HYDROGEN · The French edition of Scientific American POUR LA SCIENCE HYDROGEN: at the heart of the...

The French edition of Scientific American

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HYDROGEN: at the heart of

the energy transition

SPECIAL ISSUE in partnership with

RÉFÉRENCES COULEUR

24, rue Salomon de Rothschild - 92288 Suresnes - FRANCETél. : +33 (0)1 57 32 87 00 / Fax : +33 (0)1 57 32 87 87Web : www.carrenoir.com

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DITO RIAL E

Global warming is the primary challenge facing humankind across the globe. It is a challenge that has provided a wake-up call, one that has led to an unprecedented wave of investments in new and more efficient low-carbon and carbon-free

technologies. Some of these technologies, such as solar or wind power, are already mature and only waiting to be deployed on a large scale, whereas others, like hydrogen, still require investment in research and the development of profitable business models.

At ENGIE, we believe that hydrogen produced by elec-trolysis of water will play a key role in accelerating the energy transition and will have a prominent place in tomorrow’s energy mix. Hydrogen enables the storage of surplus electricity therefore helping to integrate intermittent renewable energies into the energy system; it fosters the development of green mobility solutions and contributes to the decar-bonization of massive industrial uses of hydrogen (fertilizer, refineries and chemical industries, etc): in short, hydrogen is a key enabler of low carbon energy uses.

This special issue of Pour La Science details several pilot projects on which we are currently working with our numerous partners. These projects prove that technical solutions already exist and so we will also be addressing the question of what is still required to accelerate the development of the hydrogen sector.

For the moment, hydrogen is not competitive in comparison with high CO2-emitting solutions, which explains the importance of working to reduce costs, which include infrastructure costs (electrolyzers, storage) and the cost of investments in new vehicle fleets and charging stations for mobility solutions. We need financial and regulatory support for the development of the hydrogen sector if we are going to close the competitiveness gap.

Hydrogen is the keystone of a zero-carbon economy and paves the way for more harmonious forms of progress. n

HYDROGEN: ACCELERATING THE ENERGY TRANSITION

ISABELLE KOCHERChief Executive Officer, ENGIE.

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© POUR LA SCIENCE - March 2018

www.pourlascience.fr170 bis boulevard du Montparnasse – 75014 ParisTél. 01 55 42 84 00

Group POUR LA SCIENCEEditorial staff director: Cécile LestienneEditor in chief: Maurice Mashaal A special issue in partnership with ENGIE: Loïc Mangin and Simon ThurstonArtistic direction and realisation: Ghislaine Salmon-LegagneurCopy editor: Maud BruguièreMarketing & diffusion: Arthur PeysFinancial director: Cécile André Personnel management: Olivia Le PrévostFabrication : Marianne Sigogne et Olivier Lacam Publisher and manager: Frédéric MériotPress and communication: Susan Mackie [email protected] • Tél : 01 55 42 85 05Media sales France: Stéphanie Jullien [email protected] Imprimé en France - Dépôt légal : Mars 2018 Commission Paritaire n°0917K82079

© Pour la Science S.A.R.L. Tous droits de reproduction, de traduction, d’adaptation et de représentation réservés pour tous les pays. La marque et le nom commercial « Scientific American » sont la propriété de Scientific American, Inc. Licence accordée à « Pour la Science S.A.R.L. ».En application de la loi du 11 mars 1957, il est interdit de reproduire intégralement ou partiellement la présente revue sans autorisation de l’éditeur ou du Centre français de l’exploitation du droit de copie (20 rue des Grands- Augustins - 75006 Paris).

Cover photograph: ENGIE/Fotolia

This special issue of Pour La Science presents the challenges and opportunities facing hydrogen, from research to commercialization, as illustrated by several pilot projects. In France and abroad, these projects prefigure the shape of things to come in terms of the energy revolution over the

next twenty to thirty years and hydrogen’s role in that industrial reality.

ENGIE firmly believes that technological research can make promises a reality and help meet the needs of commu-nities and their citizens. There are any number of examples - the GRHYD in Dunkirk; ADEME-certified projects with the ‘Hydrogen territories’ label; Pau’s hydrogen-fueled buses; the provision of hydrogen to Toulouse airport; the REIDS initia-tive in Singapore; or the search for natural hydrogen in Brazil - all of which contribute to building our future energy mix.

Hydrogen can be used in conjunction with any green energy to satisfy numerous requirements and can therefore become the mainstay of tomorrow’s 100 % renewable territories.

CONTENTS

6 HYDROGEN: THE ENERGY ADVANTAGE Isabelle Moretti and Hélène Pierre

8 WATER, GAS AND HYDROGEN ON EVERY FLOOR Isabelle Alliat and Hélène Pierre

12 TAILOR-MADE HYDROGEN SUPPLY CHAINS Sandra Capela, Myriam de Saint Jean, Camel Makhloufi and Mathilde Jegoux

14 THE ASSETS OF HIGH TEMPERATURE Stéphane Hody and Stéphane Fortin

18 USING HYDROGEN TO REACH SELF-SUFFICIENCY Julie Dallard, Antoine Ballereau, Xiaoyang Peng and Étienne Drouet

20 AN ECOSYSTEM READY TO COMPETE Hélène Pierre, Laurent Baraton, Guillaume Peureux and Quentin Nouvelot

22 LONG DISTANCE HYDROGEN TRANSPORT Jan Mertens, Caroline Hillegeer, Hélène Lepaumier, Camel Makhloufi, Laurent Baraton and Isabelle Moretti

24 NATURAL HYDROGEN: A NEW CLEAN BLACK GOLD? Isabelle Moretti, Angélique Dagostino, Julien Werly, Carlos Ghost, Diane Defrenne and Louis Gorintin

FROM LABORATORY TO INDUSTRIAL REALITY

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DITO RIALE

NICOLAS HULOTMinistre d’État, ministre de la Transition écologique et solidaire (French Minister for the Ecological and Inclusive Transition)

The climate change clock is ticking: the energy transition is a race against time. However, we can now accelerate thanks to the large number of efficient and competitive solutions that have recently been developed: the installation costs of solar and wind farms have decreased significantly, their production is getting closer to market prices and there

is a boom in electric vehicles thanks to the rapid drop in price of lithium-ion batteries, which has been halved in the last three years, in particular because of the large numbers now being produced.

My wish is that by implementing the “Plan Climat“ (French Climate Plan), which was announced in July 2017, we can concretize this acce-leration in France by reinforcing the actions in progress i.e. by redou-

HYDROGEN IS ESSENTIAL

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bling the number of calls for project in the field of renewable energies, supporting the roll-out of clean transport solutions by investing in electric vehicle charging stations and financial incentives, either to help convert vehicles or in the form of measures to encourage the purchase of cleaner vehicles etc.

The law putting an end to hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation came into effect at the start of the year. It is a first step forward towards ending our dependence on fossil fuels. We are now going to continue working to reduce our consumption of fossil fuels for transport, in homes and for the production of electricity. This law will encourage our partners to move in the same direction, to which the commitments made at the One Planet Summit bear witness. In our quest to become carbon neutral, we still need to find the tools to decarbonize every economic sector from top to bottom.

HYDROGEN MUST PLAY A KEY ROLE In industry, innovation and industrialization must work to reverse

the balance of power between the production of hydrogen using fossil fuels and green hydrogen produced by electrolysis. As a means to store energy and create a bridge between the electricity and gas networks, this energy system must be addressed as a whole in order to intelli-gently and successfully negotiate the energy transition.

In the transport and mobility sector, hydrogen-powered vehicles are part of the wide array of zero-emission solutions. They have a vital role to play in meeting the objective fixed by the “Plan Climat” to stop selling vehicles that emit greenhouse gases by 2040. It is already upon us and we must get ready by planning the complementary development of different alternative fuels.

In terms of research, the state supports the hydrogen sector from the research stage until commercialization and accompanies the deployment of this technology. The French state funded R&D in the hydrogen and fuel cell sectors to the amount of almost 500 million euros between 2005 and 2015, through grants awarded to public research organizations, notably the CEA and research funding agencies. The demonstrations carried out in recent years, in particular by ENGIE, with the support of ADEME (French Environment and Energy Mana-gement Agency) and the “Programme d’investissements d’avenir“ (the Investments for the Future Programme), contribute to proving that hydrogen is part of the energy transition. In 2016, a call for projects for pilot territories from the French ministries in charge of energy and industry revealed a high level of commitment from local and regional authorities and companies in the sector with some 40 certified projects.

I would now like to capitalize on this success by putting into place a plan to roll out the use of decarbonized hydrogen in industry, to store renewable energy and to develop clean transport. France has an opportunity to figure amongst the world leaders in these technologies, alongside such pioneers as Japan, California and Germany, and to develop a strong industrial sector that will generate business and employment.

