Hunting - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

8/12/2019 Hunting - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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15/3/2014 Hunting - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Boar hunting, Tacuinum Sanitatis (amedieval handbook on health andwellbeing) casanatensis (14thcentury)

Albert Gleizes,La Chasse (The Hunt),1911, oil on canvas, 123.2 x 99 cm.Published in "Les Peintre Cubistes"1913, by Guillaume Apollinaire.Exhibited at the 1911 Salond'Automne and the Salon de laSection d'Or, Paris, 1912

HuntingFrom Wikipedia,the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Hunter)

Huntingis the practice of killing or trapping any living organism, orpursuing it with the intent of doing so. Hunting wildlife or feral animals

is most commonly done by humans for food, recreation, or trade.Animals may also hunt other animal species, but this is usually calledpredation. In present-day use, lawful hunting is distinguished frompoaching, which is the killing, trapping or capture of the huntedspecies contrary to applicable law. The species that are hunted arereferred to as game and are usually mammals and migratory or non-migratory gamebirds.

Hunting can also involve the elimination of vermin, as a means ofpestcontrol to prevent diseases caused by overpopulation. Hunting

advocates state that hunting can be a necessary component[1]

ofmodern wildlife management, forexample,to help maintain apopulation of healthyanimals within an environment's ecologicalcarrying capacity when natural checks such as predators areabsent.[2]In the United States, wildlife managers are frequently partof hunting regulatory and licensing bodies, where they help to setruleson the number, manner and conditions in which game may be hunted.

The pursuit, capture and release, or capture for food of fish is calledfishing, which is not commonly categorised as a form of hunting.

Trapping is also usually considered a separate activity. It is also notconsidered hunting to pursue animals without intent to kill them, as inwildlife photography or birdwatching. The practice of foraging orgathering materials from plants and mushrooms is also consideredseparate.

Skillful tracking and acquisition of an elusive target has caused thewordhuntto be used in the vernacular as a metaphor, as in treasurehunting, "bargain hunting", and even "hunting down corruption andwaste".

Contents

1 History1.1 Paleolithic

1.1.1 Criticism1.2 Antiquity1.3 Pastoral and agricultural societies

1.4 Use of dogs2 Religion

2.1 Indian and Eastern religions2.2 Christianity, Judaism, and Islam
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Mughal Aristocracy hunting aBlackbuck alongside an AsiaticCheetah

3 National traditions3.1 New Zealand3.2 Shikar(India)3.3 Safari3.4 United Kingdom3.5 United States

3.5.1 Shooting

3.5.2 Regulation3.5.3 Varmint hunting3.5.4 Fair chase3.5.5 Ranches

3.6 Russia3.7 Australia3.8 Japan

4 Wildlife management4.1 Bag limits

4.2 Closed and open season4.3 Laws5 Methods6 Trophy hunting

6.1 History6.2 Controversy

7 Economics8 Conservation

8.1 PittmanRobertson Wildlife Restoration Act of1937

8.2 Federal Duck Stamp program8.3 Arabian Oryx8.4 Markhor8.5 American Bison

9 See also10 References11 Further reading12 External links

History

Paleolithic

Further information: Hunting hypothesis and Endurance running hypothesis

Hunting has a long history and may well pre-date the rise of the speciesHomo sapiens. While our earliestHominid ancestors were probably frugivores or omnivores, there is evidence that earlierHomospecies,[3][4]

and possibly also australopithecine[5]species, utilised larger animals for subsistence.
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Moche deer hunting scene, LarcoMuseum Collection, Lima, Peru

Ancient Greek black-figure potterydepicting the return of a hunter andhis dog. Made in Athens between550530 BCE, found in Rhodes.

Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading toextinctions of the holocene megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores.[6]It has been found that theNorth American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, possibly makinghunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought.[7]However, in otherlocations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of theAustralian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation.[8][9]

Of the closest surviving relatives of the human species,Pan, the common chimpanzee, has an omnivorous dietthat includes troop hunting behaviour based on beta males being led by an alpha male. Another species ofchimpanzee, the bonobo, has also been observed to engage in group hunting,[10]but eats a mostly frugivorousdiet.[11]

While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of theHomogenus from the earlier Australopithecines, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control offire, are emphasised in the hunting hypothesis and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and socialinteraction, including mating behaviour, as essential in the emergence of human behavioural modernity. With theestablishment of language, culture, and religion, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as rituals

such as dance and animal sacrifice.

Hunting was a crucial component of hunter-gatherer societies before the domestication of livestock and thedawn of agriculture, beginning about 11,000 years ago. By the Mesolithic, hunting strategies had diversified withthe development of the bow 18,000 years ago and the domestication of the dog about 15,000 years ago. Thereis fossil evidence for spear use in Asian hunting dating from approximately 16,200 years ago.[12]

Many species of animals have been hunted throughout history. It hasbeen suggested that in North America and Eurasia, Caribou and wildreindeer "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the

entire anthropological literature on hunting"[13](see also ReindeerAge), although the varying importance of different species woulddepend on the geographic location.

Hunter-gathering lifestyles remained prevalent in some parts of theNew World, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Siberia, as well as all ofAustralia, until the European Age of Discovery. They still persist insome tribal societies, albeit in rapid decline. Peoples that preservedpaleolithic hunting-gathering until the recent past include someindigenous peoples of the Amazonas (Ach), some Central and

Southern African (San people), some peoples of New Guinea (Fayu),the Mlabri of Thailand and Laos, the Vedda people of Sri Lanka, anda handful of uncontacted peoples. In Africa, the only remaining full-time hunter-gatherers are the Hadza of Tanzania.

Criticism

Archaeologist Louis Binford criticised the idea that early hominids andearly humans were hunters. On the basis of the analysis of the skeletal

remains of the consumed animals, he concluded that hominids andearly humans were mostly scavengers, not hunters,[14]and this idea ispopular among some archaeologists and paleoanthropologists. Robert
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Artemis with a Hind, aRoman copy of an AncientGreek sculpture, c. 325 BC,by Leochares

An example of a Goguryeo tombmural of hunting

Ladies hunting in the fifteenth century

Blumenschine proposed the idea of confrontational scavenging,[15]which involves challenging and scaring offother predators afterthey have made a kill, which he suggests could havebeen the leading method of obtaining protein-rich meat by early humans.

