INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

INTRODUCTIONThis course covers broad issues of the science of industrial hygiene. Our discussion will be presented in three parts. Part one will provide an introduction to industrial hygiene, and cover the history of industrial hygiene and the role of the safety professional. Part two will cover fundamental concepts in industrial hygiene, OSHA and industrial hygiene, worksite analysis, recognizing and controlling hazards, and examples of job hazards that relate to industrial hygiene.

INTRODUCTION

Part three will discuss the science of industrial hygiene, the history of 29 CFR 1910, Subpart Z Toxic and Hazardous Substances, some key OSHA requirements for toxic and hazardous substances (Subpart Z), and OSHA employee exposure and medical records requirements.

LEARNING OBJECTIVESFamiliarization with the history of industrial medicine

Understand OSHAs role in industrial hygiene

Learn what job hazards are associated with industrial hygiene

Understand the role of the safety professional with respect to industrial hygiene

LEARNING OBJECTIVESUnderstand industrial hygiene concepts used to determine worker exposure

Understand the purpose of Subpart Z of part 1910 - occupational safety and health standards

Understand the OSHA requirements for 1910.1020 access to employee exposure and medical records.

KEY TERMSAerosols: Aerosols are a form of a mist characterized by highly respire able, minute liquid particles.

Dusts: Dusts are solid particles .1 to 25 micrometers in diameter, generated by handling, crushing, grinding, colliding, exploding, and heating organic or inorganic materials such as rock, ore, metal, coal, wood, and grain. Any process that produces dust fine enough to remain in the air long enough to be inhaled or ingested should be regarded as hazardous until proven otherwise.

KEY TERMS

Fibers: Fibers are solid particles whose length is several times greater than their diameter, such as asbestos.

Fumes: Are solid particles suspended in air that are less than .1 micrometers in diameter. Fumes are formed when material from a volatilized solid condenses in cool air. In most cases, the solid particles resulting from the condensation react with air to form an oxide.

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KEY TERMS

Gases: Gases are formless fluids that expand to occupy the space or enclosure in which they are confined. They are atomic, diatomic, or molecular in nature as opposed to droplets or particles which are made up of millions of atoms or molecules.

Mists: The term mist is applied to liquid suspended in the atmosphere. Mists are generated by liquids condensing from a vapor back to a liquid or by a liquid being dispersed by splashing or atomizing.

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KEY TERMS

Recommended Exposure Limit (REL):

An 8- or 10-hour time-weighted average (TWA) or ceiling (C) exposure concentration recommended by NIOSH that is based on an evaluation of the health effects data.

Vapors: Through evaporation, liquids change into vapors and mix with the surrounding atmosphere. Vapors are the volatile form of substances that are normally in a solid or liquid state at room temperature and pressure. Vapors are gases in that true vapors are atomic or molecular in nature.

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INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

This lesson focuses on the following topics:

The History Of Industrial Hygiene

The Role Of The Safety Professional

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THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

Industrial hygiene is the science of anticipating, recognizing, evaluating, and controlling workplace conditions that may cause workers' injury or illness. There has been an awareness of industrial hygiene since antiquity. The environment and its relation to worker health was recognized as early as the fourth century BC when Hippocrates noted lead toxicity in the mining industry.

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THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENEIn the first century AD, Pliny the Elder, a Roman scholar, perceived health risks to those working with zinc and sulfur. He devised a facemask made from an animal bladder to protect workers from exposure to dust and lead fumes.In the second century AD, the Greek physician Galen accurately described the pathology of lead poisoning and also recognized the hazardous exposures of copper miners to acid mists.

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THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENEIn the Middle Ages, guilds worked at assisting sick workers and their families.In 1556, the German scholar, Agricola, advanced the science of industrial hygiene even further when, in his book De Re Metallica, he described the diseases of miners and prescribed preventive measures.The book included suggestions for mine ventilation and worker protection, discussed mining accidents, and described diseases associated with mining occupations such as silicosis.

