact of Aqricultural Development on a Pastoral Society: The

Shukriya of the Eastern Sudan. Preface by Prufessor Michael M. Horowitz.Mimeo. [Available from AID Reference Center].

This study is the result of three months fieldwork among the Shukriyaof the Butana in eastern Sudan. The author examines the effect of agri-cultural development schemes on pastoral societies. She demonstrateshow the benefits of scheme tenancies have been unequally distributed,both between the major ethnic units involved--Halfawis resettled fromWadi Halfa, and the indigenous pastoral Shukriya and related Arabic-speaking herders--and within these units. She shows that while tradi-tional elites benefited disproportionately elite women may actually havelost ground.

SrbO, Gunnar M.1977 How to Survive Development: The Story of New Halfa. Khartoum: Devel-

opment Studies and Research Centre, Faculty of Economics and SocialStudies, University of Khartoum. Monograph No. 6.

In this study Srbo examines the phenomenon of "off-scheme interests"among the tenants of the New Halfa Agricultural Scheme. Although thegovernment attributes the "failure" to the poor performance of thetenants who spend as little time a, possible on the Scheme in favor oftheir "off-scheme interests", S6rbO argues that it is the pursuit ofthese interests which enables the Scheme to continue to exist, sinceit enables the tenants not to rely on the Scheme for all their incomebut only for part of it.

1977b "Nomads of the Scheme--A Study of Irrigation Agriculture and Pastoralismin Eastern Sudan," in Phil O'Keefe and Ben Wisner, eds., Landuse andDevelopment. London: International African Institute.

An essay on the reaction of the Shukriya tribes in eastern Sudan to theSudanese government's attempts to sedentarize them. The author statesthat although the Shukriya participated in the agricultural scheme,they continued to pursue their traditional activities of herding ancdrainfed sorghum cultivation. This continued interest in livestock isviewed as an insurance against the risks of modern agriculture.

TANZAN IA

The following is a brief, annotated social science bibliography on Tanzania.Almost all of the books have been published since 1970, although for several,the field research was done in the late 1960's. No articles are included, ex-cept for those published in edited collections, the feeling being that writingspublished in book form are generally more accessible to someone interested irbuilding a library collection. Much of the most significant recent field re-search has been done by non-Americans; this fact is underscored by the fact thatmany of the books, listed here, are published outside the United States. All,however, are readily available through American distributors.

There are several basic readings on Tanzania left off this list because theydid not meet the criteria employed in putting together this bibliography. Anyoneinterested in understanding Tanzania should read the three volumes of PresidentJulius Nyerere's collected writings and speeches: Freedom and Unjl (1965),Freedom and Socialism (1968), and Freedom and Developmentl9l7-, all publishedby Oxford University Press. The Arusha Declaration Ten Years After (1977) isthe President's most important piece of writing since his last pubilished collec-tion. There are several very readable accounts of Tanzania's political history;among them are: G. Andrew Mcuuire, Toward "Uhuru" in Tanzania (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1969) and William Edgett Smith, We Must Run WhileThey Walk (New York: Random House, 1971). Cranford Pratt's The Critical Phase inTanzania, 1945-1968; Nyerere and the Emergence of a Socialist Strategy (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1976), is the most recent scholarly study. Finally,for anyone in Tanzania interested in reading studies based upon field research,there are three excellent sources of material unavailable, for the most part, inthe rest of the world: the mimeographed seminar papers given at the EconomicResearch Bureau (E R B ) and the monographs and research reports issued by theBureau of Resource Assessment and Land Use Planning (BRALUP), both attached tothe University of Dar-es-Salaam; and the senior and Master's theses of theUniversity's social science majors, available at the campu - library.

Boesen, Jannick, Birgit Storgaard Madsen, and Tony Moody1977 Ujamaa: Socialism From Above. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of

African Studies.

The initial field research for this study, carried out by a politicalscientist, a social anthropologist, and an agricultural economist, wasdone in West Lake Region between 1970-72. Two members of the researchteam later spent more than a year in the Region helping to prepare anIntegrated Regional Development Plan. The study establishes that therewas almost no policy generated which could translate ideology intoimplementation. The result was not only an implementation approachwhich negated the philosophical under-pinnings of -.jamaa and ignoredprerequisites for .village development; the freedom given the bureau-cracy to implement villagization also led to the bureaucratizationof development and the protection of bureaucratic class interests.