Antiquity

Even as animal domestication became relatively widespread and after the

development of agriculture, hunting was usually a significant contributor to thehuman food supply. The supplementary meat and materials from huntingincluded protein, bone for implements, sinew for cordage, fur, feathers,rawhide and leather used in clothing. Man's earliest hunting weapons wouldhave included rocks, spears, the atlatl, and bows and arrows. Hunting is stillvital in marginal climates, especially those unsuited for pastoral uses oragriculture.[citation needed]For example, Inuit people in the Arctic trap andhunt animals for clothing and use the skins of sea mammals to make kayaks,clothing, and footwear.

On ancient reliefs, especially fromMesopotamia, kings are oftendepicted as hunters of big gamesuch as lions and are oftenportrayed hunting from a war chariot. The cultural and psychologicalimportance of hunting in ancient societies is represented by deitiessuch as the horned god Cernunnos and lunar goddesses of classicalantiquity, the Greek Artemis or Roman Diana. Taboos are oftenrelated to hunting, and mythological association of prey species with adivinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions such as a reserve

surrounding a temple. Euripides' tale of Artemis and Actaeon, for example, may be seen as a caution againstdisrespect of prey or impudent boasting.

With the domestication of the dog, birds of prey, and the ferret, various forms of animal-aided huntingdeveloped, including venery (scent hound hunting, such as fox hunting), coursing (sight hound hunting), falconry,and ferreting. While these are all associated with medieval hunting, over time, various dog breeds were selectedfor very precise tasks during the hunt, reflected in such names as pointer and setter.

Pastoral and agricultural societies

Even as agriculture and animal husbandry became more prevalent,hunting often remained as a part of human culture where theenvironment and social conditions allowed. Hunter-gatherer societiespersisted, even when increasingly confined to marginal areas. Andwithin agricultural systems, hunting served to kill animals that preyupon domestic and wild animals or to attempt to extirpate animalsseen by humans as competition for resources such as water or forage.

When hunting moved from a subsistence activity to a social one, two

trends emerged:1. the development of the role of the specialist hunter, with special

training and equipment2. the co-option of hunting as a "sport" for those of an upper social class
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Tapestry with a hunting sceneshowing the coat of arms of DymitrChalecki, 16th century

Hunting dogs with pheasants

The meaning of the wordgamein Middle English evolved to include an animal which is hunted. As gamebecame more of a luxury than a necessity, the stylised pursuit of it also became a luxury. Dangerous hunting,such as for lions or wild boars, often done on horseback or from achariot, had a function similar to tournaments and manly sports.Hunting ranked as an honourable, somewhat competitive pastime tohelp the aristocracy practice skills of war in times of peace.[16]

In most parts of medieval Europe, the upper class obtained the solerights to hunt in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areaswas used as a source of food and furs, often provided viaprofessional huntsmen, but it was also expected to provide a form ofrecreation for the aristocracy. The importance of this proprietary viewof game can be seen in the Robin Hood legends, in which one of theprimary charges against the outlaws is that they "hunt the King's deer".In contrast, settlers in Anglophone colonies gloried democratically inhunting for all.[17]

In Medieval Europe, hunting was considered part of the set ofsevenmechanical arts.

Use of dogs

Although various animals have been used to aid the hunter, none has been as important as thedog.[citation needed]The domestication of the dog has led to a symbiotic relationship in which the dog has lost itsevolutionary independence from humans in exchange for support.[citation needed]

Dogs today are used to find, chase, and retrieve game and,

sometimes, to kill it. Hunting dogs allow humans to pursue and killprey that would otherwise be very difficult or dangerous to hunt.Different breeds of dogs are used for different types of hunting.Waterfowl are commonly hunted using retrieving dogs such as theLabrador Retriever, the Golden Retriever, the Chesapeake BayRetriever, the Brittany Spaniel, and other similar breeds.

The hunting of wild mammals in England and Wales with dogs wasbanned under the Hunting Act 2004. The wild mammals include fox,hare, deer and mink. Hunting with dogs is permissible, however,

where it has been carried out in accordance with one of theexceptions in the Act.[18]

Religion

Further information: Homo Necans

Many prehistoric deities are either predators or prey of humans, often in a zoomorphic form, perhaps alluding tothe importance of hunting for most Palaeolithic cultures.

In many pagan religions, specific rituals are conducted before or after a hunt; the rituals done may varyaccording to the species hunted or the season the hunt is taking place.[citation needed]Often a hunting ground, orthe hunt for one or more species, was reserved or prohibited in the context of a temple cult.[citation needed]
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Weeks Edwin's paintingDeparturefor the Hunt

Indian and Eastern religions

Hindu scriptures describe hunting as an acceptable occupation, aswell as a sport of the kingly. Even figures considered godly aredescribed to have engaged in hunting. One of the names of the godShiva is Mrigavyadha, which translates as "the deer hunter" (mrigameans deer; vyadhameans hunter). The wordMriga, in many Indian

languages including Malayalam, not only stands for deer, but for allanimals and animal instincts (Mriga Thrishna). Shiva, as Mrigavyadha,is the one who destroys the animal instincts in human beings. In theepic Ramayana, Dasharatha, the father of Rama, is said to have theability to hunt in the dark. During one of his hunting expeditions, heaccidentally killed Shravana, mistaking him for game. During Rama'sexile in the forest, Ravana kidnapped his wife, Sita, from their hut,while Rama was asked by Sita to capture a golden deer, and hisbrother Lakshman went after him. According to the Mahabharat,Pandu, the father of the Pandavas, accidentally killed the sage

Kindama and his wife with an arrow, mistaking them for a deer.Krishna is said to have died after being accidentally wounded by anarrow of a hunter.

Jainism teaches followers to have tremendous respect for all of life.Prohibitions for hunting and meat eating are the fundamentalconditions for being a Jain.

Buddhism's first precept is the respect for all sentient life. The general approach by all Buddhists is to avoidkilling any living animals. Buddha explained the issue by saying "all fear death; comparing others with oneself,

one should neither kill nor cause to kill."

Christianity, Judaism, and Islam

From early Christian times, hunting has been forbidden to Roman Catholic Church clerics. Thus the Corpusuris Canonici(C. ii, X, De cleric. venat.) says, "We forbid to all servants of God hunting and expeditions

through the woods with hounds; and we also forbid them to keep hawks or falcons." The Fourth Council of theLateran, held under Pope Innocent III, decreed (canon xv): "We interdict hunting or hawking to all clerics." Thedecree of the Council of Trent is worded more mildly: "Let clerics abstain from illicit hunting and hawking" (Sess.XXIV, De reform., c. xii), which seems to imply that not all hunting is illicit, and canonists generally make adistinction declaring noisy (clamorosa) hunting unlawful, but not quiet (quieta) hunting.