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THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENEIndustrial hygiene gained further respectability in 1700 when Bernardo Ramazzini, known as the "father of industrial medicine," published in Italy the first comprehensive book on industrial medicine, The Diseases of Workmen. Ramazzini greatly affected the future of industrial hygiene because he asserted that occupational diseases should be studied in the work environment rather than in hospital wards.

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THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENEIndustrial hygiene received another major boost in 1743 when Ulrich Ellenborg published a pamphlet on occupational diseases and injuries among gold miners.

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THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENEIn England in the 18th century, Percival Pott, as a result of his findings on the insidious effects of soot on chimney sweepers, was a major force in getting the British Parliament to pass the Chimney-Sweepers Act of 1788.

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THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENEIn the early 20th century in the U. S., Dr. Alice Hamilton, led efforts to improve industrial hygiene. She observed industrial conditions first hand and startled mine owners, factory managers, and state officials with evidence that there was a correlation between worker illness and their exposure to toxins.

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THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENEAt about the same time, U.S. federal and state agencies began investigating health conditions in industry. In 1913, the New York Department of Labor and the Ohio Department of Health established the first state industrial hygiene programs.

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THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENEThe U.S. Congress has passed three landmark pieces of legislation relating to safeguarding workers' health:

The Metal and Nonmetallic Mines Safety Act of 1966

The Federal Coal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1969

The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970.

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THE HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENEToday, nearly every employer is required to implement the elements of an industrial hygiene and safety, occupational health, and/or environmental health program and be responsive to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the Act and its regulations.

Industrial hygienists use environmental monitoring and analytical methods to detect the extent of worker exposure and employ engineering, work practice controls, and other methods to control potential health hazards.

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THE ROLE OF THE SAFETY PROFESSIONALThe role of the safety professional is to:

Anticipate, identify and evaluate hazardous conditions and practices.

Develop hazard control designs, methods, procedures and programs.

Implement, administer and advise others on hazard controls and hazard control programs.

Measure, audit and evaluate the effectiveness of hazard controls and hazard control programs.

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THE ROLE OF THE SAFETY PROFESSIONALAnticipating, identifying and evaluating hazardous conditions and practices involves using historical data and experience to predict hazards in the existing work environment. Equipment should be evaluated before purchase for known and potential safety and health hazards. Work operations should be evaluated to determine the severity of potential loss arising from existing or potential safety and health hazards.

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THE ROLE OF THE SAFETY PROFESSIONALDeveloping, implementing, and evaluating hazard controls involves eliminating hazards using engineering controls as a first priority.Where hazards cannot be eliminated they must be minimized through the use of work practices, personal protective equipment, employee training, and evaluation of the effectiveness of implemented controls.It is important to communicate the hazards to employees and supervisors using all available resources.

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INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE FUNDAMENTALS

This lesson focuses on the following topics:

OSHA And Industrial HygieneWorksite Analysis: Recognizing And Controlling HazardsExamples Of Job Hazards

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OSHA AND INDUSTRIAL HYGIENEUnder the OSH Act, OSHA develops and sets mandatory occupational safety and health requirements applicable to the more than 6 million workplaces in the U.S. OSHA relies on, among many others, industrial hygienists and safety professionals to evaluate jobs for potential health hazards.

Developing and setting mandatory occupational safety and health standards involves determining the extent of employee exposure to hazards and deciding what is needed to control these hazards to protect workers.

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OSHA AND INDUSTRIAL HYGIENEIndustrial Hygienists

More than 40 percent of the OSHA compliance officers who inspect America's workplaces are industrial hygienists. Industrial hygienists also play a major role in developing and issuing OSHA standards to protect workers from health hazards associated with toxic chemicals, biological hazards, and harmful physical agents. They also provide technical assistance and support to the agency's national and regional offices.