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The press regularly presents hydrogen as a “game chan-ger” in the new world of energy. Like any gas, we know how to store and transport it, and like the hydrocarbons of

which it is a major constituent it can be “ burned”, but without releasing CO2. These benefits make hydrogen a centerpiece of the energy transition. Hydrogen leaks from the ground in some places, like water or hydrocar-bons. It is not yet fully understood how or when, but research is very active to see if this

natural hydrogen could be used. Is there enough of it to justify the exploration and pro-duction costs? It is mainly geologists and geo-chemists that are currently working on these topics, while chemists and physicists are wor-king on electrolysis to produce H2 from elec-tricity and on fuel cells that do the opposite. Some reversible systems are able to do both.

Hydrogen is therefore a remarkable vector of flexibility that makes it possible to store and valorize electrical overcapacities, particularly from renewable sources, and to adapt the elec-trical supply to demand, where conventional

ISABELLE MORETTItechnology director, ENGIE

Hydrogen: the energyadvantage

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HÉLÈNE PIERREhead of the ENGIE CRIGEN Hydrogen Lab

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storage systems, such as batteries, are limited in terms of storage quantity and duration.

Hydrogen goes even further. It bridges the gap between energy systems (electrical, gas, liquid etc). Hydrogen on its own or recombi-ned with recycled CO2 can make synthetic fuels which can cover the majority of current uses of energy.

H2 is becoming essential in every sector. Too fast, or not fast enough? ENGIE is convinced that the age of hydrogen has come. However many challenges still remain. This booklet presents some lines of research, as well as ongoing projects and operational pilot sche-mes. In this way, ENGIE, via its research center ENGIE Lab CRIGEN, is developing for its cus-tomers powerful offers around hydrogen, an element which is unavoidable in the new energy mix.

The main questions revolve around the «manufacture» of hydrogen, its storage, trans-portation and use. Concerning production, for environmental reasons it should take place without methane, which provides the bulk of hydrogen today. For real benefits in this regard, priority is given to hydrogen obtained from renewable energies or native leakage. To make this green hydrogen competitive, we have to make rapid and significant reductions of pro-duction costs.

IMPROVEMENT IN SERIESSuch an objective implies, on one hand,

working with current technologies and their components to reduce investment costs and, on the other hand, improving the energy effi-ciency and yield of these systems to reduce operating costs. Optimizing the flexibility of systems, their modularity, robustness and life-time are also major challenges to be overcome. ENGIE Lab CRIGEN works in this direction, often in partnership, on a wide range of inno-vative technologies, some of which could change the energy market.

In the field of compression, storage and transport of hydrogen, new challenges are also emerging. The compression of hydrogen is a vital question. Hydrogen is indeed the lightest atom, which is a disadvantage because its low density means it must be highly compressed to be transported and stored without taking up too much space. But compression is expensive, so we have to develop new methods that consume less energy and are less expensive.

In addition to storage and transportation of compressed hydrogen by truck, others solu-tions exist and are being studied by ENGIE Lab CRIGEN: dedicated networks, mixed with natural gas, liquefied, combined with other compounds. These various solutions have dif-ferent levels of maturity and each one has its own advantages and limitations. This is a

cornerstone for the deployment of a hydrogen economy.

Systems that make efficient use of hydrogen energy are, at the end of the chain, a major point. Technologies are developing and have experienced notable improvements in recent years reaching the commercial stage. Above and beyond engines and turbines, many of them are based on the fuel cell, which very effi-ciently transforms hydrogen into electricity. They are used in the production of electricity, in electric vehicles with hydrogen tanks, in resi-dential or tertiary cogeneration applications (producing both electricity and heat with global efficiencies close to 90%) and in the production of energy for isolated sites.

The first hydrogen cars are on the market and provide, with just a few kilograms of hydrogen, the same autonomy and the same cooldown as a classic petrol car. An offer exists for buses and even for bicycles. The first hydrogen-powered train is on the track. For trucks, boats and planes it’s only a matter of time. And Ariane rockets have been using hydrogen to take off for a long time.

Despite the major progress already made, the massive deployment of fuel cells requires cost reduction, a longer product lifetime and efficient stationary systems, as well as an increase in scale. ENGIE Lab CRIGEN has been working on these topics for many years in par-tnership with manufacturers. Several systems are being explored and tested on site: different sizes and technologies are under evaluation.

Blending hydrogen with natural gas, impro-ving and reducing the costs of purification systems, developing innovative filling stations and efficient applications are just some of the topics on our research roadmap today.

The hydrogen chain is developing fast. The performance of the whole depends on the per-formance of each link in the chain, which is why ENGIE R & D, integrator of these systems to end customers, covers the whole technological spectrum from production to the end-user.

In a transversal way, we also contribute to helping key players to adapt the regulations to enable the development of a safe H2 sector. While supporting the emergence of these tech-nologies, we also make sure to inform all stake-holders of the environmental benefits and societal expectations. We are convinced that the considerable potential and diversity of this sector of the future already makes it a game changer in taking up and overcoming the major challenges within the energy transition in France, Europe and worldwide.

We are not alone. We are working with all the stakeholders setting up this sector in the Hydrogen Council and Hydrogen Europe, as well as within AFHYPAC (French Association for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells). ©

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Water, gas and hydrogen on every floor

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The GRHYD project addresses the injection of hydrogen into the natural gas distribution network: in 2018, a new residential area near Dunkirk will be supplied in this way.Water, gas and hydrogen

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1. The new housing district in Cappelle-la-Grande where the first 100 homes will be supplied with Hythane®, a new gas made from hydrogen and natural gas.

People living in the Dunkirk area and who are looking to move house should definitely keep an eye on what’s happe-ning in Cappelle-la-Grande before making any decisions.

A new residential area has seen the light of day in this municipality (see Figure 1) with homes whose heating and hot water needs will be pro-vided for by a new and innovative source of energy: Hythane®, a new gas made from hydrogen and natural gas. The success of this system is the chal-lenge facing the GRHYD project (Gas network management by hydrogen injection in order to decarbonize energies), whose objective is to demonstrate in real-world conditions the techni-cal, economic, environmental and social advantages of this new energy chain, which is a way of making cities more sustainable and facilitating green mobility solutions. In the near future, this new housing district built on the territory of the Urban Community of Dunkirk (CUD), which is par-tnering the project, will comprise 200 housing units. Let’s take a closer look at the story so far and the many challenges that still lie ahead.

THE ROADMAP OF A PIONEER

Launched in 2014 as part of the “Investments for the Future Program” initiated by the French Government and operated by ADEME, GRHYD has also received support and certification from the TENERRDIS center of excellence. TENERRDIS endeavours to apply innovation to increase the competitiveness of new energy industrial supply chains. Coordinated by ENGIE, represented by ENGIE Lab CRIGEN research center, the project bene-fits from the collaboration of ten other French partners. In addition to the CUD and the STDE urban transport company, the other partners are: GRDF, GNVERT and ENGIE INEO (three ENGIE entities), as well as equipment manu-facturers (AREVA H2Gen, McPhy Energy), public laboratories and technical centers (CEA, CETIAT, INERIS).

GRHYD is one of the projects that are part of a broader approach to energy and the socio-ecological transition in our region.

PATRICE VERGRIETEPresident of the Urban Community of Dunkirk (CUD)

AUTHORSISABELLE ALLIAT AND HÉLÈNE PIERREENGIE Lab CRIGEN

The first two years were devoted to techni-cal and sociological studies, as well as to obtai-ning authorization from the French administration to carry out the demonstration, especially as it implements systems for which French regulations do not yet exist.

Taking into account, on the one hand, the inhabitants’ typical energy consumption pat-terns (heating and domestic hot water) and on the other hand, the potential availability of electricity from renewable energies, the project

partners simulated the need for natural gas and hydrogen to meet the demand of the first 100 homes, in addition to the boiler room at the local health center, which is close to the new district. The results of these simulations enabled the calculation of the necessary capa-cities of the equipment involved in the hydrogen chain (electrolyzer, storage and injection infrastructure). The proton exchange membrane electrolyzer (or PEM - see the article on page 12) can produce up to 10 normal cubic meters per hour of hydrogen. The hydrogen storage module, supplied by McPhy Energy, has a hydrogen storage capacity of 5 kg. This “solid” storage is particularly safe, innovative and ©

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Variation in combustion hygieneVariation in useful yield

Energy efficiency = improved

Combustion hygiene = improved

> efficient: at low temperature and at low pres-sure, hydrogen is absorbed by forming metal hydrides (see the article on page 20) and then supplied on demand by desorption. These two innovative technologies will be tested and assessed in real operating conditions, i.e. mee-ting the energy demand of this new district’s inhabitants.

Safety studies on the hydrogen installations were carried out by the partners, led by INERIS. They have been validated and accepted by the Hauts-de-France region’s Regional Directorate for the Environment, Planning and Housing (DREAL), whose mission is to put into place and monitor the proper implementation of public policies related to the sustainable deve-lopment of its territory, energy and the envi-ronment, as well as the prevention of risks that could affect citizens and economic stakeholders.

ALL THE LIGHTS ARE GREENTests in the CETIAT laboratory have shown

that the two domestic boiler models (Chappée and Saunier-Duval) supplied by the leasers in the rented apartments allow the use of the new gas and benefit from an improvement in their performance (see figure 2): efficiency is increased, combustion quality and air quality are improved, mainly by reducing the emission of pollutants, in this case nitrogen oxides.