Ferraris (s.v. "Clericus", art. 6) gives it as the general sense of canonists that hunting is allowed to clerics if it beindulged in rarely and for sufficient cause, as necessity, utility or "honest" recreation, and with that moderationwhich is becoming to the ecclesiastical state. Ziegler, however (De episc., l. IV, c. xix), thinks that theinterpretation of the canonists is not in accordance with the letter or spirit of the laws of the church.

Nevertheless, although a distinction between lawful and unlawful hunting is undoubtedly permissible, it is certainthat a bishop can absolutely prohibit all hunting to the clerics of his diocese, as was done by synods at Milan,Avignon, Lige, Cologne, and elsewhere. Benedict XIV (De synodo dices., l. II, c. x) declared that such

synodal decrees are not too severe, as an absolute prohibition of hunting is more conformable to theecclesiastical law. In practice, therefore, the synodal statutes of various localities must be consulted to discoverwhether they allow quiet hunting or prohibit it altogether.
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Nobleman in hunting costume withhis servant following the scent of astag, 14th century

A Shikarparty in Mandalay, Burma,soon after the conclusion of the ThirdAnglo-Burmese War in 1886, whenBurma was annexed to British India

It is important to note that the Bible places no such restrictions on anyChristian, as most do not observe kosher dietary laws. HenceProtestant clerics, Catholic lay parishioners, and Protestants have noreligious restrictions on hunting. This is in accord with what is found inthe Acts of the Apostles 15:2829, and 1 Timothy 4:4.

Jewish hunting law, based on the Torah, is similar, permitting huntingof non-preying animals that are considered kosher for food, althoughhunting preying animals for food is strictly prohibited under Rabbiniclaw. Hence, birds of prey are specifically prohibited and non-kosher.Hunting for sport, and not for food, is also forbidden in RabbinicalLaw.

Islamic Sharia Law regarding hunting is the same as Jewish law, inthat only non-preying animals that can be considered halal for foodcan be hunted, but only for food and not as sport.[19]

National traditions

New Zealand

Main article: Hunting in New Zealand

New Zealand has a strong hunting culture. The islands making up New Zealand originally had no land mammalsapart from bats. However, once Europeans arrived, game animals were introduced by acclimatisation societiesto provide New Zealanders with sport and a hunting resource. Deer, pigs, goats, rabbits, hare, tahr and chamoisall adapted well to the New Zealand terrain, and with no natural predators, their population exploded.Government agencies view the animals as pests due to their effects on the natural environment and onagricultural production, but hunters view them as a resource.

Shikar(India)

During the feudal and colonial times in India, hunting was regarded asa regal sport in the numerous princely states, as many maharajas andnawabs, as well as British officers, maintained a whole corps ofhikaris(big-game hunters), who were native professional hunters.

They would be headed by a master of the hunt, who might be styledmir-shikar. Often, they recruited the normally low-ranking localtribes because of their traditional knowledge of the environment andhunting techniques. Big game, such as Bengal tigers, might be huntedfrom the back of an elephant.

Indian social norms are generally antagonistic to hunting, while a fewsects, such as the Bishnoi, lay special emphasis on the conservation ofparticular species, such as the antelope. India's Wildlife ProtectionAct of 1972 bans the killing of all wild animals. However, the Chief

Wildlife Warden may, if satisfied that any wild animal from a specified list has become dangerous to human life,or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery, permit any person to hunt such an animal. In this case,the body of any wild animal killed or wounded becomes government property.[20]
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Explorer and big game hunter SamuelBaker chased by an elephant

Fox hunting in 1850s England

Safari

Main article: Safari

A safari, from a Swahili word meaning "a long journey", especially in Africa, is defined as an overland journey.

Safari as a distinctive way of hunting was popularised by the US

author Ernest Hemingway and President Theodore Roosevelt. Asafari may consist of a several-days- or even weeks-long journey,with camping in the bush or jungle, while pursuing big game.Nowadays, it is often used to describe tours through African nationalparks to watch or hunt wildlife.

Hunters are usually tourists, accompanied by licensed and highlyregulated professional hunters, local guides, skinners, and porters inmore difficult terrains. A special safari type is the solo-safari, where allthe license acquiring, stalking, preparation, and outfitting is done by

the hunter himself.

United Kingdom

Main article: Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom

See also: Deer stalking and Fox hunting legislation

Unarmed fox hunting on horseback with hounds is the type of huntingmost closely associated with the United Kingdom; in fact, "hunting"without qualification implies fox hunting. What in other countries iscalled "hunting" is called "shooting" (birds) or "stalking" (deer) inBritain. Originally a form of vermin control to protect livestock, foxhunting became a popular social activity for newly wealthy upperclasses in Victorian times and a traditional rural activity for riders andfoot followers alike. Similar to fox hunting in many ways is the chasingof hares with hounds. Sight hounds, such as greyhounds, may be usedto run down hare in coursing, with scent hounds such as beagles.Other sorts of foxhounds may also be used for hunting stags (deer) ormink. Deer stalking with rifles is carried out on foot without hounds, using stealth.

These forms of hunting have been controversial in the UK. Animal welfare supporters believe that hunting causesunnecessary suffering to foxes, horses, and hounds. Proponents argue that it is culturally and perhapseconomically important. Using dogs to chase wild mammals was made illegal in February 2005 by the HuntingAct 2004.

Shooting traditions

Game birds, especially pheasants, are shot with shotguns for sport in the UK; the British Association forShooting and Conservation says that over a million people per year participate in shooting, including gameshooting, clay pigeon shooting, and target shooting.[21]

Shooting as practised in Britain, as opposed to traditional hunting, requires little questing for gamearoundthirty-five million birds are released onto shooting estates every year, some having been factory farmed. Shootscan be elaborate affairs with guns placed in assigned positions and assistants to help load shotguns. When in
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An archer with a modern huntingbow

position, "beaters" move through the areas of cover, swinging sticks or flags to drive the game out. Such eventsare often called "drives". The open season for grouse in the UK begins on 12 August, the so-called GloriousTwelfth. The definition of game in the United Kingdom is governed by the Game Act 1831.