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OSHA AND INDUSTRIAL HYGIENEOSHA also employs industrial hygienists who assist in setting up field enforcement procedures, and who issue technical interpretations of OSHA regulations and standards. Industrial hygienists analyze, identify, and measure workplace hazards or stresses that can cause sickness, impaired health, or significant discomfort in workers through chemical, physical, ergonomic, or biological exposures.Two roles of the OSHA industrial hygienist are to spot those conditions and help eliminate or control them through appropriate measures.

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RECOGNIZING AND CONTROLLING HAZARDSA worksite analysis is an essential first step that helps an industrial hygienist or safety professional determine what jobs are the sources of potential problems. During the worksite analysis, the industrial hygienist or safety professional measures and identifies exposures, problem tasks, and risks.

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RECOGNIZING AND CONTROLLING HAZARDSThe most-effective worksite analyses include all jobs, operations, and work activities. The industrial hygienist/safety professional inspects, researches, or analyzes how the particular chemicals or physical hazards at that worksite affect worker health. If a situation hazardous to health is discovered, the industrial hygienist/safety professional recommends the appropriate corrective actions.

Industrial hygienists/safety professionals recognize that engineering, work practice, and administrative controls are the primary means of reducing employee exposure to occupational hazards.

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RECOGNIZING AND CONTROLLING HAZARDSEngineering controls minimize employee exposure by either reducing or removing the hazard at the source or isolating the worker from the hazard.Engineering controls include eliminating toxic chemicals and substituting non-toxic chemicals, enclosing work processes or confining work operations, and the installation of general and local ventilation systems.

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RECOGNIZING AND CONTROLLING HAZARDS

Work practice controls alter the manner in which a task is performed.Some fundamental and easily implemented work practice controls include the following:

changing existing work practices to follow proper procedures that minimize exposures while operating production and control equipment

Inspecting and maintaining process and control equipment on a regular basis

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RECOGNIZING AND CONTROLLING HAZARDS

implementing good housekeeping procedures

providing good supervision, and

mandating that eating, drinking, smoking, chewing tobacco or gum, and applying cosmetics in regulated/hazardous materials areas be prohibited.

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RECOGNIZING AND CONTROLLING HAZARDS

Administrative controls include controlling employees' exposure by scheduling production and work tasks in ways that minimize potential exposure situations. For example, the employer might schedule operations with the highest exposure potential during periods when the fewest employees are present.

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RECOGNIZING AND CONTROLLING HAZARDS

When effective work practices or engineering controls are not feasible, or while such controls are being instituted, appropriate personal protective equipment must be used.

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RECOGNIZING AND CONTROLLING HAZARDS

Examples of personal protective equipment are:

glovessafety goggleshelmetssafety shoesprotective clothingrespirators.

To be effective, personal protective equipment must be individually selected; properly fitted and periodically refitted; conscientiously and properly worn; regularly maintained; and replaced, as necessary.

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EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

To be effective in recognizing and evaluating on-the-job hazards and recommending controls, industrial hygienists/safety professionals must be familiar with the hazards' characteristics. Potential hazards can include air contaminants, and chemical, biological, physical, and ergonomic hazards.

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EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

Air contaminants are commonly classified as either particulate, gas or vapor contaminants. The most common particulate contaminants include dusts, fumes, mists, aerosols, and fibers. Harmful chemical compounds in the form of solids, liquids, gases, mists, dusts, fumes, and vapors exert toxic effects by inhalation (breathing), absorption (through direct contact with the skin), or ingestion (eating or drinking).

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EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

Airborne chemical hazards exist as concentrations of mists, vapors, gases, fumes, or solids. Some are toxic through inhalation and some of them irritate the skin on contact; some can be toxic by absorption through the skin or through ingestion, and some are corrosive to living tissue.

The degree of worker risk from exposure to any given substance depends on the nature and potency of the toxic effects and the magnitude and duration of exposure.

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EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

Biological hazards include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other living organisms that can cause acute and chronic infections by entering the body either directly or through breaks in the skin. Occupations that deal with plants or animals or their products or with food processing may expose workers to biological hazards. Medical or lab personnel also can be exposed to biological hazards.

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EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

In occupations where there is potential exposure to biological hazards, workers should practice proper personal hygiene, particularly hand washing.