Clark, 14. E.1978 Socialist Development and Public Investment in Tanzania, 1964-73.

Toronto: Toronto University Press.

With its emphasis on rural development as opposed to urban development,Tanzania has pursued an individual path in socialis. development. Thiswork is the first empirical analysis of public investment in mattersof agriculture, education, rural health, manufacturing, and coimnerce,comparing the actual pr..gramme of investment to the strategy outlinedin the Arusha Declaration of 1967.

Cliffe, Lionel, and John S. Saul, eds.1972 Socialism in Tanzania: An Interdisciplinary Reader; Vol. I: Politics.

Dar-es-Salaam: East African Publishing House.

1973 Socialism in Tanizania: An Interdisciplinary Reader; Vol. II: Policies.Dar-es-Salaam: East African Publishing House.

These two volumes, with more than 100 articles between them, includemost of the articles on the Tanzanian colonial lejacy, imperialism,iciaiism, development and underdevelopment writter, during the fiveyea!s after the Arusha Declaration (1967). While more than half ofthe articles were written by political sciertists, a consistent effortis made "to view Tanza nian pc, litics (and policies) in historicalpersrective... (and) in relatonship with the economic, social, andcultural dimensi-ns of Tanzanian life." Most of the arti les are bynon-lanzanians, Yepresenting perhaps 15 ndtio,lities, many by theso called "white Marxists" at the University of Dar-es-Salaam duringthose years.

Cliffe, Lionel, et al., eds.1975 Rural Cooperation in Tanzania. Dar-es-Salaam: Tanzania Pub!*shing House.

This volu. ,- is a collection of 24 articles by social scientists writtenbetween 1970-72, aamd three government (or Nyerere) papers, includingthce seminal piecL "Socialism and Rural Development." The articlesanalyze the polit..al economy of rural Tanzania, the marketing coopera-tives (since disbanded), the implementation of ujamaa, and projectionsas to the problems inherent in institutionalizing rural cooperation ina country with such diverse cultures and political economies.

Finucane, James R.1974 Rural Development and Bureaucracy in Tanzania; the Case of Mwan;a_ Region.

Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.

This study, based upon field research between 1958-70, examines theTanzanian government's stated ideology that, in order for both develop-ment and growth to occur, villagers must patticipate in the planning

process. It concludes that, in fact, the bureaucratic (or development-from-above) model persists: there remains the expectation that develop-ment can be achieved through the exhortations of distant leaders, thatthe best decisions can be made centrdlly on behalf of the natiout'sfarmers. The 1972-73 decisions to decentralize (or regionalize) theplanning process, he asserts, "are designed not to increase pirticipa-tion of the people in decisions, but to produce a better bur aucraticmethod." Where Tanzania is different from many other developing nGtions,is in the fact that it articulates a participatory, more egalitarianmodel, and its elites are le!s well off and are better intentioned.

Hekken, P. M. van, and H.U.E. Thoden van Velzen1972 Land Scarcity __dRural Inequality__in Tanzania; Somte Case Studies from

Rungwe District. The Hague: Moiton and Co.

The authors of this book did anthropological fieldworm in three villagesin southwestern Ta:izania between 1966-68. Their study unalyzes thegrowth of rural class formation in a Tanzania which is attempting tocurb social exploitation and privilege. Basic to rural class formationis "relative land scarcity" and unequal access to relatively scarceland. While poorer farmers had not yet developed a sense of classconsciousness, wealthy farmers were successful aL "establishing net-works both within their own communities and with powerful persons out-side the village in order to safeguard and expand their interests."Numerous case studies in patron-client relationships, intimidation,social leveling, and formal dispute settlement illustrate the thesis.

Knight, C. Gregory1974 Ecology and Chane:. Rural Modernization in an African Community. New

York: Academic Press.

This study, by a geographer, is one of the most comprehensive andinsightful of local studies. Knight studied the Mbozi in South WestTanzania in the late 1960's. He is particularly useful for includingexcellent quantitative data and for making a sophisticated analysis ofthe processes of social change. His emphasis on what he calls"elhnogeography" adds an important dimension to this work. Highlyrecommended.

Kurtz, Laura S.1978 Historical Dictionary of Tanzania. Metuchen, NJ and London: The Scare-

crow Press.