United States

North American hunting pre-dates the United States by thousands of years and was an important part of many

pre-Columbian Native American cultures. Native Americans retain some hunting rights and are exempt fromsome laws as part of Indian treaties and otherwise under federal lawexamples include eagle feather laws andexemptions in the Marine Mammal Protection Act. This is considered particularly important in Alaskan nativecommunities.

Hunting is primarily regulated by state law; additional regulations are imposed through United Statesenvironmental law in the case of migratory birds and endangered species. Regulations vary widely from state tostate and govern the areas, time periods, techniques and methods by which specific game animals may behunted. Some states make a distinction between protected species and unprotected species (often vermin orvarmints for which there are no hunting regulations). Hunters of

protected species require a hunting license in all states, for whichcompletion of a hunting safety course is sometimes a prerequisite.

Typically, game animals are divided into several categories forregulatory purposes. Typical categories, along with example species,are as follows:[citation needed]

Big game: white-tailed deer, mule deer, moose, elk, caribou,bear, bighorn sheep, pronghorn, boar, javelinaSmall game: rabbit, hare, squirrel, oppossum, raccoon,

porcupine, skunk, ring-tailed cat, armadillo, Ruffed GrouseFurbearers: beaver, red fox, mink, pine martin, musk rat,otter, bobcatPredators: cougar (mountain lion and panther), wolf, coyoteUpland game bird: grouse, woodcock, chukar, pheasant,quail, doveWaterfowl: duck, teal, merganser, geese, swan

Hunting big game typically requires a "tag" for each animal harvested.Tags must be purchased in addition to the hunting license, and thenumber of tags issued to an individual is typically limited. In cases where there are more prospective hunters thanthe quota for that species, tags are usually assigned by lottery. Tags may be further restricted to a specific area,or wildlife management unit. Hunting migratory waterfowl requires a duck stamp from the Fish and WildlifeService in addition to the appropriate state hunting license.

Harvest of animals other than big game is typically restricted by a bag limit and a possession limit. A bag limit isthe maximum number of a specific animal species that an individual can harvest in a single day. A possessionlimit is the maximum number of a specific animal species that can be in an individual's possession at any time.

Shooting

Gun usage in hunting is typically regulated by game category, area within the state, and time period. Regulationsfor big-game hunting often specify a minimum caliber or muzzle energy for firearms. The use of rifles is oftenbanned for safety reasons in areas with high population densities or limited topographic relief. Regulations may
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Carrying a bear trophy headat the Kodiak Archipelago

Hunting camp with dressed deer atSchoodic Lake, Maine, in 1905

White-tailed deer hunted inAccomack, Virginia

also limit or ban the use of lead in ammunition because of environmentalconcerns. Specific seasons for bow hunting or muzzle-loading black-powderguns are often established to limit competition with hunters using moreeffective weapons.

Hunting in the United States is not associated with any particular class orculture; a 2006 poll showed seventy-eight percent of Americans supported

legal hunting,

[22]

although relatively few Americans actually hunt. At thebeginning of the 21st century, just six percent of Americans hunted.Southerners in states along the eastern seaboard hunted at a rate of fivepercent, slightly below the national average, and while hunting was morecommon in other parts of the South at nine percent, these rates did notsurpass those of the Plains states, where twelve percent of Midwesternershunted. Hunting in other areas of the country fell below the nationalaverage.[23]Overall, in the 19962006 period, the number of hunters over the

age of sixteen declined byten percent, a drop

attributable to a number offactors including habitat lossand changes in recreationhabits.[24]

Regulation

Regulation of hunting withinthe United States dates

from the 19th century.Some modern hunters seethemselves as conservationists and sportsmen in the mode of Theodore Roosevelt and the Boone and CrockettClub. Local hunting clubs and national organizations provide hunter education and help protect the future of thesport by buying land for future hunting use. Some groups represent a specific hunting interest, such as DucksUnlimited, Pheasants Forever, or the Delta Waterfowl Foundation. Many hunting groups also participate inlobbying the federal government and state government.

Each year, nearly $200 million in hunters' federal excise taxes are distributed to state agencies to support wildlifemanagement programs, the purchase of lands open to hunters, and hunter education and safety classes. Since

1934, the sale of Federal Duck Stamps, a required purchase for migratory waterfowl hunters over sixteen yearsold, has raised over $700 million to help purchase more than 5,200,000 acres (8,100 sq mi; 21,000 km2) ofhabitat for the National Wildlife Refuge System lands that support waterfowl and many other wildlife speciesand are often open to hunting. States also collect monies from hunting licenses to assist with management ofgame animals, as designated by law. A key task of federal and state park rangers and game wardens is toenforce laws and regulations related to hunting, including species protection, hunting seasons, and hunting bans.

Varmint hunting

Main article: Varmint hunting

Varmint hunting is an American phrase for the selective killing of non-game animals seen as pests. While notalways an efficient form of pest control, varmint hunting achieves selective control of pests while providingrecreation and is much less regulated. Varmint species are often responsible for detrimental effects on crops,
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En uheldig bjrnejakt(AnUnfortunate Bear Hunt) by TheodorKittelsen

livestock, landscaping, infrastructure, and pets. Some animals, such as wild rabbits or squirrels, may be utilisedfor fur or meat, but often no use is made of the carcass. Which species are varmints depends on thecircumstance and area. Common varmints may include various rodents, coyotes, crows, foxes, feral cats, andferal hogs. Some animals once considered varmints are now protected, such as wolves. In the US state ofLouisiana, a non-native rodent known as a nutria has become so destructive to the local ecosystem that the statehas initiated a bounty program to help control the population.

Fair chase

The principles of the fair chase[25]have been a part of the Americanhunting tradition for over one hundred years. The role of the hunter-conservationist, popularised by Theodore Roosevelt, and perpetuatedby Roosevelt's formation of the Boone and Crockett Club, has beencentral to the development of the modern fair chase tradition.