Hospitals should provide proper ventilation, proper personal protective equipment such as gloves and respirators, adequate infectious waste disposal systems, and appropriate controls including isolation in instances of particularly contagious diseases such as tuberculosis.

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EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

Physical hazards include excessive levels of ionizing and non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation, noise, vibration, illumination, and temperature.

In occupations where there is exposure to ionizing radiation, time, distance, and shielding are important tools in ensuring worker safety. Danger from radiation increases with the amount of time one is exposed to it; hence, the shorter the time of exposure the smaller the radiation danger.

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EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDSNoise, another significant physical hazard, can be controlled by various measures.

Noise can be reduced by

installing equipment and systems that have been engineered, designed, and built to operate quietly

enclosing or shielding noisy equipment

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EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

making certain that equipment is in good repair and properly maintained with all worn or unbalanced parts replaced

mounting noisy equipment on special mounts to reduce vibration

installing silencers, mufflers, or baffles.

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EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDSErgonomics

The science of ergonomics studies and evaluates a full range of tasks including, but not limited to, lifting, holding, pushing, walking, and reaching.

Many ergonomic problems result from technological changes such as increased assembly line speeds, adding specialized tasks, and increased repetition. Some problems arise from poorly designed job tasks.

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EXAMPLES OF JOB HAZARDS

Any of those conditions can cause ergonomic hazards such as excessive vibration and noise, eye strain, repetitive motion, and heavy lifting problems.

Ergonomic hazards are avoided primarily by the effective design of a job or jobsite and by better designed tools or equipment that meet workers' needs in terms of physical environment and job tasks.

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THE SCIENCE OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

This lesson focuses on the following topics:

The History Of 1910 Subpart ZIndustrial Hygiene ConceptsAccess To Employee Exposure And Medical Records

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THE HISTORY OF 1910 SUBPART ZSoon after adoption of the OSH Act in 1970, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) promulgated Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) for many substances. Most of the PELs contained in the Z-Tables of 29 CFR 1910.1000 were adopted from the Walsh Healy Public Contracts Act as existing Federal Standards. These in turn had been adopted from the 1968 Threshold Limit Values of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).

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THE HISTORY OF 1910 SUBPART ZOver time, OSHA concluded that existing PELs were in need of revision based on new evidence. It determined its first priority was to modify existing PELs, and establish PELs for substances for which no exposure limits exist.

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THE HISTORY OF 1910 SUBPART ZOn June 7, 1988, OSHA proposed to amend and expand the PELs for substances covered in the 29 CFR 1910.1000 Z-Tables and add new PELs to address this deficiency.

The Proposal considered new PELs for 428 substances.

OSHA set out to amend 1910.1000. This amendment reduced the PEL for 212 substances already listed in the Z-Tables, and set PELs for 164 new substances currently not regulated by OSHA. The effective date for the amended standard was March 1, 1989.

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THE HISTORY OF 1910 SUBPART ZThe AFL-CIO disagreed with OSHA over the new PELs and brought legal action against the agency. In July 1992, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals in its decision in AFL-CIO v. OSHA, 965 F.2d 962 (11th Cir., 1992) vacated the more protective PELs set by OSHA in 1989 for 212 substances, moving them back to PELs established in 1971. The appeals court also vacated new PELs for 164 substances not previously regulated.

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THE HISTORY OF 1910 SUBPART ZCurrently, Subpart Z covers exposure requirements for air contaminants (1910.1000 Tables Z-1, Z-2, and Z-3), asbestos, coal tar pitch volatiles, 13 listed carcinogens, and other listed hazardous chemicals and substances. Subpart Z also has standards that address other topics such as employee medical records, blood borne pathogens, hazard communication, and laboratory chemical exposure. The PELs are once again at the limits set in 1971.

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INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE CONCEPTS1910.1000 PELs are the exposure limits (also called threshold limit values (TLV) for listed chemicals set by OSHA. 1910.1000 contains three tables that list PELs for various substances.