By a ministerial decree issued in June 2016, the French Administration agreed to allow the launch of this demonstration. It will be closely monitored by the Ministry of Ecology’s Directorate General for Risk Prevention (DGPR) in close collaboration with GRDF, which is responsible for the “gas network injec-tion” part of the GRHYD project. The role of DGPR is to identify and quantify risks in order to implement appropriate prevention policies.

POWER-TO-GAS

The GRHYD project concretizes the power-to-gas concept, a term that was first used in Germany in 2010 in projects that

were working to store green electricity in the same way as natural gas. This concept covers the links between the power network (electricity) and the natural gas network (gas). It refers more particularly to the exchange of energy, i.e. converting electricity into a gas fuel by using the electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen gas (see article on page 12).Commercially available PEM technology offers advantages of flexibility and compactness. It will be tested in the GRHYD project with an electrolyzer manufactured by AREVA H2Gen. The hydrogen produced by electrolysis will be stored and then injected into the gas distribution network, blending with natural gas to form a new fuel gas.As electricity produced by renewable energies such as wind or solar power, so-called “green electricity”, is used, the hydrogen produced will be “green hydrogen”. The power-to-gas concept thereby contributes to integrating renewable energies in the existing gas network and giving them added value in the form of green electricity. Already made more environmentally friendly through the injection of the “green gas” biomethane, natural gas shows that it can also be a vector for renewable energies.

2. Hydrogen in natural gas improves the performance of domestic boilers (here a Chappée-brand boiler).

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KEY FIGURES

1st demonstration of the Power-to-Gas concept in France

11 partners

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20 % hydrogen mix in natural gas

3 facilities on site: the electrolyzer, hydrogen storage and injection stations.

100 homes and the health center boiler room supplied with this new gas made from a mix of hydrogen and natural gas.

120 individual homes and

80 collective housing units in the near future

3. In this station, GRDF injects hydrogen into the local gas distribution network.

Cappelle-la-Grande is proud to be the pilot commune for GRHYD, which is a unique project in France for the development of renewable energies.

JULIEN GOKELDeputy major of Cappelle-la-Grande

Today the project has entered a new phase with the purchase and manufacture of the equipment, which will be followed by the launch of the civil engineering phase and the installation of the equipment near the new dis-trict. The system designed by GRDF to inject hydrogen into its natural gas network was deli-vered to the site at the end of 2017 (see figure 3). The electrolysis station developed by ENGIE INEO with AREVA H2Gen will be ship-ped soon. It will be accompanied by the hydrogen storage module designed by McPhy Energy.

FIRST HYDROGEN INJECTIONThe beginning of the actual demonstration

is the next step. Scheduled for 2018, it consists in injecting the first hydrogen molecules into the local natural gas distribution network that

supplies the homes and the boiler room at the health center. The proportion of hydrogen in the natural gas will be variable because it is dependent on the availability of green electri-city, while remaining below the limit of 20 % by volume to comply with the gas network’s safety regulations. Measurements recorded during the demonstration will be used to evaluate the bene-fits of power-to-gas solutions (see boxed text on opposite page) in terms of the technical operation of the equipment, economy, societal acceptance and life cycle analysis.

This new energy chain will concretely demonstrate the link between the electricity and gas systems through the value given to variable and available renewable electricity production by means of the green hydrogen. Definitely something to take into account when looking for a home!

REFERENCES

www.grhyd.frTwitter @ProjetGrhyd

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Are you an investor or a local authority with a project to develop a hydrogen supply chain? Perhaps you are not quite sure how to approach the question? You are not

alone, by far. In fact, more and more munici-palities, regions and companies want to deve-lop local renewable energy production and/or clean energy uses. Before making any deci-sions, you’ll need to address several questions. What is the most suitable plant size and supply chain architecture? What are the most relevant production technologies? What are the rele-vant hydrogen characteristics (pressure, purity) to take into account? What are the best means of transport and distribution? Which economic model best meets your require-ments? Faced with so many different aspects to consider, wouldn’t a little help be welcome? Look no further because the tool you need is here: COSTHY (COST of HYdrogen).

COSTHY is a simulation and decision sup-port tool created in 2013 by ENGIE Lab CRIGEN’s hydrogen team, who use it for a wide variety of technical and economic projections, both for its own projects and those of its clients. COSTHY adapts to each scenario, taking into account the context and the main elements of the local energy policy to offer tai-lor-made solutions for different time frames.

COSTHY UNDER THE SPOTLIGHTCOSTHY is constantly updated to integrate

the results of our in depth technical surveil-lance and economic monitoring, capitalized upon in a catalog of major technologies (elec-trolyzers, storage solutions, compressors, uses), organized by technology type and by supplier. It also takes into account new knowledge and expertise sourced from the pro-jects in which ENGIE Lab CRIGEN is involved, both in France and internationally.

The COSTHY modeling and decision sup-port tool is used for both the hydrogen and hydrogen / natural gas processes (Hythane©), as well as for the Power-to-Gas (see boxed text on page 8) and Power-to-Liquid sectors. These

Tailor-madehydrogen supply chainsCOSTHY helps to define the optimal architecture of a hydrogen supply chain (production, storage, distribution, usage), while keeping the cost as low as possible.

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Another example is the MHYRABEL project. ENGIE Lab CRIGEN used COSTHY in the first

phase of this project, which is supported by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and led by SODEGER, a mixed economy company comprising Audunois community of communes (North East France) and ENGIE Green.The goal was to develop, build and operate renewable energy production lines. The first phase consisted in studying the development of the hydrogen supply chains that were best adapted to the local energy ecosystem, in particular for the valorization of energy from a wind farm owned by SODEGER and local energy uses (storage, mobility, CHP, synthetic methane), in an “area with positive energy for a green growth approach”.Thanks to COSTHY, ENGIE Lab CRIGEN identified the optimal hydrogen supply chain architecture for a mobility application in two different configurations. The first is decentralized: each refueling station has its own equipment for the production, storage and distribution of hydrogen. In the second scenario, hydrogen production is centralized near the wind farm, from where trucks transport hydrogen to the refueling stations.

1. How to optimize a hydrogen supply chain based on a wind farm?

COSTHY has the answer.

AUTHORSSANDRA CAPELA, MYRIAM DE SAINT JEAN, CAMEL MAKHLOUFI AND MATHILDE JEGOUX ENGIE Lab CRIGEN

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last two include the use of hydrogen and recycled CO2 to produce, respectively, methane and synthetic liquid hydrocarbons. Another important feature of COSTHY is that it takes into account the time frame in the modeled chain, either for the supply of electricity or for the consumption of hydrogen.

COSTHY defines the temporal profile of each feedstock in the hydrogen supply chain which is under study, with hourly data repre-sentative of the real-life implementation of a conventional electricity grid, PV or wind park. The tool allows a dynamic simulation (see figure 2) hour by hour of the conversion of elec-trical power into energy products by the various systems (electrolyzer, storage, com-pressor). Information on performance and costs used to model each piece of equipment is taken from the manufacturer’s data (in the case of technologies that are available on the market, or under development).

Thanks to COSTHY, we can also optimize the size of the production unit by varying the capacity of the key apparatus in the process. Optimization aims to achieve maximum satis-faction of demand, while minimizing costs. It

is also possible to precisely define the needs, once again on an hourly basis and hydrogen specifics (pressure, purity etc.) for each of the uses. Finally, COSTHY allows, for a given appli-cation, to calculate the updated production costs including investment and operating expenses.

Finally, by simulating real usage, COSTHY helps to define the optimal operation strategy for hydrogen production (load, number of hours of operation) and to prioritize the use of electricity when it is provided at the lowest cost, thereby maximizing the competitiveness of the hydrogen produced! In the end, we have therefore obtained all the costs associated with the optimal selected hydrogen supply chain: investment, operation, maintenance, purchase of materials and energy and the replacement of the electrolyzer depending on the duration of the project. The tool also provides an over-view of the quantity of hydrogen produced over

COSTHY AND WIND TURBINES

As part of the development of the Dieppe-Le Tréport offshore wind

farm, we studied the feasibility of coupling the wind farm to a local hydrogen production facility. The objective of this type of coupling is to adapt the park’s electricity production to demand. The study was undertaken in collaboration with ENGIE Lab CRIGEN using the COSTHY tool.Two scenarios were considered. In the first scenario, part of the wind farm’s production was put aside for the production of hydrogen; in the second, we added a number of wind turbines specifically dedicated to the production of hydrogen. In both cases, the technical and economic analysis highlighted the pertinence of hydrogen production and its potential, whether by using a dedicated platform for this purpose, or through the electric cable connected to the wind turbines. This type of innovative solution is one way forward and although we have decided not to apply it to the Dieppe-Le Tréport offshore wind project, we will be recommending further development within the ENGIE group.

BRUNO HERNANDEZ, project director Dieppe-Le Tréport offshore wind farm

the number of years in question, calculates the levelized production cost of hydrogen and the profitability of the project taking into account an estimated selling price and market demand.