Beyond Fair Chase: The Ethic and Tradition of Hunting, a bookby Jim Posewitz, describes fair chase:

"Fundamental to ethical hunting is the idea of fair chase. Thisconcept addresses the balance between the hunter and thehunted. It is a balance that allows hunters to occasionallysucceed while animals generally avoid being taken."[26]

When Internet hunting was introduced in 2005, allowing people to hunt over the Internet using remotelycontrolled guns, the practice was widely criticised by hunters as violating the principles of fair chase. As arepresentative of the National Rifle Association (NRA) explained, "[t]he NRA has always maintained that fairchase, being in the field with your firearm or bow, is an important element of hunting tradition. Sitting at your

desk in front of your computer, clicking at a mouse, has nothing to do with hunting."[27]

One hunting club declares that a fair chase shall not involve the taking of animals under the following conditions:

Helpless in a trap, deep snow or water, or on ice.From any power vehicle or power boat.By "jacklighting" or shining at night.By the use of any tranquilizers or poisons.While inside escape-proof fenced enclosures.By the use of any power vehicle or power boat for herding or driving animals, including use of aircraft toland alongside or to communicate with or direct a hunter on the ground.By the use of electronic devices for attracting, locating or pursuing game or guiding the hunter to suchgame, or by the use of a bow or arrow to which any electronic device is attached.[28]

Ranches

Indian blackbuck, nilgai, axis deer, fallow deer and barasingha can now be found on hunting ranches in Texas,where they were introduced for sport hunting. Hunters can pay upwards of $4000 as fees for hunting abarasingha.

Russia

Main article: Hunting in Russia
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The Russian imperial hunts evolved from hunting traditions of early Russian rulersGrand Princes and Tsarsunder the influence of hunting customs of European royal courts. The imperial hunts were organised mainly inPeterhof, Tsarskoye Selo, and Gatchina.

Australia

Main article: Hunting in Australia

Hunting in Australia has evolved around the hunting and eradication of various animals considered to be pests.Native animals are hunted rarely in comparison to introduced animals such as camels and deer. There is somecontroversy regarding the rights of aboriginals being allowed to hunt endangered species for food or ceremonialpurposes.

Japan

The numbers of licensed hunters in Japan, including those using snares and guns, is generally decreasing, whiletheir average age is increasing. As of 2010, there were approximately 190,000 registered hunters,

approximately 65% of whom were sixty years old or older.[29]

Wildlife management

Hunting gives resource managers an important tool[30][31]in managing populations that might exceed the carryingcapacity of their habitat and threaten the well-being of other species, or, in some instances, damage humanhealth or safety.[citation needed][32]Hunting advocates assert that reduces intraspecific competition for food andshelter, reducing mortality among the remaining animals. Some environmentalists assert that (re)introducingpredators would achieve the same end with greater efficiency and less negative effect, such as introducing

significant amounts of free lead into the environment and food chain.

Management agencies sometimes rely on hunting to control specific animal populations, as has been the casewith deer in North America. These hunts may sometimes be carried out by professional shooters, althoughothers may include amateur hunters. Many US city and local governments hire professional and amateur hunterseach year to reduce populations of animals such as deer that are becoming hazardous in a restricted area, suchas neighbourhood parks and metropolitan open spaces.

A large part of managing populations involves managing the number and, sometimes, the size or age of animalsharvested so as to ensure the sustainability of the population. Tools that are frequently used to control harvest

are bag limits and season closures, although gear restrictions such as archery-only seasons are becomingincreasingly popular in an effort to reduce hunter success rates.[citation needed]

Bag limits

Main article: Bag limits

Bag limits are provisions under the law that control how many animals of a given species or group of species canbe killed, although there are often species for which bag limits do not apply. There are also jurisdictions wherebag limits are not applied at all or are not applied under certain circumstances. The phrase bag limitscomesfrom the custom among hunters of small game to carry successful kills in a small basket, similar to a fishing creel.
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American bison being chased off acliff as seen and painted by AlfredJacob Miller

Master or whipper-in and fox houndsdrawing a wood. Hunting inYorkshire, northern England, in 2005:

the last day of fully legal, proper, foxhunting.

Where bag limits are used, there can be daily or seasonal bag limits; for example, ducks can often be harvestedat a rate of six per hunter per day.[33]Big game, like moose, most often have a seasonal bag limit of one animalper hunter.[34]Bag limits may also regulate the size, sex, or age of animal that a hunter can kill. In many cases,bag limits are designed to allocate harvest among the hunting population more equitably rather than to protectanimal populations.

Closed and open season

A closed season is a time during which hunting an animal of a given species is contrary to law. Typically, closedseasons are designed to protect a species when they are most vulnerable or to protect them during theirbreeding season.[35]By extension, the period that is not the closed season is known as the open season.

Laws

Illegal hunting and harvesting of wild species contrary to local and international conservation and wildlifemanagement laws is called poaching. Game preservation is one of the tactics used to prevent poaching.

Violations of hunting laws and regulations involving poaching are normally punishable by law.[36]

Punishment caninclude confiscation of equipment, fines and/or a prison sentence. In Costa Rica, all forms of sport hunting havebeen illegal since December 10, 2012.[37]

Methods

Historical, subsistence, and sport hunting techniques can differradically, with modern hunting regulations often addressing issues ofwhere, when, and how hunts are conducted. Techniques may varydepending on government regulations, a hunter's personal ethics, localcustom, hunting equipment, and the animal being hunted. Often ahunter will use a combination of more than one technique. Laws mayforbid sport hunters from using some methods used primarily inpoaching and wildlife management.

Baitingis the use of decoys, lures, scent, or food.Battueinvolves scaring animals (by beating sticks) into a killingzone or ambush.Beaglingis the use of beagles in hunting rabbits, and

sometimes in hunting foxes.Beatinguses beaters to flush out game and/or drive it intoposition.Blind huntingorstand huntingis waiting for animals from aconcealed or elevated position.Callingis the use of animal noises to attract or drive animals.Camouflageis the use of visual or odour concealment to blendwith the environment.Dogsmay be used to course or to help flush, herd, drive,track, point at, pursue, or retrieve prey.Drivingis the herding of animals in a particular direction,usually toward another hunter in the group.Flushingis the practice of scaring animals from concealedareas.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herdinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coursinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting_doghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camouflagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting_blindhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaglinghttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/battuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bait_(luring_substance)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costa_Ricahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_(penalty)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confiscationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_preservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_(ethic)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_season_(hunting)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breeding_seasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed_seasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BedaleHunt2005.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Jacob_Millerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alfred_Jacob_Miller_-_Hunting_Buffalo_-_Walters_371940190.jpg


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Africans hunting the lion, 1841

Royal Liechtenstein trophycollection at sov Chteau,the Czech Republic

Glassingis the use of optics, such as binoculars, to locate animals more easily.Glueis an indiscriminate passive form to kill birds.[38]

Internet huntingis a method of hunting over the Internet using webcams and remotely controlled guns.