Table Z-1 contains limits for air contaminants. Table Z-2 contains limits for twenty-one (21) additional substances. Table Z-3 contains exposure limits for mineral dusts. If employee exposure exceeds the limits set in tables, engineering controls, administrative controls, or personal protective equipment must be implemented to maintain worker exposure below the indicated limits.

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INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE CONCEPTSPEL concentrations in the Z Tables are given in parts per million (ppm), milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m), or million of particles per cubic foot (mppcf). There is also a measure for fiber concentration: fibers per cubic centimeter (f/cc).

Permissible exposure limits (PELs) are generally given in terms of Time Weighted Averages (TWAs). The limits set forth in the OSHA tables are 8-hour time weighted averages, and are calculated as follows:

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INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE CONCEPTSThe cumulative exposure for an 8-hour work shift is computed as follows:

(E = C(a)T(a) + C(b)T(b) + . . . C(n)T(n)) divided by 8

Where:

E is the equivalent exposure for the working shift.

C is the concentration during any period of time T where theconcentration remains constant.

T is the duration in hours of the exposure at the concentration C.

The value of E cannot exceed the 8-hour time weighted averagespecified in Subpart Z or 29 CFR Part 1910 for the substance involved.

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INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE CONCEPTS

To illustrate the formula, assume that Substance A has an 8-hour time weighted average limit of 100 ppm noted in Table Z-1. Assume that an employee is subject to the following exposure:

Two hours exposure at 150 ppm

Two hours exposure at 75 ppm

Four hours exposure at 50 ppm

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INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE CONCEPTS

Substituting this information in the formula, we have

(2 X 150 + 2 X 75 + 4 X 50) divided by 8 = 81.25 ppm

Since 81.25 ppm is less than 100 ppm, the 8-hour time weightedaverage limit, the exposure is acceptable.

Other TLVs include Ceiling concentrations (C) and Short Term Exposure Limits (STEL)

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EMPLOYEE EXPOSURE AND MEDICAL RECORDSScope

Employers in general industry and the maritime and construction industries must provide records access to all employees exposed to toxic substances and harmful physical agents, their employee representatives, health professionals, and OSHA. The rule does not require creation of any records, only preservation. Access means the right to examine and copy records.

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EMPLOYEE EXPOSURE AND MEDICAL RECORDS

Access rules

When requested, employers must provide medical records promptly, generally within 15 working days. They must provide a date for release of the information and an explanation of the delay should it take longer to process the request. Employers are to inform their workers initially and at least annually of their rights to access to medical and exposure records.

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EMPLOYEE EXPOSURE AND MEDICAL RECORDS

OSHA may obtain personal medical records promptly without the written consent of the subject employees, but will adhere to rules of agency practice and procedure governing OSHA access to employee medical records contained in Title 29 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1913.10.

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EMPLOYEE EXPOSURE AND MEDICAL RECORDSRecords and retention rates

The rule covers records of employee exposure to toxic substances, harmful physical agents and employee personal medical records. Exposure records must be maintained for 30 years and medical records for the duration of employment plus 30 years. First aid records and experimental toxicological research records are excluded from the 30-year retention requirements.

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EMPLOYEE EXPOSURE AND MEDICAL RECORDS

If a company maintains a chemical inventory or set of material safety data sheets, it need not retain production records, shipping records, invoices, batch cards or other similar documents. Biological (such as blood or urine) monitoring results, except those pertaining to alcohol or drugs, are to be retained. Personal medical records for short-term employees (less than one year) do not have to be retained if they are provided to the employee on termination.

Employers need not copy X-rays that may require viewing on site or at some other suitable location. All X-rays, except chest X-rays, may be microfilmed for records storage.

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EMPLOYEE EXPOSURE AND MEDICAL RECORDS

In a medical emergency, an employer must immediately disclose the specific chemical identity of a toxic substance to a treating physician or nurse when needed for emergency or first aid treatment. In the case of Trade Secret Protection, the employer may obtain a statement of need and a confidentiality agreement as soon as circumstances permit

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