So, whether you are an investor or a local authority representative, you will be able to launch the deployment of your hydrogen sup-ply chain with a clear, prior view of the associa-ted techno-economic issues.

2. Above: The energy source of the supplied hydrogen and the optimal compromise between hydrogen produced by the electrolyzer (in yellow), or stored at low pressure (LP – in light green) or at high pressure (HP – in dark green).Below: the optimal use of the hydrogen supplied by the electrolyzer, comparing direct consumption (in yellow) and storage (in green) and the power consumption of each process: electrolyzer, storage and compressor. Finally the usage of hydrogen storage capacity by different type.

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On November 12th 1783 in front of the Royal Academy of Science in Paris, Antoine Lavoisier stated that: “Water is not a strictly speaking an element […].

It is susceptible of decomposition and recom-position.” This statement went against the period’s mainstream ideas, according to which water was an elemental compound. And the father of modern chemistry added: “Thus water, independently from oxygen, which is one of its principles […] contains another one that is specific to water, […] and to which we have to define a name: none which seems more adequate than hydrogen.” These conclusions came after years of experiments. Today it takes just a few minutes to convince students: all you need to do is to ask them to carry out the elec-trolysis of water, which consists in splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen using an elec-tric current, in accordance with the equation: H2O + electricity -> H2 + ½ O2.

This experiment is also at the heart of energy transition for which hydrogen is a key vector. Indeed thanks to this compound, it is

possible use electrolysis to capture excess pro-duction of green power produced by photovol-taic panels. Hydrogen helps solve the problem of intermittent renewable energy sources. Once converted into hydrogen, power can be stored in large quantities, over long periods, and at a lower cost than with batteries. In addi-tion to power storage, hydrogen can also power electric vehicles, be injected into natural gas networks to make natural gas “greener”, be used to produce renewable methane, or pro-vide an energy resource for industry (for example in the manufacture of fertilizers or semi-conductors).

HOT IS BETTER!Let’s consider the electrolyzer, which is at

the heart of green hydrogen production. This system consists of two electrodes (an anode and a cathode) separated by an electrolyte (in which free ions carry the electric charge), as well as a catalyst (see boxed text opposite page). Today several technologies are mature, amongst which the alkaline electrolyzer (hydroxide ions are transported through an alkaline solution) and the proton exchange membrane (PEM). In the

The assets of high temperatureHigh-temperature electrolysis is both efficient and reversible and, as such, is the perfect way to make hydrogen the cornerstone of zero net energy buildings.

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latter, liquid electrolyte (the alkaline solution) is replaced by a solid polymer electrolyte. Both of these technologies work at low temperature, i.e. 100 °C, and present a conversion efficiency of around 70 %.

But better solutions are just around the corner with high-temperature electrolysis (about 800 °C), a process that is currently under development. This technique is used in solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOEC), which make conversion efficiencies of up to 95 % a possibility, provided that the system can be supplied with an external heat source in order to reduce power needs and thereby increase their electrical efficiency. This benefit in effi-ciency will significantly reduce hydrogen pro-duction costs (by around 30 %) when compared to low temperature technologies. It will also meet the needs of mass-scale hydrogen production when connected to a solar power plant, or any other large-scale renewable energy power source.

INSIDE AN ELECTROLYZERWhat precisely does an SOEC electrolyzer

consist of? (See figure 1). The SOEC uses a solid ceramic material as the electrolyte. This material comes from the fluorine family and is usually zirconia dioxide ZrO2 doped with yttria Y2O3 (YSZ). Doping facilitates the circulation of ions into the material. Other compounds can also be used within an SOEC, such as scandia stabilized zirconia SC2O3, or cerium oxide (CeO2). The cathode (the hydrogen electrode) is generally made of a hybrid compound called cermet (for ceramic and metal), nickel and YSZ. While the anode (the oxygen electrode) is commonly made of the perovskite class of

compounds, such as strontium doped manga-nite lanthanum (LSM) or strontium doped cobaltite lanthanum (LSC).

Above and beyond questions of efficiency, SOEC electrolyzers have another key advan-tage: they can operate in reverse mode, i.e. they can work as both an electrolyzer and a fuel cell. For the moment low-temperature electrolyzers cannot be reversed for technical reasons. In a fuel cell, the chemical energy of hydrogen is converted into electrical energy. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to produce water and elec-trical current, according to the reverse process of water electrolysis: H2 + ½ O2 -> H2O + elec-tricity. Similarly to electrolyzers, fuel cells are made of a stack of cells: each fuel cell

WATER ELECTROLYSIS

Electricity is used to split water into

hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2), thereby converting electrical energy into chemical energy.

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> comprises an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte (liquid or solid) and catalysts.

There are four main types of fuel cells, cha-racterized by the composition of the electrolyte and electrodes and their operating tempera-ture: AFC (Alkaline Fuel Cells), PEMFC (Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells), SOFC (Solid Oxide Fuel Cells) and PAFC (Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells). One last, but important advantage of SOEC over alkaline and PEM electrolyzers is that the latter require noble metal catalysts based on platinum; a high-temperature SOEC works with more conventional and lower priced catalysts (nic-kel, lanthanum, strontium etc).

THERE IS STILL NEED OF IMPROVEMENT

However the manufacture of electrolyzers will remain expensive for as long as production volumes remain low. Furthermore, the high-temperature operating conditions of SOEC result in a notably lower lifespan than alkaline electrolyzers, around one to two years, whereas alkaline electrolyzers can last for twenty years. Finally, SOEC are extremely sensitive to shut downs and must generally be operated

continuously in order to preserve their perfor-mance and lifespan. What can be done to improve this situation? It is a fact that solid oxide electrolysis cells, as we have already said, are still in the development stage and are the subject of a lot of domestic and international research. In France, ENGIE and CEA LITEN in Grenoble (see boxed text opposite page) have been working together for several years in order, on the one hand, to improve SOEC performance and robustness and on the other hand to guide their development towards achieving the best environmental and economic potential. High-temperature electrolysis could be adapted for highly efficient green hydrogen production and synthetic methane production by using the co-electrolysis of water and CO2 (H2O -> H2 + ½ O2 and CO2 -> CO + ½ O2) associated with a metha-nation reactor (CO2 + 4H2 -> CH4 + 2H2O). It could also be used to store energy thanks to the reversibility of SOEC systems.

Therefore hydrogen can be used as an elec-tricity storage solution in a building equipped with photovoltaic solar panels. Such an applica-tion should become more widespread, encou-raged by environmental objectives and the reduction in the cost of producing photovoltaic

MINERVE project (2012-2015)

Fundings : KIC InnoEnergy (Europe).Coordination : ENGIE.Partners : CEA, KIT, AGH and Solvay.

This first collaborative project allowed the development of a pilot lab that produced a cubic meter of syngas per hour. The project also proved for the first time the efficiency of high-temperature electrolysis.

CHOCHCO project (2014-2017)

Fundings : French Natioal Research Agency (ANR)Coordination : ENGIE.Partners : CEA, ICPEES and EnerCAT.

Following on from MINERVE, this project aimed to increase pressure within the stack, and to study the benefits of this increased pressure on efficiency and the quality of generated gas. The durability of the cells was also measured. The results from CEA test rigs have been used for Engie Lab Crigen simulation tools.

SOPHIA project (2014-2017)

Fundings : FCH-JU (Europe).Coordination : HyGEAR.Partners : ENGIE, VTT, EPFL, DLR, CEAet SOLID POWER.

The objective was to demonstrate the technical feasibility of a high-temperature electrolyzer coupled to a Concentrated Solar Power Plant (CSP). A 3 kW demonstrator was assembled and tested at DLR. The objective was to prove that CSP, thanks to its large power and heat production capacities, can provide the best operating conditions for an SOEC system.

A SERIES OF PROJECTS

ENGIE



REFERENCES

Ch. Graves et al., Eliminating degradation in solid oxide electrochemical cells by reversible operation, Nature Materials, vol. 14, pp. 239-244, 2015.

F. Chauveau et al., A new anode material for solid oxide electrolyser : The neodymium nickelate Nd2NiO4+

, Journal of Power Sources, vol. 195, pp. 744-749, 2010.

panels. A building (individual or collective hou-sing, offices etc) can become energy self-suffi-cient using intermittent solar energy, but only if it is also equipped with power storage solutions to ensure electricity is always available.

Electrochemical batteries would be a pos-sible solution for such storage purposes, but their cost is high, for instance in the range of 500 euros per kilowatt hour (kWh) for lithium-ion batteries. And as an individual house usually consumes on average, excluding hea-ting, between 2,000 and 4,000 kWh of electri-city per year, equipping the house in batteries would be a very costly investment. Too costly! Hydrogen is a relevant technical and economic alternative as it avoids the installation of large and expensive batteries.