Nettinginvolves using nets, including active netting with the useof cannon nets and rocket nets.Persistence huntingis the use of running and tracking to

pursue the prey to exhaustion.[39]Scoutingincludes a variety of tasks and techniques for findinganimals to hunt.Solunar theorysays that animals move according to thelocation of the moon in comparison to their bodies and is saidto have been used long before this by hunters to know the best

times to hunt their desired game.[40]

Spotlightingorshiningis the use of artificial light to find or blind animals before killing.Stalkingorstill huntingis the practice of walking quietly in search of animals or in pursuit of an

individual animal.Trackingis the practice of reading physical evidence in pursuing animals.Trappingis the use of devices such as snares, pits, and deadfalls to capture or kill an animal.

Trophy hunting

Main article: Trophy hunting

Trophy hunting is the selective seeking of wild game. It may also include the

controversial hunting of captive or semi-captive animals expressly bred andraised under controlled or semi-controlled conditions so as to attain trophycharacteristics; this is sometimes known as canned hunts.[citation needed]

History

In the 19th century, southern and central European sport hunters oftenpursued game only for a trophy, usually the head or pelt of an animal, whichwas then displayed as a sign of prowess. The rest of the animal was typicallydiscarded. Some cultures, however, disapprove of such waste. In Nordic

countries, hunting for trophies wasand still isfrowned upon. Hunting inNorth America in the 19th century was done primarily as a way to supplementfood supplies, although it is now undertaken mainly for sport.[citation needed]

The safari method of hunting was a development of sport hunting that sawelaborate travel in Africa, India and other places in pursuit of trophies. Inmodern times, trophy hunting persists and is a significant industry in someareas.[citation needed]

Controversy

Trophy hunting is most often criticised when it involves rare or endangered animals.[41]Opponents may also seetrophy hunting as an issue of morality[42]or animal cruelty, criticising the killing of living creatures for recreation.Victorian era dramatist W. S. Gilbert remarked, "Deer-stalking would be a very fine sport if only the deer hadguns."[43]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deer-stalkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._S._Gilberthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_erahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruelty_to_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangeredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophy_huntinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting#Safarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_countrieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophy_huntinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadfall_traphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapping_pithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snare_traphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_trappinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracking_(hunting)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_stalkerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotlightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solunar_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_huntinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_nethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannon_nettinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_(device)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webcamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_huntinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Asovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princely_Family_of_Liechtensteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Usov.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bechuana_hunting_the_lion-1841.jpg


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Chatelherault, built by William Adamin 1743 as the Duke of Hamilton'shunting lodge

Punishment of a Hunter(c. 1647) byPaulus Potter

There is also debate about the extent to which trophy hunting benefits the local economy. Hunters argue thatfees paid contribute to the local economy and provide value to animals that would otherwise be seen ascompetition for grazing, livestock, and crops.[44]This analysis is disputed by opponents of trophy hunting.[45]

Some argue that the animals are worth more to the community for ecotourism than hunting.[46]

Economics

A variety of industries benefit from hunting and support hunting oneconomic grounds. In Tanzania, it is estimated that a safari hunterspends fifty to one hundred times that of the average ecotourist. Whilethe average photo tourist may seek luxury accommodation, theaverage safari hunter generally stays in tented camps. Safari huntersare also more likely to use remote areas, uninviting to the typicalecotourist. Advocates argue that these hunters allow for anti-poachingactivities and revenue for local communities.[citation needed]

In the United Kingdom, the game hunting of birds as an industry issaid to be extremely important to the rural economy. The CobhamReport of 1997 suggested it to be worth around 700 million, andhunting and shooting lobby groups claimed it to be worth over abillion pounds less than ten years later.[citation needed]

Hunting also has a significant financial impact in the United States, with many companies specialising in huntingequipment or speciality tourism. Many different technologies have been created to assist hunters, even includingiPhone applications.[47]Today's hunters come from a broad range of economic, social, and culturalbackgrounds. In 2001, over thirteen million hunters averaged eighteen days hunting, and spent over $20.5 billion

on their sport.[citation needed]In the US, proceeds from hunting licenses contribute to state game managementprograms, including preservation of wildlife habitat.

Conservation

Main articles: Conservation (ethic) and Conservation movement

Hunters have been driving forces throughout history in the movementto ensure long-term sustainability of natural resources and wildlife

habitats.[48]

Hunters and poachers have also contributed heavily to theendangerment, extirpation and extinction of many animals, such as thequagga, the Great Auk, Steller's Sea Cow, the thylacine, thebluebuck, the Arabian Oryx, the Caspian and Javan tigers, theMarkhor, the Sumatran rhinoceros, the bison, the North Americancougar,the Altai Argali sheep, the Asian Elephant and many more,primarily for commercial sale or sport. All these animals have beenhunted to endangerment or

extinction.[49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60]

PittmanRobertson Wildlife Restoration Act of 1937
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Elephanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_cougarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumatran_rhinoceroshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markhorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javan_tigerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_tigerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Oryxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluebuckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thylacinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steller%27s_Sea_Cowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Aukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaggahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_(ethic)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_equipmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotouristhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotourismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_economyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paulus_Potterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paulus_Potter_-_Punishment_of_a_Hunter.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Douglas-Hamilton,_5th_Duke_of_Hamiltonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Adam_(architect)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatelherault_Country_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AM_Hunting_Lodge.jpg


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In 1937, American hunters successfully lobbied the US Congress to pass the Pittman-Robertson WildlifeRestoration Act, which placed an eleven percent tax on all hunting equipment. This self-imposed tax nowgenerates over $700 million each year and is used exclusively to establish, restore and protect wildlifehabitats.[61]The act is named for Nevada Senator Key Pittman and Virginia Congressman Absalom WillisRobertson.