Although not a social scientific work, this is a useful compendium ofinformation on contemporary as well as historical Tanzania. It includesa short chronology and very brief history of the country, a list offrequently-used acronyms, and a good, 70 page, selective (but non-annotated) bibliography, organized into nearly 100 subject areas. The"dictionary" is more than 250 pages of descriptions: place names,organizations, basic who's who, products, publications, historical andpolitical events, themes, and English and Swahili "buzz words."

McHenry, Jr., Dean E.1979 TanzaniasUjmad Villarnes; The Implementation of a Rural Development

Stra tegY. Berkeley: Institute of International Studies (Universityof Cali ifornia).

Combining extensive I ibrary research (including quoted material fromnumerous University of Dar-es-Saldam student's theses) with his ownfield research, McHenry established first the historical arid r liticalcontext for Tanzanian villagization efforts, ther examines the means(persuasion, inducement, and compulsion) used to move people intou i_aa villages, and finally evaluates the ujamaa village policy. Heestimates that only 25%' of the nation's rural dwellers moved intonucleated settlements as a result of either persuasion or inducement,that force (or the threat of force) wds the most important variablein accomplishing villagization (although only rarely with any violenceto people), and the party has retreated "for the forseeable future"from u jamaa-ization (communal farming),

Newman, James L.1970 Th Ecololical Basis of Subsistence Change Among the Sandawe of

Tanzaria. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences.

This book is a cultural geographer's study of the changing subsis-tence mode in a one-timr., hunting-and-gathering population in theCentral Highlands of Tanzania. It presents an inventory of the Sandawehabitat, a description of how the people perceive their environment(including the socio-political environment), and discusses the adap-tations required of the population as it moved from a nomadic exist-ence to a sendentary (and dispersed) subsistence, mixed-agriculturalsystem. Newman describes the physical environment as being "brittle,"and argues that a "concomitant of environmental brittleness ismarginality for human habitation." He sees "the integrated, multipleland-use pattern" of the pre-Arusha Declaration Sandawe as probablythe most optimal system for living on the land, and predicts thatintensive agricultural development projects or ranching schemes,continued reclaimation of land in Zsetse fly-infested areas, and theincreased use of maize at the expense of more drought-tolerant grains,all will lead to environmental deterioration, human suffering, anddislocation.

Rald, Jorgen, and Karen Rald1975 Rural Organization in Bukoba District, Tanzania. Uppsala: Scandina-

vian Institute of African Studies.

This study, done by anthropologists over a three year period in WestLake Region, has two parts to it: the first half of the book dealswith how the Haya people "organize their life in society with regardto space arid time," examining especially land use, land tenure, agri-cultural and animal-husbandry strategies, and the policy of agriculturalextension; the second half of the book is a very thorough labor

allocation/agricultural return/household expenditure and consumptionsurvey of approximately 100 households in one political ward overan agricultural year. Among the issues treated are male and femalelabor, roles under traditional and (changing) cash crop systems, theinroads cash farming and specialization have made on Haya culture,the nature and administration of the marketing cooperative in thearea, and the extent to which sinallholder coffee development has ledto rural class formation.

Ruthenberg, Hans, ed.1968 Smallholder Fa:'ming and Smallholder Development in Tanzania: Ten Case

Studies. Munchen: Weitfurum Verlag.

The case studies presented here are summaries of ten individual studiespreviously published in German; the book includes, as well, two newintegrating essays by the editor on characteristics of snallholderfarming and definitions of various types of farming systems. Several

of the essays include fairly detailed accounts and inventories undersuch headings as land use patterns, labor economy, livestock economy,and economic returns. Some devote attention to diet, nutrition, andhealth, the profitability of government agricultural projects, or thecomparative advantage of different scales production.

Samoff, Joel1974 Tanzania: Local Politics and the Structure of Power. Madison:

University of Wisconsin Press.

This study is different from most studies of political development inTanzania in that it focuses upon neither the center-periphery relation-ship (the penetration of national politics in rural areas) nor nationalpolitics, but upon local politics in an urban area. Set in Moshi, a

northern town of nearly 30,000 people, in 1968-69, shortly after thecountry announced its strategy of socialism and self-reliance, Samoffexamines entreprenuerial maneuvering and class behavior as well aslocal political leadership and institutions of governance. He con-cludes that in this very prosperous area of Tanzania, a legacy ofanti-colonialism and "anti-ceniter orientation" remains, the sense ofalienation directed now towards a centrist political system perceivedas being committed to challenging the existing social and politicalorder.