SYLFEN ENTERS THE SCENESYLFEN is a start-up created in 2015. It has

developed the Smart Energy Hub storage solu-tion for buildings, which integrates a reversible SOEC electrolyzer. The Smart Energy Hub is a hybrid system, combining batteries with a hydrogen chain (a reversible electrolyzer and gaseous hydrogen storage). When connected to a building, such a system fulfills two main functions: it stores excess photovoltaic electri-city using batteries and hydrogen (generated by the electrolysis of water), and in fuel cell mode it produces electricity and heat (decen-tralized generation). The fuel can be either the stored hydrogen, or a back-up fuel such as bio-methane or natural gas.

These Smart Energy Hubs guarantee or improve the autonomy and energetic flexibility of buildings, by on the one hand meeting power and heat needs, and on the other hand, by sto-ring the electricity produced by the solar panels over several days or weeks. These hubs can also be adjusted and their parameters defined by the users.

Reversible electrolysis unites three main advantages that can be summarized as follows. Firstly the overall cost of the system is lower: as the electrolyzer can also act as fuel cell, it avoids the need to purchase additional costly equipment. Secondly, the overall efficiency of the hydrogen chain is better than one using low-temperature electrolysis. And thirdly, reversibility increases the lifespan of the high-temperature electrolyzer, a fact that was pro-ven in 2014 by Christopher Graves and his colleagues from the Danish Technical University (DTU) in Roskilde, who showed that switching between electrolysis and fuel cell modes on a SOEC system can increase its lifespan by reducing the negative effects of oxygen on the electrodes.

The system proposed by SYLFEN is based on electrolysis modules with a nominal power output of 40 kW. The number of modules

CEA AT HIGH-TEMPERATURE

CEA Liten started the development of high-temperature electrolysis eleven years ago in the perspective of the future

mass-production of hydrogen with high efficiency and optimized costs, solving the equation between performance, durability and cost. This objective led to several ambitious technological choices, notably at the stack level, i.e. the assembly of cells generating hydrogen and oxygen. For the sake of compactness and cost, the interconnections ensuring the distribution of fluids and electricity are made out of thin stainless steel. Sealing has been improved in order to avoid losing part of the generated hydrogen and also to guarantee the high robustness of the stack in transient modes. Cells within the stacks are “cathode-supported cells”, with optimized materials and micro-structures to maximize performance. CEA has a portfolio of more than 30 patents on SOEC, which makes it one of the first patent holders in the field worldwide. CEA LITEN has validated SOEC technology in its laboratories, in several operating conditions and at cell, stack and system levels, in the objective to identify the optimum compromise between performance and durability. The relevance of SOEC has been demonstrated at representative scale and a technological transfer has been initiated toward SYLFEN for its Smart Energy Hub.

FLORENCE LAMBERT, Director of CEA LITEN

required is defined according to the needs and energy profile of the building. ENGIE has decided to collaborate with SYLFEN on a tech-nical level with the participation of its ENGIE Lab CRIGEN R&D team in the three mains steps to come. In 2018 SMARTHYES, a first ¼ scale prototype of the final equipment will be tested at ENGIE Lab CRIGEN in Saint-Denis, near Paris. The objective of this first test is to demonstrate for the first time the functionali-ties of the system (reversibility, cogeneration, automated operation) on a small-scale com-plete system prototype. The following year, a second prototype, full-scale this time, will nor-mally be tested in real conditions, also at Engie Lab Crigen, where it will be connected to one of the office buildings and part of the “SPHYNX & Co” program sponsored by ADEME. This pro-ject will allow further exploration of the perfor-mance of this new technology. And finally in 2020, a pre-production prototype system will be deployed and tested on an industrial site in Italy, within the framework of the European R&D program “REFLEX”, sponsored by FCH-JU (Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking). These three milestones are in the continuity of several projects with ENGIE and other partners over the past years, which have demonstrated some of the benefits of SOEC (see boxed text opposite page).

In the coming years, school pupils will no longer have to do an experiment to check Lavoisier’s claims: the school’s heating and lighting will be proof enough!



When it comes to electricity we are not all in the same boat. According to the International Energy Agency,

1.2 billion human beings, in other words 17 % of the world’s population, mainly in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, do not have access to elec-tricity! Of course we must remedy this situa-tion, but without neglecting the climatic and environmental issues that impose, at an inter-national level, the transition towards the mas-sive use of renewable energies. This new vision of the energy mix, which by nature often inte-grates intermittent sources, invites us to recon-sider our plans and to shift towards an increasingly decentralized distribution system. In this respect, drawing on local resources to limit the transport of fossil fuels is a key aspect for remote sites.

Within this framework microgrids provide the best solution. These small, independent networks collect and distribute decentralized, locally produced energy. They are particularly well suited to meeting electrification needs in South-East Asia, where there is a high degree of insularity and an infrastructure that is some-times limited. Indeed it is often impossible to connect islands to the national grid.

WELCOME TO SEMAKAUIn these so-called off-grid regions, i.e. not

connected to the national grid, microgrids pro-vide a reliable and sustainable solution. What is at stake is managing energy supply (electri-city, wind and solar power and biogas etc), connectivity and grid stability, whilst taking into account the characteristics of the various constituent parts of the microgrid, e.g. storage and production units, user demand and

Off the coast of Singapore, an island is becoming a full-scale laboratory for the deployment of an autonomous energy network, a multi-energy microgrid – and hydrogen is a key element.

Using hydrogen to reachself-sufficiency

questions of mobility. A solution of this type is being installed on Semakau Island, which lies eight kilometers off the coast of Singapore.

Covering a land area of two square kilome-ters (21.53 million square feet), Semakau is currently used as a landfill site for ashes from Singapore’s waste incineration plant. Part of the area has been allocated to Nanyang Technological University’s Energy Research Institute (ERIAN) so that it can pilot the REIDS initiative (Renewable Energy Integration Demonstrator - Singapore), a major project dedicated to the development of the world’s largest microgrid demonstrator in the tropics. REIDS is backed by Singapore EDB (Economic Development Board) and the NEA (National Environment Agency), two of the country’s most influential governmental entities. ENGIE Lab Singapore, ENGIE’s local expertise center, is developing an innovative microgrid - SPORE (Sustainable Powering of Off-Grid Regions) - on the island in partnership with Schneider Electric.

So what is the current state of play in terms of the installation? In addition to solar panels and an Ineo battery, a crucial milestone was reached with the erection of the Xant wind tur-bine in October 2017, the highest in Singapore, which was especially designed for an off-grid configuration. Another major event was the delivery of a McPhy hydrogen refueling station and a Symbio FCell hydrogen car. The latter is part of a complete, so-called power-to-power hydrogen chain, which will be implemented on the island in the future and entirely connected to the microgrid. SPORE’s key element is a ‘hydrogen brick’ designed to store surplus energy in gaseous form and match energy gene-ration to demand, thereby increasing the grid’s flexibility

1. The linchpin of the

SPORE microgrid is

Semakau Island’s wind

turbine. © ENGIE

AUTHORSJULIE DALLARD, ANTOINE BALLEREAU, XIAOYANG PENG AND ÉTIENNE DROUETENGIE Lab SINGAPORE

ENGIE


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Here hydrogen is used as a complement to batteries, which are the ‘conventional’ solution for storing electricity. The microgrid’s Ineo battery is a 200 kW / 200 kWh energy storage system. Whereas batteries are more suitable for short-term storage (in our case the average daily electrical consumption of 5 to 10 house-holds), hydrogen is more advantageous in the long term, particularly to mitigate the impact of seasonal changes. Moreover with hydrogen, and depending on its use, storage capacity is easier to modulate because it is only limited by the size of the tanks. SPORE has a storage capa-city of 2 megawatt-hours for 80 kilograms of hydrogen.

HYDROGEN REFUELINGThe microgrid also integrates the hydrogen

production required by a vehicle Hydrogen Refueling Station (HRS). Hydrogen provides a green fuel that is directly produced and consumed on site and is, as such, a major asset in allowing remote regions to be energy self-sufficient. On Semakau, the station can refill up to 20 vehicles per day in just 5 minutes per vehicle and for a range of 200 kilometers, in addition to their existing autonomy.

As illustrated by SPORE, hydrogen is very versatile. It can be used to store electricity in combination with batteries and is particularly well suited to renewable sources that are cha-racterized by frequent surpluses of production and an inherent intermittence. It can also be use as a ‘green’ fuel for mobility solutions.

The complete power-to-power chain contributes to ensuring grid stability, while integrating the classical microgrid pattern. Its association with the other parts of the

microgrid is optimized by management tools such as the Power Management System (PMS) designed by Schneider Electric and ENGIE’s multi-fluid and multi-energy Energy Management System (EMS).

The PMS ensures the stability of the grid in a real-time basis by balancing production, sto-rage and consumption and takes up the chal-lenge of maximizing renewable penetration in line with short-term demand. The EMS is dedi-cated to optimizing the microgrid in the medium term and its algorithm integrates wea-ther forecasts in order to model intermittent renewable energy production with regard to changing weather conditions. Its software also models consumer demand using historical data. It also manages the grid’s fluids, such as biogas and hydrogen, which play a key role both for the microgrid itself and mobility applications.