Federal Duck Stamp program

On 16 March 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Migratory Bird Hunting Stamp Act, whichrequires an annual stamp purchase by all hunters over the age of sixteen. The stamps are created on behalf ofthe program by the US Postal Service and depict wildlife artwork chosen through an annual contest. They playan important role in habitat conservation because ninety-eight percent of all funds generated by their sale godirectly toward the purchase or lease of wetland habitat for protection in the National Wildlife RefugeSystem.[citation needed]In addition to waterfowl, it is estimated that one third of the nation's endangered speciesseek food and shelter in areas protected using Duck Stamp funds.[citation needed]

Since 1934, the sale of Federal Duck Stamps has generated $670 million, and helped to purchase or lease

5,200,000 acres (8,100 sq mi; 21,000 km2) of habitat. The stamps serve as a license to hunt migratory birds,an entrance pass for all National Wildlife Refuge areas, and are also considered collectors items often purchasedfor aesthetic reasons outside of the hunting and birding communities. Although non-hunters buy a significantnumber of Duck Stamps, eighty-seven percent of their sales are contributed by hunters,which is logical, ashunters are required to purchase them. Distribution of funds is managed by the Migratory Bird ConservationCommission (MBCC).[62]

Arabian Oryx

The Arabian Oryx, a species of large antelope, once inhabited much of the desert areas of the Middle East.[55]However, the species' striking appearance made it (along with the closely related scimitar-horned oryx andaddax) a popular quarry for sport hunters, especially foreign executives of oil companies working in the region.The use of automobiles and high-powered rifles destroyed their only advantage: speed, and they became extinctin the wild exclusively due to sport hunting in 1972. The scimitar-horned oryx followed suit, while the addaxbecame critically endangered.[63]

Markhor

The Markhor is an endangered species of wild goat which inhabits the mountains of Central Asia and Pakistan.The colonization of these regions by Britain gave British sport hunters access to the species, and they werehunted heavily, almost to the point of extinction. Only their willingness to breed in captivity and the inhospitabilityof their mountainous habitat prevented this. Despite these factors, the Markhor is still endangered.[64]

American Bison

The American bison is a large bovid which inhabited much of western North America prior to the 1800s, livingon the prairies in large herds. However, the vast herds of bison attracted market hunters, who killed dozens ofbison for their hides only, leaving the rest to rot. Thousands of these hunters quickly eliminated the bison herds,

bringing the population from several million in the early 1800s to a few hundred by the 1880s. Conservationefforts have allowed the population to increase, but the bison remains near-threatened.[65]

See also
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bovidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_bisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markhorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobileshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_companieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scimitar-horned_oryxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antelopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Oryxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Duck_Stamphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Wildlife_Refugehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Postal_Servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Duck_Stamphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absalom_Willis_Robertsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_Pittmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittman%E2%80%93Robertson_Federal_Aid_in_Wildlife_Restoration_Act


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Animal rightsAnti-huntingBambi effectBlood sportBowhuntingBushfoodBushmeat

ChaseConservation biologyFederation of Associations for Hunting and Conservation of the EUHuman huntingHuntSaboteurs Association (HSA)Hunting hornNimrodSir Gawain and the Green KnightTapetum lucidum Eyeshine

TheSound of His Horn

References

1. ^Williams, Ted. "Wanted: More Hunters,"Audubonmagazine, March 2002, copy (http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20071013120158/http://magazine.audubon.org/incite/incite0203.html) retrieved 26October 2007.

2. ^Harper, Craig A. "Quality Deer Management Guidelines for Implementation"(http://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/pbfiles/PB1643.pdf) (PDF). Agricultural Extension Service, The

University of Tennessee. Retrieved 20 December 2006.3. ^Gaudzinski, S., 2004a. Subsistence patterns of Early Pleistocene hominids in the Levant Taphonomicevidence from the Ubeidiya Formation (Israel). Journal of Archaeological Science 31, 6575.

4. ^Rabinovich, R., Gaudzinski-Windheuser, S., Goren-Inbar, N., 2008. Systematic butchering of fallow deer(Dama) at the early Middle Pleistocene Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Yaaqov (Israel). Journal of HumanEvolution 54, 134149.

5. ^In1992, trace element studies of the strontium/calcium ratios in robust australopithecine fossils suggested thepossibility of animal consumption, as did a 1994 using stable carbon isotopic analysis. Billings, Tom."Comparative Anatomy and Physiology Brought Up to Datecontinued, Part 3B"(http://www.beyondveg.com/billings-t/comp-anat/comp-anat-3b.shtml). Retrieved 6 January 2007.

6. ^Surovell, Todd; Nicole Waguespack and P. Jeffrey Brantingham (13 April 2005). "Global archaeological

evidence for proboscidean overkill" (http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/102/17/6231) (PDF).Proceedings of theNational Academy of Sciences(The National Academy of Sciences (USA)) 102(17): 62316236.doi:10.1073/pnas.0501947102 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0501947102). PMC 1087946(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1087946). PMID 15829581(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15829581). Retrieved 1 January 2007.

7. ^American Geophysical Union paper PP43A-01, abstract (http://www.agu.org/meetings/sm07/sm07-sessions/sm07_PP43A.html) retrieved 26 October 2007

8. ^Miller, G. H. 2005. Ecosystem Collapse in Pleistocene Australia and a Human Role in Megafaunal Extinction.Science, 309:287290 doi:10.1126/science.1111288 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1111288) PMID16002615

9. ^Prideaux, G.J. et al. 2007. An arid-adapted middle Pleistocene vertebrate fauna from south-central Australia.Nature445:422425

10. ^"Bonobos Hunt Other Primates" (http://www.livescience.com/9601-bonobos-hunt-primates.html).livescience.com. 2008. Retrieved 5 August 2012.

11. ^Courtney Laird. "Bonobo social spacing"(http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2004/laird/Social%20Organization.htm). Davidson
http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2004/laird/Social%20Organization.htmhttp://www.livescience.com/9601-bonobos-hunt-primates.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16002615?dopt=Abstracthttp://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1111288http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(journal)http://www.agu.org/meetings/sm07/sm07-sessions/sm07_PP43A.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15829581http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1087946http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Centralhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0501947102http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/102/17/6231http://www.beyondveg.com/billings-t/comp-anat/comp-anat-3b.shtmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranthropushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_elementhttp://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/pbfiles/PB1643.pdfhttp://classic-web.archive.org/web/20071013120158/http://magazine.audubon.org/incite/incite0203.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sound_of_His_Hornhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapetum_lucidumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Gawain_and_the_Green_Knight#Hunting_and_seductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimrodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting_hornhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunt_Saboteurs_Associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_huntinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_Associations_for_Hunting_and_Conservation_of_the_EUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chase_(land)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushmeathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushfoodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowhuntinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bambi_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-huntinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_rights


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College. Retrieved 10 March 2008.12. ^Zenin, Vasiliy N.; Evgeny N. Mashenko, Sergey V. Leshchinskiy, Aleksandr F. Pavlov, Pieter M. Grootes,

andMarie-Jose Nadeau (2429 May 2003). "The First Direct Evidence of Mammoth Hunting in Asia(Lugovskoye Site, Western Siberia) (L)" (http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20061117111346/http://www.yukonmuseums.ca/mammoth/abstrt-z.htm). 3rdInternational Mammoth Conference. Dawson City, Yukon Territory, Canada: John Storer, Government ofYukon (http://www.gov.yk.ca/). Retrieved 1 January 2007.