This is a totally innovative approach. The technologies used to optimize a small-scale grid take up the challenges faced in developing microgrids, particularly in remote areas. Our desire to incorporate the highest proportion possible of renewable energies significantly affects grid stability and the SPORE demons-trator is an essential tool for validating the integration and optimization of different

3. Semakau Island’s first hydrogen-powered car and the green hydrogen refueling station.

technologies, from their installation to their operation. As soon as it is commissioned, the microgrid will become a full-scale laboratory for testing and setting up new, innovative, smart grid solutions. SPORE will then be a replicable technological model for ENGIE with a view to the deployment of further microgrids, something that will change for the better the future of many territories and not just islands.

MICROGRID

2. If Semakau Island is energy self-sufficient, it is thanks to a complete hydrogen chain (connected to the microgrid) that goes from production and storage to its use as either electricity or fuel.

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On site Hydrogen pipe for transport and storage

Innovative 350-700 bars hydrogen refueling station with opportunity toplug new technologies in parallel

Compression(500/ 900 bars)

Storage HP 900 bars - Trailers Site limit

Local PV power

Recycling of H2 product from Lab test of highly innovative technology

Power from regional renewable

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On site electrolysis

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Breakthrough innovative reversible

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building

Paris and its region are prepa-ring to host several major international events. The orga-nizers would like them to be exemplary in more than one way, and especially from an envi-

ronmental standpoint. They have already announced they were aiming for a zero carbon target! Is that a crazy bet? Not necessarily, and the SPHYNX project can help them to meet the challenge. But what exactly is this project? SPHYNX is part of the “Nouvelle France Industrielle”, a program to re-industrialize the area, which was launched in 2015. Its goal is to support companies on the path of innovation. In May 2016, a call for projects to accelerate the deployment of the hydrogen sector in France was launched. ENGIE submitted six-teen projects in partnership with several French territories: eleven of them were accepted.

A LIVING LABThese projects aim to

demonstrate, on a territorial scale, the techno-economic feasibility and the environ-mental interest of using hydrogen in combination with local energy uses and networks. SPHYNX, which is directly led by ENGIE, is one of them. ENGIE is currently in negotiation with public agencies in order to obtain the financial support neces-sary to bring SPHYNX to fruition.

SPHYNX proposes the development of two ecosys-tems centered on green hydrogen located to the north and south of Paris. They are deployed around two exem-plary and replicable, “top-of-the-line” ENGIE hydrogen mobility filling stations, in

The SPHYNX project consists in the installation of a highly innovative and complete green hydrogen chain, from production to valorization, to meet the energy challenges of a territory in France.

An ecosystem ready to compete

partnership with its subsidiary GNVERT. The southern location is at the Orly-Rungis cluster; the northern installation is a partnership with Plaine Commune (an urban community com-prising nine towns around Saint Denis) and Plaine Commune Promotion (an association that brings together local authorities and com-panies in the area). This aspect of the SPHYNX project is the responsibility of ENGIE Lab CRIGEN, which aims to combine R & D activi-ties and industrial deployment within a living lab of hydrogen technologies.

“SPHYNX North” will combine tried and tested equipment with new innovative techno-logies. The former will be used for a hydrogen refueling station for mobility applications and the latter will be connected in parallel and tested in real-life situations in order to evaluate its performance and the improvements needed to gain industrial maturity. Such a coupling is a real engineering challenge that offers technical and economic benefits and which can accelerate the development of the hydrogen sector.

1. Anatomy of the SPHYNX project.

AUTHORSHÉLÈNE PIERRE, LAURENT BARATON, GUILLAUME PEUREUX AND QUENTIN NOUVELOT ENGIE Lab CRIGEN

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3 QUESTIONS

FOR

Why are Saint-Denis and Plaine Commune supporting SPHYNX?

We decided to support SPHYNX because the project vehicles a high level of ecological and social innovation. It is our priority to look towards alternative energy solutions, especially in the context of the major deadlines facing us, notably the 2024 Olympic and Paralympic Games. Saint-Denis will be at the heart of this important event and it is essential that the town be at the forefront of this research.

What outcome do you expect?Today we are still in the

experimental phase: the challenge is to see how these new energies will improve the life of local residents.

It is this vision that we bring with our support for this innovative system.

Are any other projects of this type planned?

Today Plaine Commune and more particularly Saint-Denis present the highest level of economic dynamism and are the most attractive areas to companies and investors in the Île-de-France region. The visibility of our territory must provide a means to showcase French creativity in research and new technologies. So to answer your question, yes we will be working on lots of other projects around energy and many other areas (digital, mobility etc) over the next few years.

DIDIER PAILLARDVice-President of Plaine Commune and Deputy Mayor of Saint-Denis

Concretely, the SPHYNX project will consist in the establishment of a complete “green hydrogen” supply chain including pro-duction, packaging, storage and recovery (see figure 1). This green hydrogen will have two sources: local hydrogen will come from inno-vative production systems tested on a pilot scale by ENGIE Lab CRIGEN, such as direct coupling systems between hydrogen produc-tion and solar energy. Another part of the hydrogen will be produced using electrolysis powered by renewable sources, focusing as much as possible on local ones.

This green hydrogen will be distributed by an instrumented low-pressure network to the various stationary uses, the site’s laboratories and the hydrogen filling station. This station will be pressurized (350 and 700 bar) to serve any type of vehicle. With its scalable architec-ture, it will be able to adapt to growing demand. In addition, to help supply hydrogen to remote distribution sites, equipment for mobile storage of produced and compressed hydrogen will be available. The center of expertise will also closely involve innovative stakeholders (academic laboratories, start-ups and SMEs), ENGIE, local authorities and end-users.

HYDROGEN AT THE HEART OF THE TERRITORY

There are many advantages to such an eco-system. These include synergies between experimental resources that will accelerate the development to maturity of relevant tech-nologies. It also enables the development of a pragmatic method to assess emerging tech-nologies, one that is continuously updated thanks to the feedback of experimentation in industrial conditions. Finally, the partnership with Plaine Commune will facilitate the pro-gressive diffusion of these technologies within the area and will create a bridge between the pilot and market stages.

The SPHYNX North project will integrate perfectly into the design and environmental strategy of the Plaine Commune urban com-munity and become a showcase for French know-how in the field of hydrogen technolo-gies. All the synergies between public facilities and green hydrogen production and use within the SPHYNX project will be the subject of research and will prove the relevance of this

hydrogen chain.Green hydrogen

produced as part of the SPHYNX project will play a major role: it will be 100 % renewable and CO2-emission free. Its use will not cause any local pollution, whether from NOx or particle pollution. It’s a very competitive solu-tion that’s perfect for all the competitions that will be held in Saint Denis and throughout Plaine Commune!

THE HERMES PROJECT

Associated with the SPHYNX project, the HERMES project helps to determine the direct and indirect environmental

consequences of the development of a hydrogen mobility chain in Île-de-France Region. It is the result of a collaboration between ENGIE Lab CRIGEN and the Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology (LIST), supported by ADEME and the Luxembourg Research Fund. HERMES takes into account the socio-economic links of the studied project with those related to it. This is a first in France.The project is based on concrete experience feedback including those of the 50 ENGIE COFELY hydrogen vehicle fleet and will be based on different scenarios modeled on the basis of the actors’ behavior.

ANNE PRIEUR, ENGIE Lab CRIGEN

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According to official figures, more than 25,000 tankers sail the world’s oceans. Most of them are transporting oil, but a few hundred are filled with liquefied gas (butane or

methane). There are also bulk carriers specialized in coal transport. By means of these vessels, fossil energy is transported over long distances from the producing areas towards the consumer, but what about renewable energy?

The amount of energy that can be harvested from renewable sources, such as the sun, wind and hydropower, could easily satisfy the global energy demand, however these sources are mostly intermittent and not every part of the world has access to the same amount of renewable energy sources. Transporting this kind of energy is therefore increasingly beco-ming an important challenge - and the solution could well be hydrogen.

It is thought that hydrogen (H2) will play a major role in future energy systems, especially for mobility and industrial applications. It is a clean fuel with a very high gravimetric energy density (about 33 kilowatt-hour per kilogram (kWh/kg), which is 3 times more than gasoline), however because of hydrogen’s low density its volumetric energy density is also low. Even at a pressure of 700 bar, compressed hydrogen only has an energy density of around

1.3 kilowatt-hour per liter (kWh/L) which is about 7 times lower than 1 liter of gasoline (around 9.5 kWh/L). Therefore, using H2 as an energy vector implies the transport of enormous volumes, much higher than those seen in tradi-tional, long-distance maritime oil transport.

A second challenge is related to the size of the H2 molecule: it is extremely small and easily passes through a wide variety of materials making its containment challenging. Both of these challenges are depicted in figure 2, which plots volumetric energy density in function of H2 content and the different forms of hydrogen. All the options under consideration aim at increasing hydrogen’s volumetric energy den-sity, but none of them have succeeded up to now in reaching the same energy density as gasoline. The challenge of containment is clear: even for liquid H2, only 20 % of the transported weight is actually hydrogen.

Among the different transport solutions, liquid hydrogen (LH2) and the liquid organic hydrogen carrier (LOHC) systems are the most mature technologies. Apart from these solu-tions, a complete chemical conversion of hydrogen is also worthy of consideration: the reaction of hydrogen and nitrogen (N2) forms ammonia (NH3); with carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen can be converted into methane (CH4) or methanol (CH3OH). This study presents and compares these 4 hydrogen carrier systems.

Long distance hydrogen transport

How can renewable energy be transported? By converting it into green hydrogen, which can then be transported, for example by ship. But under which form is hydrogen best conveyed?

1. Kawasaki, in partnership with Australia and Shell, is building a transport vessel for liquid hydrogen. Will this kind of ship substitute LNG tankers one day?

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AUTHORSJAN MERTENS, CAROLINE HILLEGEER, HÉLÈNE LEPAUMIER, CAMEL MAKHLOUFI, LAURENT BARATON AND ISABELLE MORETTIENGIE DRT,ENGIE Lab LABORELEC,ENGIE Lab CRIGEN

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2. Comparison of different hydrogen transport technologies: LOHC – liquid organic hydrogen carriers; MOF – metal organic frameworks; GH

2 – gaseous

hydrogen; LH2 – liquid

hydrogen (from Reuss et al., 2017).

THE KAWASAKI OF THE SEASLiquid hydrogen seems promising. Japanese

group Kawasaki is building a liquid hydrogen carrier as part of a demonstration project. The ship will be the first of its kind and should be ready by 2020 (see figure 1). The difficulty resides in managing to bring the H2 down to an approximate temperature of -253 °C and kee-ping it there for the duration of a long-distance journey. Liquefaction is the most energy-consu-ming phase of this solution; taking between 20 % and 30 % of the energy contained in the hydrogen.

The LOHC system consists of an organic molecule that is ‘loaded’ with hydrogen at the production site and ‘unloaded’ close to the consumer. The idea behind using a liquid organic system is that transporting organic liquids is commonplace: oil tankers could easily do the job. Here the difficulties are related to the per-formance of both the hydrogenation (‘loading’) and dehydrogenation (‘unloading’) phases.

Heat is released during hydrogenation (exo-thermic) and typical reaction conditions are hydrogen pressures of 10 to 50 bar and tempe-ratures of 100 to 250 °C with Ni- or Ru- based catalysts. In contrast, dehydrogenation is endo-thermic with lower hydrogen pressures between 1 and 10 bar, but at high temperatures of 150 to 400 °C with an energy penalty of around 10 kWh/kg H2. If it is possible to valorize the released heat at the site of hydrogenation, whilst having access to waste heat at the site of dehydrogena-tion this carrier system is more attractive. The challenge is that in many cases there is little demand for heat in regions with abundant renewable resources and access to waste heat at temperatures of between 150 and 400 °C is also not very likely at the site of dehydrogenation.

The conversion of hydrogen into ammonia involves, apart from an electrolyzer for the pro-duction of H2, an air separation unit to deliver the N2 needed for the reaction. Transporting NH3 is a common technology today. To produce hydrocarbons, in addition to an electrolyzer, requires the capture of CO2 (unless the CO2 is recycled and transported back and forth on the same ship). Carbon capture is however a mature technology and methanization is already commercialized. Transporting LNG (in case of CH4) or methanol over long distances is also a mature technology and the infrastruc-tures are in place to do so.

For both the nitrogen and CO2 solutions, energy is released during hydrogenation that could be used for either the air separation unit (for the NH3) or the CO2 capture installation. For cracking (breaking molecules into smaller ones) at the site of use, heat is again needed to get back to pure H2. Although cracking of NH3 into a gas (75 % H2 and 25 % N2) is a mature technology, attaining pure H2 is not and it is the

subject of studies using different techniques (catalyst systems, membranes etc).

If methane is used as a vector, steam-methane reforming (SMR) is a well-known pro-cess (CH4 + H2O à CO + 3H2). Transport systems that require heat during hydrogenation and deli-ver energy during dehydrogenation could be interesting alternatives since easy and cheap access to renewable energy and the possible valorization of the energy released at the site of dehydrogenation is more likely than the opposite situation.

Does hydrogen transport imply risks? Since H2 is not really toxic, there are no toxicity issues to be expected for the LH2 route, in contrast it is highly flammable. For LOHC and NH3, there can be significant environmental and human toxicity issues that are, as far as LOHC is concerned, not always known in detail. For the CO2-based route, the issue of CO2 capture at the hydrogenation site and the emission of CO2 at the dehydrogenation site should also be investigated. Two sustainable options can be imagined: (i) CO2 capture from biogenic sources, or from the ambient air, and its release at the site of dehydrogenation resulting in a CO2 neutral process or (ii) CO2 capture at the site of dehydrogenation and CO2 recycling, i.e. shipping the CO2 back to the hydrogenation site to be re-used.

Although differences do exist between the 4 methods with respect to their energy efficiency, they all imply a significant energy penalty: a roundtrip efficiency of just under 50 % is com-mon. Apart from the energy penalty, technical challenges remain to be solved for all of the hydrogen carrier systems and therefore there is an urgency to test these technologies on a larger scale (other than lab or small pilot scale demons-trations as exist today). Moreover, detailed LCA for all hydrogen carrier systems is not available in literature today, despite the fact these studies will be crucial in the future to facilitate the decision on which technology is the best option for mari-time long distance hydrogen transport. The study shows that R&D efforts related to long-distance hydrogen transport need to increase to ensure that long-distance H2 transport will be part of the future energy system.

REFERENCES

M. Reuß et al., Seasonal storage and alternative carriers : A flexible hydrogen supply chain model, Applied Energy, vol. 200, pp. 290-302, 2017.

M. Markiewicz et al., Environmental and health impact assessment of Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC) systems – challenges and preliminary results, Energy Environ. Sci., vol. 8, pp. 1035-1045, 2015.

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The discovery of sources of natural hydrogen in several places around the world has revitalized dreams of a clean and cheap source of energy, but first of all we need to understand the origins of these seeps.

Natural Hydrogen: a new clean black gold?

Th e i n h a b i t a n t s o f Bourakébougou (Mali), 60 km northwest of Bamako, had always been aware of a kind of humming coming from below the ground. The

explanation came one day in 1987 when drilling for water, instead of which a gas was found which was composed of 98 % hydrogen and 2% methane. Today this field is exploited by Petroma and the discovery has turned the small town into a pioneer of natural hydrogen energy production. Is this site an exception or is it a sign of changes to come?

This example brings to mind the history of the petroleum industry. In ancient times, people in the Middle East could see crude oil leaking to the surface, most of the time along fault zones. It wasn’t long before the oil was used as a fuel, for caulking the hulls of boat and for mummifi-cation, however it took more than two millennia to understand from where the crude oil was seeping. In fact, such phenomena are the sign of a petroleum system: hydrocarbons are formed

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when organic matter deep beneath the earth’s surface is heated by the high ambient tempera-tures. As petroleum is less dense than water, it rises up to the surface through layers of porous rock, unless it encounters an impermeable layer that seals it in. Today some geologists are won-dering whether an equivalent hydrogen system exists, and if so, what geological conditions favor the presence of an exploitable hydrogen field. To answer this, it is necessary to unders-tand the origin of this hydrogen, how it flows through the geological strata (in a liquid or gaseous phase) and where it accumulates.

The Bourakébougou discovery, together with another made in Kansas when engineers were drilling for oil, revolutionized what was known at that time about molecular hydrogen (H2 dihydrogen). For a long time it was thought that this molecule could not accumulate due to its high chemical reactivity and very small molecular size. It was also thought that the only stratum that could eventually trap hydrogen was one composed of salt rock because it is almost entirely impermeable.

1 : ENGIE’s scientists measure hydrogen concentration in a similar depression in Brazil.

AUTHORSISABELLE MORETTI, ANGÉLIQUE DAGOSTINO, JULIEN WERLY, CARLOS GHOST, DIANE DEFRENNE AND LOUIS GORINTINENGIE DRT,ENGIE Lab CRIGEN,ENGIE Brazil

ENGIE


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2 : A LIDAR satellite image of the Carolina Bays along the East coast of the USA shows elliptic depressions where high quantities of hydrogen are released.

Current knowledge related to subsurface sources of hydrogen is still full of uncertainties, however certain chemical reactions of oxida-tion can provide interesting indications. The most studied cases are observed at mid-ocean ridges where upwelling hot mantle rocks (between 200° and 600° C) are transformed into serpentinite on contact with sea-water: the anaerobic oxidation of ferrous irons releases dihydrogen in accordance with the equation: Fe2+ + H20 J Fe3+ + ½ H2 + OH. Most of the time, the gas resulting from this phenomenon is to be found around the hydrothermal vents loca-ted along mid-ocean ridges.

Serpentinization of the oceanic crust can also be observed in subduction zones, where water temperature is lower and pH is high. However sourcing hydrogen on the ocean floor would not be easy and certainly not economi-cally viable today due to the high cost of deep-sea marine infrastructures and the corrosive ridge environment.