13. ^"InNorth America and Eurasia the species has long been an important resourcein many areas themost

important resourcefor peoples inhabiting the northern boreal forest and tundra regions. Known humandependence on caribou/wild reindeer has a long history, beginning in the Middle Pleistocene (Banfield 1961:170;Kurtn 1968:170) and continuing to the present....The caribou/wild reindeer is thus an animal that has been amajor resource for humans throughout a tremendous geographic area and across a time span of tens ofthousands of years." Ernest S. Burch, Jr. The Caribou/Wild Reindeer as a Human Resource.(http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7316%28197207%2937%3A3%3C339%3ATCRAAH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage)American Antiquity, Vol. 37, No. 3 (Jul. 1972), pp. 339368.

14. ^Binford, Louis. R. (1986) Human ancestors: Changing views of their behavior.Journal of AnthropologicalArchaeology3:235257

15. ^Blumenschine, Robert J. (1986)Early hominid scavenging opportunities: Implications of carcass availabilityin the Serengeti and Ngorongoro ecosystems. Oxford, England: B.A.R.

16. ^Machiavelli provides a rationale, if not the origin, of noble hunting: Machiavelli, Niccol (1531). "Discourseson the first decade of Titus Livius, Book 3" (http://books.google.com/books?id=r6lROQffJ7cC). In Gilbert,Allan. Machiavelli: The Chief Works and Others1. Duke University Press (published 1989). p. 516.ISBN9780822381570. Retrieved 2013-12-27. "[...] hunting expeditions, as Xenophon makes plain, are imagesof war; therefore to men of rank such activity is honorable and necessary."

17. ^Dunlap, Thomas R. (1999). "Remaking Worlds: European models in New Lands"(http://books.google.com/books?id=UDaEZnZ093EC). Nature and the English Diaspora: Environment andHistory in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Studies in Environment and History (17).Cambridge University Press. p. 61. ISBN 9780521657006. Retrieved 2013-12-24. "The settlers adopted sporthunting, as they did other elements of British culture, but they had to adapt it. Social circumstances andbiological realities reshaped it and gave it new meaning. There was no elite monopolizing access to land. Indeed,

the great attraction and boast of these nations were of land for all."18. ^"Hunting with dogs Defra" (http://www.defra.gov.uk/rural/countryside/hunting/). Defra.gov.uk. 2005-02-

18. Retrieved 2012-04-20.19. ^"Slaughtering and Hunting of animals" (http://www.al-islam.org/laws/hunting.html). al-islam.org. Retrieved

15 February 2011.20. ^Helplinelaw. "Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972" (http://www.helplinelaw.com/docs/wildlife/01.php).

Helplinelaw.com. Retrieved 2012-04-20.21. ^BASC site (http://www.basc.org.uk/content/shooting/)22. ^Results (http://www.responsivemanagement.com/download/news/newsrls_09_06.pdf) from a 2006 poll (813

people were polled) done by Responsive Management

23. ^National statistics from US Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service and US Department ofCommerce, US Census Bureau, 2001 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting and Wildlife Associated Recreation,27.

24. ^Jackson, Patrick.Number of hunters is dwindlingUrbanization and cultural changes discourage newcomersto the sport(http://www.delawareonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070906/NEWS/709060368/1006/NEWS), The News Journal (Wilmington, Delaware) 2007-09-06,retrieved 30 October 2007.

25. ^Interpretations of the Fair Chase can be found on the web sites of various hunter's organizations, such as theBoone and Crockett Club (http://www.boone-crockett.org/huntingEthics/ethics_fairchase.asp?area=huntingEthics) and Hunt Fair Chase (http://www.huntfairchase.com/).

26. ^Posewitz, Jim (1994-08-01).Beyond Fair Chase: The Ethic and Tradition of Hunting

(http://books.google.com/books?id=dkkmL8TuiMkC&pg=PA57&lpg=PA57&dq=%22Fundamental+to+ethical+hunting+is+the+idea+of+fair+chase%22&source=bl&ots=mdQrHGeLWZ&sig=m-bLd_bbWs8h3OQgOkr2p3tEeVw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-ry9T830I_LUiAKD9Zn8Aw&sqi=2&ved=0CFcQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=false). Globe Pequot Press.p. 57. ISBN 9781560442837.

27. ^Humane Societ Wildlife Abuse Cam ai n Fact Sheet on Internet Huntin
http://www.hsus.org/wildlife_abuse/campaigns/internet/fact_sheet_internet_hunting.htmlhttp://www.hsus.org/wildlife_abuse/campaigns/internet/fact_sheet_internet_hunting.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781560442837http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globe_Pequot_Presshttp://books.google.com/books?id=dkkmL8TuiMkC&pg=PA57&lpg=PA57&dq=%22Fundamental+to+ethical+hunting+is+the+idea+of+fair+chase%22&source=bl&ots=mdQrHGeLWZ&sig=m-bLd_bbWs8h3OQgOkr2p3tEeVw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-ry9T830I_LUiAKD9Zn8Aw&sqi=2&ved=0CFcQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://www.huntfairchase.com/http://www.boone-crockett.org/huntingEthics/ethics_fairchase.asp?area=huntingEthicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_News_Journalhttp://www.delawareonline.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070906/NEWS/709060368/1006/NEWShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commercehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interiorhttp://www.responsivemanagement.com/download/news/newsrls_09_06.pdfhttp://www.basc.org.uk/content/shooting/http://www.helplinelaw.com/docs/wildlife/01.phphttp://www.al-islam.org/laws/hunting.htmlhttp://www.defra.gov.uk/rural/countryside/hunting/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521657006http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=UDaEZnZ093EChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780822381570http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=r6lROQffJ7cChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavellihttp://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7316%28197207%2937%3A3%3C339%3ATCRAAH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taigahttp://www.gov.yk.ca/http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20061117111346/http://www.yukonmuseums.ca/mammoth/abstrt-z.htm


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. ,(http://www.hsus.org/wildlife_abuse/campaigns/internet/fact_sheet_internet_hunting.html)

28. ^"The Rules of Fair Chase" (http://www.pope-young.org/bowhunting_fairc

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