CONTINENTAL HYDROGENNevertheless, natural hydrogen is found in

less complex geological configurations on land, in particular in intracratonic basins; a craton is an old (more than 500 million years) part of the continental lithosphere. H2 seeps have been observed in Russia, in the US (see figure 2) and in France (in the Cotentin Peninsula). The

Where exactly in Brazil are you studying hydrogen seeps and what progress has been made in monitoring the sites?

We spent the first six months identifying the best targets. Brazil is a huge and geologically complex country. We have tested various geological contexts and can confirm that the most promising areas are in very old (Proterozoic) sedimentary formations, where organic matter is almost non-existent and where the oxidation-reduction conditions were more reductive than in other geological periods.

What have you already learned about these sites?

Previous hydrogen measurements in soil from around the world have probably been interpreted too simplistically. Thanks to this pre-monitoring with the new ENGIE sensors, we have realized the complexity of the physical and chemical

interactions between hydrogen and the geological formations during its migration. However, we now have a better understanding of the strategic challenges: the question is not simply finding hydrogen, which is relatively ubiquitous on the planet, but rather the most suitable places to exploit it.

Will it be possible to exploit natural hydrogen in the foreseeable future?

The recent success of four new, shallow, natural hydrogen exploration wells in Mali seems to augur well for other future industrial successes around the world, but it is too early to know whether Brazil provides the best opportunities, or whether the exploration of other regions of the world would be preferable in the light of newly acquired knowledge. The completion of the monitoring project should teach us a lot about future exploration for this new source of energy.

ALAIN PRINZHOFERscientific director of GEO4U, in Brazil

chemical phenomena at the origin of these gas seepages could be the same as observed on the ocean floor, i.e. anaerobic oxidation of ferrous irons releasing dihydrogen. Old rocks from these cratons are perfectly suited for this reac-tion because, as oxygen was rare or almost absent from the atmosphere when they were formed, these rocks were not oxydized. The first organism capable of photosynthesis (and therefore of generating oxygen) appeared 2.5 billion years ago, however the oxygen pro-duced was immediately used in oxidation elsewhere and it was only when the level of atmospheric oxygen reached 21 %, about

1 billion years ago (with a variation of between 10 % and 35 %) that oxidation became pos-sible. As it is highly probable that these old rocks didn’t undergo oxidation in the past, they should have a high potential for oxidation when brought into contact with water and should consequentially release large quantities of hydrogen.

The other hydrogen generation system that has already been identified is the activity of acetic acid bacteria which oxidize organic mat-ter releasing dihydrogen. At very high tempe-ratures, this same organic matter releases additional hydrogen. In the 19th century, this

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3 : A permanent sensor network to monitor hydrogen emissions is being installed in Brazil.

been working to design new permanent hydrogen sensors.

The hydrogen sensors available on the mar-ket today only register a single measurement at a given time, which makes it difficult to apprehend the temporal variability of the gas outflow. From one day to another, researchers have observed variations in the rate of flow and location of the hydrogen seepage. Hydrogen could stop seeping in one area and start somewhere nearby, which is why it is so impor-tant to be able to monitor natural hydrogen emanation in the long-term and measure a continuous signal in order to establish a rela-tionship with external parameters such as tem-perature and hydrometry.

Certain other technical aspects must be taken into consideration. The device should suck a small amount of gas from underground without disrupting the equilibrium, analyze it and then be able to transmit the readings to the operator via an antenna (see figure 3). Sensors must have several months’ autonomy. In remote areas it is not always possible to rely on cellular phone communication to transmit data.

Based on classical measurements of hydrogen emissions, we are currently selecting a favorable area to install a continuous moni-toring system. We wish to understand in detail the mechanisms of underground hydrogen pro-duction. We have high hopes because the hydrogen is probably at a shallow depth and being produced continuously, therefore it pro-mises a real chance of obtaining an economical and sustainable clean energy.

phenomenon was apparent in the “town gas” made from coal and today it can be seen in bio-mass-produced syngas.

If we have quite a good understanding of global chemical reactions, we still need to better quantify natural hydrogen emission phenomena in order to estimate the potential of this new energy source. The main question is that of the kinetics of oxidation. As often in chemistry, we can guess that temperature and pressure are key parameters, however the water and rock chemistry could also play a role if some elements act as a catalyst. If the kine-tics are rapid, hydrogen production would have a time scale compatible with human life. Exploration wouldn’t have to focus on zones where hydrogen accumulates, but could instead capture H2 directly where it is generated at the contact between the aquifer and the oxidisable rock (as seems to be the case in Mali).

Another important question remains about what happens to H2 on the surface. This chemi-cal compound is soluble in water at high pres-sures and in consequence doesn’t remain in a gaseous phase. Subsurface the Earth’s tempe-rature increases by 30° C per km, so it would only seem possible to find gaseous H2 at a very shallow depth, at most a few hundred meters. Below this depth, hydrogen is totally soluble in water. In addition, because of hydrogen’s high chemical reactivity, it tends to combine easily with other elements. It can be trapped in cer-tain rocks, when it is absorbed by organic mat-ter and clay. Nevertheless hydrogen emission levels observed at the surface allow us to be optimistic: the volume measured indicates that part of the hydrogen generated does indeed manage to reach the surface.

THE FACTS UNDERLYING THIS DYNAMIC

ENGIE is currently working at different levels to address this issue, first of all by stu-dying, in partnership with the French Institute of Petroleum and Renewable Energies (IFPen), the reactions between hydrogen and aquifers depending on depth and salinity. Secondly, with the CNRS in Grenoble, we are trying to model hydrogen migration in the subsurface and its interactions with the dif-ferent elements it potentially encounters. Finally, with GEO4U and ENGIE Brazil, we are monitoring hydrogen seeps in various Brazilian basins (see figure 1). In Brazil, a main part of the subsurface is made up of old cra-tons, rocks which, as previously mentioned, could release hydrogen when in contact with water. We need to improve our understanding of the dynamics of natural hydrogen. Is it released continuously and in a sufficient volume for industrial use? To reach this objec-tive, researchers from ENGIE lab Crigen have

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ENGIE’s ambition is to be a leader in the new world of energy. To reach this goal new techno-

logies are crucial, however they do not all see the light of day in our laboratories. Collaborative research is therefore fundamental, just as much as interacting with start-ups and business incubators.

Depending on the topic, we make the best use of our strengths and those available outside the group to find a solution as quickly as possible and bring it to maturity, especially by using pilot sche-mes if the project is still in its infancy. Our partners may be the research centers of our counterparts in the energy supply industry, but we have also esta-blished close links with institutional research cen-ters such as IMEC and CEA, and university research centers, for example Nanyang Technological Uni-versity in Singapore. We may work in a bilateral collaboration or with several partners.

ENGIE is present in 70 countries and therefore its research efforts are deployed across five conti-nents. Our two largest R & D centers are the ENGIE lab CRIGEN in Saint-Denis (to the north of Paris) and Laborelec, which is located in Linkebeek (to the south of Brussels). We are also based in Lyon and there are ENGIE Labs in Chile, Brazil, Singa-pore and the Middle East, as well as labs we share with partners in many other countries.

The topics covered are as varied as the new world of energy itself. In terms of energy produc-tion, we are studying solar power, wind power, biogas, hydrology, as well as hydrogen of course. We are also interested in smart and sustainable energy distribution to which our work on smart grids, smart buildings, green mobility and Industry 4.0 bears witness. Energy storage is an equally important issue so we also test batteries, flywheels, phase change materials and hydrogen.

Do you dream of contributing to changing the world of energy? Then join us!

R & D AT ENGIE AND OUR STRONG RESEARCH ECOSYSTEM

ENGIE LAB CRIGEN

ENGIE Lab CRIGEN is Engie’s R & D center and a part of the global ENGIE Lab network: it notably hosts

the Hydrogen R & D teams. Boasting more than 200 researchers, ENGIE Lab CRIGEN brings together in its European location unrivaled key skills and test facilities to develop the energy solutions of tomorrow. However, to quote the laboratory’s director Bernard Blez: “The key element for us is finding and working with the right partners. For many years, we have been developing a global international ecosystem of partners with startups, academic laboratories and large public and private research laboratories, not to mention scientific associations and international professional organizations in the field of energy”.

THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF A SUCCESSFUL ENERGY TRANSITION

In addition to theoretical questions, there are concrete industrial matters that must be addressed and that is

why we maintain and encourage a fruitful dialogue between industrialists, researchers and students. One example was the “Let’s Build Tomorrow’s World” conference that brought together MINES ParisTech, Paris-Dauphine and ENGIE. By working together, large corporations, start-ups and academics can take up the industrial and scientific challenges and develop effective strategies for sustainable innovation.

VALÉRIE ARCHAMBAULT, Deputy Research Director at MINES

ParisTech – Université PSL.

Research center Laborelec near Brusells

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AUTHORISABELLE MORETTI

REFERENCES

www.engie.com/candidats/travailler-chez-engie



#UnitedBeyondEnergyENGIE works closely with entrepreneurs,

startups and experts to innovate and

co-create energy solutions of tomorrow.

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